The Xavier Zubiri Review, Vol. 14, 2016-2018, pp. 87-94

Ignacio Ellacuría and the Self-Reflection of Critical Theory

José Manuel Romero Cuevas Universidad de Alcalá de Henares ,

Abstract

This paper pretends to explain a central argument in Ellacuría’s theoretical work: To him, the theorist has to opt for “the place-that-gives-truth”. I will analyze the theoretical, moral and political meaning of this thesis and its implications for the status of Ellacuría’s own work. Moreover I want to put this approach in dialogue with reflections from Hermeneutics and Critical Theory on the necessity of a theoretical-philosophical activity, basic for self- reflection. The dialogue with these contemporary philosophical traditions will make it pos- sible to situate Ellacuría’s intellectual work in the theoretical debates of the 20th century.

Resumen Este artículo pretende explicar un argumento central en el trabajo teórico de Ellacuría: pa- ra él, el teórico debe optar por “el lugar que da la verdad”. Analizaré el significado teórico, moral y político de esta tesis y sus implicaciones para el estado del propio trabajo de Ella- curía. Además, quiero poner este enfoque en diálogo con las reflexiones de la hermeneutica y la teoría critical sobre la necesidad de una actividad teórico-filosófica, básica para la au- torreflexión. El diálogo con estas tradiciones filosóficas contemporáneas permitirá situar el trabajo intelectual de Ellacuría en los debates teóricos del siglo XX.

1. A critical theory of historical reality? specifically designed as a type of intra- mundane , which takes what It may seem surprising that the title of Ellacuría called historical reality as its this paper links the theologian and philos- subject. Ellacuría defines it as “the radical opher Ignacio Ellacuría with the idea of reality (...) in which all other realities lie”.4 critical theory1. As well as being a follower For Ellacuría the historical reality is the of the Spanish Xavier Zubiri reality mediated by the historical praxis in his philosophical work, he was also and it is therefore the “supreme manifesta- influenced by Hegel, which he read from a tion of reality”5, in that “it is reality show- materialist perspective, and Marx, who he ing its richest potentialities and possibili- saw not only as a philosopher but also as ties”.6 In short, “historical reality means a social critic, with significant points in the totality of reality, as it exists unitarily common with an author like E. Bloch.2 in its highest qualitative form, and that Indeed, his unfinished work Filosofía de la specific form of reality that is history, realidad histórica [Philosophy of Historical which gives us not only the highest form of Reality], which was written in the mid- reality, but also the open field of the max- 1970s and published after his death,3 is imum possibilities of the real.”7

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Ellacuría indeed raises speculative “basic horizon” of its “philosophical considerations on the nature of reality, by work”.10 The prerequisite for this philoso- describing the mobility characteristic of phy, which is driven by an interest in lib- historical reality, as mentioned above, as eration, is that this type of philosophy praxis: “The entire dynamic of historical consciously and reflectively recovers “its reality is what has to be understood as role as the appropriate theoretical moment praxis. This praxis is an immanent active of the appropriate historical praxis”,11 i.e. totality, because its action and its result it “has to ask itself what it represents are all within the same totality in a pro- within the social praxis as a whole”.12 cess, which it configures and directs in its This does not entail a violation of the process. Seen in this light, the praxis has purely theoretical nature of philosophy, many forms, for both the part and the because despite the “relative autonomy of whole, which is its closest subject in each philosophical thought”13, which Ellacuría case, and for the mode of action and the acknowledges and which prevents philos- outcome it creates. However, the activity of ophy from allowing itself to be channelled historical reality is ultimately the praxis, by the existing political praxis without any understood as a dynamic whole.”8 This mediation, the fact of the matter is that metaphysics of historical reality, with all philosophy is a situated activity: “The phi- its speculative ambition, is clearly conver- losopher (...) philosophizes based on his gent with Bloch’s ontological considera- own situation, and now more than ever, tions, as reflected in his works including this situation is a public and political sit- Subject-Object and The Principle of Hope - uation.”14 It is this situated character that works which Ellacuría had read.9 It is also defines “the intrinsic political character of clear that speculation of this nature has any attempt at philosophy.”15 Indeed, “phi- no discernible links with the tradition of losophy, because it is situated historically, critical theory from Max Horkheimer to is politicized, whether we like it or not.”16 Jürgen Habermas. In other words, “the due politicization of philosophy would at its root consist of 2. The need of a self-reflection of phi- making philosophizing an effective thought losophy based on the most concrete situation on However, in the light of his philosoph- top of the most complete and concrete ical articles of the 1970s and 1980s, El- situation.”17 Philosophy should therefore lacuría engages in a clear process of theo- be based on the most concrete real situa- retical self-clarification, which in my opin- tion. However, what is that situation? ion converges at important points with the At this point, Ellacuría introduces the reflections of Horkheimer in the 1930s on thesis that the situation or place where the status of critical theory, and enables philosophizing starts is a reflexive act of us to reconsider the meaning of Ellacuría’s choice by each thinker in each case: the ideas about the metaphysics of historical thinker is doomed to choose the place that reality. appears to be the most appropriate start- This process of self-clarification ing point for philosophical work (I will dis- reached its zenith in his article “The liber- cuss why I think this characterization is in ating function of philosophy,” in 1985, in principle problematic later, and propose which Ellacuría sought to make his own an alternative formulation for it). Accord- personal contribution to the foundations ing to Ellacuría, this choice of the place for of Latin American liberation philosophy. In philosophizing will indeed be decisive for this article, Ellacuría considers the ques- the type of philosophy to be undertaken: tion of the conditions that must be met by “This situating oneself in one place or an- the philosophy that takes the liberation of other when philosophizing is one of the “the popular masses who live in a secular acts that contributes most to the differen- state of oppression-repression” as the tiation of philosophies, from both an ethi-

XAVIER ZUBIRI REVIEW 2016-2018 Ignacio Ellacuría and the Self-Reflection of Critical Theory 89 ______cal standpoint and also from a theoretical formulations show “their degree of truth point of view.”18 and reality.”25 As regards a philosophy driven by in- So what does Ellacuría believe that terest in liberation, Ellacuría says that it is this place-that-gives-truth is, that place reasonable to situate oneself in the field of that embodies the utmost contradiction of “principal contradiction” regarding the the existing order? This place consists of existing order of domination and oppres- “the dispossessed, the wronged and the sion.19 This placing oneself in the place in suffering”,26 whom he calls “the crucified the central contradiction vis-a-vis the ex- of the earth, who are the vast majority of isting order has ethical and political impli- humanity, stripped of all human dignity cations as well as basic theoretical and (...) because of the deprivation and oppres- epistemological implications: “We must be sion to which they are subjected.”27 In in the place of historical truth and in the short, it is the “place of the oppressed.”28 place of true liberation, not only to be ef- According to Ellacuría, the choice of this fective in the task of liberation, but also to place as a place to philosophize may be be true in it, and even in philosophy it- based on ethical and theological founda- self.”20 When determining the place of phi- tions. It may also have a theoretical basis: losophy itself, theoretical and ethical con- “The theoretical foundation of this choice siderations are therefore involved: “The is based on who the majority are and its determination of the place-that-gives-truth objective reality is the appropriate place to has a moment of theoretical insight in appreciate the truth or falsity of the sys- each case, but also has a moment of en- tem in question.”29 lightened choice. (...) The optional mo- ment, which seeks that place-that-gives- 3. The appropriation of the hermeneu- truth and makes truth, (...) must be (...) tical situation enlightened (...) in a first step, by an ethi- cal evaluation that makes (...) the injustice The centrality of the place where the and unfreedom that occur in our situation philosophy is located is reflected in El- [, JMR] as primary facts, a lacuría’s statement that “the place from basic point of reference, and are illuminat- where one philosophizes (...) determines ed in a second step by the theoretical as- the main questions, the appropriate cate- sessment that sees injustice and unfree- gories and ultimately, the horizon of all dom as one of the fundamental repres- philosophical work.”30 Indeed, this de- sions of the truth”.21 scription of the place for philosophizing The philosopher must choose what El- has some significant similarities with the lacuría significantly called the place-that- concept of the hermeneutic situation. As gives-truth as a place from which to phi- we know, this concept was central to the losophize. In that choice, the theoretical hermeneutics of existence of Heidegger’s movement has to “return to present histo- early work: “The real content of any inter- ry in a critical way” to determine its place pretation, i.e. the thematic object in the there.22 In this regard, history appears way it has been interpreted, can only be here as the “teacher of truth.”23 History is achieved directly and properly displayed the teacher of truth in two ways: first, ac- when the corresponding hermeneutic posi- cording to the metaphysics of Ellacuría’s tion on which all interpretation depends is historical reality, because reality in its accessible in a sufficiently clear way. Any fullest, highest and in this sense, truest interpretation is deployed, depending on form, is shown in history. Second, because its area of reality and its claim to cogni- it is by referring to real history, i.e., by tion, within the following coordinates: 1) a historicizing it, namely, by referring “to perspective that more or less explicitly what really happens”24, that theoretical appropriate and fixed; 2) a subsequent

XAVIER ZUBIRI REVIEW 2016-2018 90 José Manuel Romero Cuevas ______gaze direction, in which the “like- to rational reconstructions in the 1970s. something” is determining according to Ellacuría in fact demands what has been which the object of interpretation is previ- termed hermeneutic self-reflection for phi- ously understood and the “to-where” losophy.35 should be interpreted by this same object; In Heidegger’s work, hermeneutic self- 3) a horizon gaze defined by the focus and reflection can be considered “the clarifica- the direction of gaze, within which the tion of the hermeneutic situation”: “The corresponding claim to objectivity of any possible realization of interpretation and interpretation moves.”31 understanding, and the subsequent ap- The early work of H. Marcuse, influ- propriation of the object, becomes evident enced by Heidegger’s concept, also consid- as from the perspective of the three coor- ered what he called “the fundamental sit- dinates mentioned above, the situation in uation of Marxism” and conceived of the which and for which an interpretation is basic situation of an investigation as “the made is clarified. The corresponding her- point from which the methodology of in- meneutics of the situation must make the vestigation and its conceptualisation take situation transparent and keep it in mind, their origin and their meaning.”32 With as a hermeneutic situation, from the be- reflections on the place of philosophizing, ginning of the interpretation.”36 Ellacuría is posing a problem that had However, also in Horkheimer, during already been formulated and resolved in a the 1930s, and without a trace of any in- certain way by the hermeneutic tradition. fluence or direct link to Heideggerian Ellacuria in fact aims to make philosophy thought, critical theory is defined by its undertake a peculiar form of self-reflection self-reflection on what might be called its on where it is located in each case, and on own initial hermeneutic situation. In “Re- the location that it adopts as a starting marks on philosophical anthropology” point for philosophizing. (1935), he claims that materialist theory In the 1973 epilogue to Knowledge should be described as a true hermeneutic and Human Interests, J. Habermas made a reflection, namely, a reflection on what distinction between two concepts of self- could strictly be called its initial herme- reflection: “on the one hand, the reflexion neutic: “materialism understands the on the conditions of the potential abilities structure of any theory, especially its own, of a knowing, speaking and acting subject as dependent on certain interests and val- as such; on the other hand, the reflexion ues. (...) Reflection on the following is part upon unconsciously produced constraints of the self-understanding of a doctrine: to which a determinate subject (...) suc- even in the acts of generalization that led cumbs in its process of self-formation.”33 If to its fundamental concepts (...) the situa- this first type of reflection “has also taken tion of life, that is, certain interests, are the shape of a rational reconstruction of expressed and these determine the direc- generative rules and cognitive schemata,” tion of thoughts.”37 At this point, Hork- in the second sense it has taken the form heimer is referring to what he calls the of “a critical dissolution of subjectively “dialectical requirement”, namely the re- constituted pseudo-objectivity.”34 In short, quirement that “awareness of one’s social Habermas conceives of self-reflection role has its place in thoughts,” i.e. “the based on two different models: the rational awareness of historicity itself”, which reconstruction model and the (self-) criti- translates to “becoming conscious in detail cism model. However, in Ellacuría we find of the respective nexus of theory and prac- that a different type of self-reflection is tice.”38 In 1937, this subject was success- required - a self-reflection that was rele- fully formulated synthetically: “critical vant to the early work of Habermas, as will theory pursues in a fully conscious man- be discussed below, before his shift to- ner, in the formation of its categories and wards the granting of theoretical centrality at all stages of its development, interest in

XAVIER ZUBIRI REVIEW 2016-2018 Ignacio Ellacuría and the Self-Reflection of Critical Theory 91 ______the rational organization of human activi- ation, in which concern for the liberation ty.”39 of the world’s oppressed peoples plays a This problem is also discernible in the central role. It is from this hermeneutic work of Habermas in the early 1960s, in starting point, which can clearly be char- which he explicitly appropriated elements acterized in political-moral terms, that the of the philosophical approach of Truth and metaphysics of historical reality gains ac- Method, such as categories of interpreta- cess to its object and establishes its fun- tion and the hermeneutic circle. Habermas damental concepts. even described critical theory as a “dialec- However, this does not only have im- tical interpretation,” which would define plications for a review of the status of the Gadamer’s notion of hermeneutic reflec- Ellacuría’s theoretical output. From my tion in materialistic terms, as the appro- point of view, it also has implications for priation of the interpreter’s initial herme- the representatives of critical theory. It has neutic situation: “The dialectical interpre- been contended—rightly—that members of tation comprehends the knowing subject the first generation of critical theory, and in terms of the relations of social praxis, in Horkheimer and Adorno in particular, re- terms of its position, both within the pro- mained within the framework defined by cess of social labour and the process of Western Europe and the in enlightening the political forces about their their intellectual work (unlike Marcuse, own goals”. According to Horkheimer, this who especially from the 1960s onwards, double reflection characterizes “critical” as consistently began a careful consideration opposed to ‘traditional’ theory.”40 In other of the reality of the world that was colo- words, it defines critical theory by per- nized, subjugated and exploited by the forming a hermeneutic reflection on its metropolis). This limitation of Horkheimer initial socio-political situation, which con- and Adorno has no methodological or the- stitutes its perspective and interested oretical source (indeed, it could be argued means of access to social reality. This that this limitation is the result of an in- completely sets it apart from traditional consistency regarding the claim of self- critical theory, which maintains an atti- reflexive critical theory as formulated by tude free of reflection regarding the per- Horkheimer). Instead, it is a Eurocentric spective from which it considers reality, cultural prejudice; namely, a traditional and consequently how it is a part of the view of culture and history that prioritizes social praxis. the place represented in this troubled im- agination as “the West”.41 For Habermas, the situation is per- 4. Theoretical implications of a radical- haps more complex. From the 1970s, Ha- ized hermeneutical self-reflection bermas shifted toward a post-hermeneutic The hermeneutic self-reflection in- conception of the theory, and understood voked by Ellacuría for philosophy interest- it in terms of rational reconstruction, ed in liberation naturally has clear impli- which would have the status of “pure cations for his own philosophical work. knowledge.”42 As a result, in his later theo- Based on the level of self-clarification retical work, as reflected in his crowning achieved in the mid-1980s, Ellacuría may volume The Theory of Communicative Ac- well have had to revise the meaning and tion, he distanced himself from the rele- status of his work on the metaphysics of vance and importance of a consistent re- historical reality written in the previous flection on the place where theorizing decade. In order to avoid any objectivist takes place, which had problematic for the misunderstanding, this work should have formulation of his theory of modernity. made clear that it intended to address This was explicitly developed based on the reality from a particular hermeneutic situ- course of the Western European countries,

XAVIER ZUBIRI REVIEW 2016-2018 92 José Manuel Romero Cuevas ______aimed to use them to define the standard losopher’s determination of the place-that- of modernization for other countries.43 gives-truth as possessing a “moment of This same problem is apparent in the work choice”. From my point of view, we must of A. Honneth, and especially in his recent start from the assumption that the critical Das Recht der Freiheit, which has no diffi- thinker is part of a certain emancipatory culty in using Western European societies tradition. His self-reflection on his work as the object of its immanent social analy- does not as a result consist of choosing sis, and aims to explain the institutional- the place from which to philosophize; that ized policy parameters that underpin the is an abstract representation of how a concept of justice which applies to us.44 thinker or a subject in general assumes a Ellacuría’s demand that theoretical work position. Instead, I believe that this self- should reflect its place at the global level reflection consists of making the link to therefore seems more relevant than ever. reflective emancipatory tradition of which This is clearly an outstanding task for the his work is in fact a part, which implies a representatives that currently have the relationship that is critical of tradition highest profile from an institutional per- mediated by reflection. Based on a formu- spective of critical theory. lation by Habermas, the critical recollection It is due to this call for the theory’s of the tradition of efforts and struggles for self-reflection as regards its main interest, emancipation can be said to be inherent in its place within current conflicts and its the self-reflection of the critical theorist.45 socio-political role and effectiveness, that Consideration of how his work is embed- the figure of Ellacuría deserves to be part ded in a discontinuous tradition, which of critical thinking, not only of the twenti- has accumulated few successes and many eth century or even of Western Marxism, failures, of efforts aimed at critical under- but indeed within the tradition that char- standing and a transformation of what acterizes that self-reflection as the defining exists into a liberating direction therefore core of critical theory. plays a central role in the critical theorist’s I would like to make a final comment hermeneutic self-reflection. on the Ellacuría’s description of the phi-

Works Cited

Bloch, E., Subjekt-Objekt, Frankfurt am intercultural de la filosofía, Bilbao, Main, Suhrkamp, 1985. Desclée de Brouwer, 2001. Bloch, E., Das Prinzip Hoffnung, Frankfurt Habermas, J., Theorie und Praxis, Frank- am Main, Suhrkamp, 1982, 3 furt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1978. volumes. Habermas, J., Zur Logik der Sozial- Ellacuría, I., Filosofía de la realidad histó- wissenschaften, Frankfurt am Main, rica, San Salvador, UCA Editores, Suhrkamp, 1985. 1990. Habermas, J., Erkenntnis und Interesse, Ellacuría, I., Veinte años de historia en El Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1973. Salvador (1969-1989). Escritos políti- Habermas, J., Zur Rekonstruktion des cos, San Salvador, UCA Editores, Historischen Materialismus, Frankfurt 1993, 3 volumes. am Main, Suhrkamp, 1976. Ellacuría, I., Cursos universitarios, San Habermas, J., Theorie des Kommuni- Salvador, UCA Editores, 2009. kativen Handelns, Frankfurt am Main, Fornet-Betancourt, R., La transformación Suhrkamp, 1981, 2 volumes.

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Heidegger, M., Phänomenologische Inter- Romero Cuevas, J.M., “Humanism, History pretationen zu Aristoteles, Ditzingen, and Criticism in Ignacio Ellacuría”, in Reclam, 2003. The Xavier Zubiri Review, vol. 10, Honneth, A., Das Recht der Freiheit, 2008, pp. 5-15. , Suhrkamp, 2011. Samour, H., Voluntad de liberación. La Horkheimer, M., Gesammelte Schriften, filosofía de Ignacio Ellacuría, Granada, Frankfurt am Main, Fischer Verlag, Comares, 2003. 1988, vol. 3. Tamayo, J.J. and Alvarenga, L., “Hacia Marcuse, H., Schriften, Frankfurt am una lectura pluridimensional de Igna- Main, Suhrkamp, 1978, vol. 1. cio Ellacuría”, en J.J. Tamayo and L. Nicolás, J.A., “Liberation Philosophy as Alvarenga, Ignacio Ellacuría. Utopía y Critique: Ellacuría”, in The Xavier teoría crítica, Valencia, Tirant Huma- Zubiri Review, vol. 11, 2009, pp. 107- nidades, 2014, pp. 12-17. 118.

Notes

9 1 But see, for example, the interesting work of See E. Bloch, Subjekt-Objekt, Frankfurt am Juan A. Nicolás “Liberation Philosophy as Main, Suhrkamp, 1985 and Das Prinzip Critique: Ellacuría”, in The Xavier Zubiri Re- Hoffnung, Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, view, Vol. 11, 2009, pp. 107-118. See also 1982, 3 volumes. my article “Humanism, History and Criticism 10 Ellacuría, Veinte años de historia en El Sal- in Ignacio Ellacuría”, in The Xavier Zubiri Re- vador (1969-1989). Escritos políticos, ed. cit., view, Vol. 10, 2008, pp. 5-15. vol. I, p. 94. 2 See the references to E. Bloch in I. Ellacuría, 11 Ibid., p. 112. Cursos universitarios, San Salvador, UCA 12 Ibid., p. 113. Editores, 2009, pp. 283, 309, 311 and 313. 13 Ibid., p . 110. See also J.J. Tamayo and L. Alvarenga, “Ha- cia una lectura pluridimensional de Ignacio 14 Ibid., p. 49. Ellacuría”, en J.J. Tamayo and L. Alvarenga, 15 Ibid., p. 52. Ignacio Ellacuría. Utopía y teoría crítica, Va- 16 Ibid., p. 60. lencia, Tirant Humanidades, 2014, pp. 12- 17 Ibid., p. 53. 17. 18 Ibid., p. 115. 3 I. Ellacuría, Filosofía de la realidad histórica, San Salvador, UCA Editores, 1990. 19 Ibid. 20 4 I. Ellacuría, Veinte años de historia en El Sal- Ibid. vador (1969-1989). Escritos políticos, San 21 Ibid. Salvador, UCA Editores, 1993, vol. I, p. 119. 22 Ibid. 5 Ellacuría, Veinte años de historia en El Salva- 23 Ibid. dor (1969-1989). Escritos políticos, ed. cit., 24 Ibid., p. 18. vol. I, p. 85. 25 Ibid., p. 112. 6 Ibid., p. 86. 26 Ibid., p. 117. 7 Ibid., p. 87. 27 Ibid. 8 Ibid., p. 119. See also ibid., p. 89. About this 28 Ibid. subject, see H. Samour, Voluntad de libera- ción. La filosofía de Ignacio Ellacuría, Grana- 29 Ibid., p. 39. da, Comares, 2003. 30 Ibid., p. 116.

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31 M. Heidegger, Phänomenologische Interpreta- 39 M. Horkheimer, Gesammelte Schriften, ed. tionen zu Aristoteles, Ditzingen, Reclam, cit., vol. 4. 2003. 40 J. Habermas, Theorie und Praxis, Frankfurt 32 H. Marcuse, Schriften, Frankfurt am Main, am Main, Suhrkamp, 1978. Suhrkamp, 1978, vol. 1. 41 On all the above, see R. Fornet-Betancourt, 33 J. Habermas, Erkenntnis und Interesse, La transformación intercultural de la filosofía, Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1973. Bilbao, Desclée de Brouwer, 2001. 34 Ibid. 42 See Habermas, Theorie und Praxis and 35 See J. Habermas, Zur Logik der Erkenntnis und Interesse. Sozialwissenschaften, Frankfurt am Main, 43 See J. Habermas, Theorie des Suhrkamp, 1985. Kommunikativen Handelns, Frankfurt am 36 Heidegger, Phänomenologische Interpreta- Main, Suhrkamp, 1981, especially vol. II. tionen zu Aristoteles, ed. cit. 44 See A. Honneth, Das Recht der Freiheit, 37 M. Horkheimer, Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, Suhrkamp, 2011. Frankfurt am Main, Fischer Verlag, 1988, 45 See J. Habermas, Zur Rekonstruktion des vol. 3. Historischen Materialismus, Frankfurt am 38 Ibid. Main, Suhrkamp, 1976.

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