Development of Woven Spacer Fabrics Based on Steel Wires and Carbon Rovings

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Moniruddoza Ashir*, Cornelia Sennewald, Development of Woven Spacer Fabrics Gerald Hoffmann, Chokri Cherif Based on Steel Wires and Carbon Rovings DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.1710

Institute of Textile Machinery Abstract and High Performance Material Technology, Woven spacer fabrics are used as reinforcing materials for fiber-reinforced plastics. These Technische Universität Dresden, fabrics consist of mostly pliable textile fibers, which still require defined rigidity for different 01069 Dresden, Germany crash applications. In this regard, multi-material woven spacer fabrics present a promising * E-Mail: [email protected] approach. This paper presents the development of multi-material woven spacer fabrics using steel wire and carbon rovings. For the development of such woven spacer fabrics, a syste- matic structure realization based on the weave pattern was performed. Selected structures were produced on a modified weaving machine. Key words: multi-material woven spacer fabrics, structure realization, profiled wire, pull-out test.

als for lightweight constructions such as process optimization, the development aluminum or magnesium, which makes of woven spacer fabrics and their com- them highly suited as panel structures for prehensive characterization were carried aeroplane, train or automotive body con- out. Very few publications on woven struction [1]. Spacer fabrics are a class spacer fabrics for lightweight applica- of three-dimensional fabrics where two tions are readily available in literature [8- surface layers are connected to each oth- 12]. One of the first examples of woven er by means of pile yarns or fabric lay- spacer fabrics was presented in [9]. Here ers [2]. Such fabrics are characterized by the development of a weaving machine better resilience properties than classical for the production of spacer fabrics for two-dimensional textile fabrics [3]. Typ- FRP is described. These fabrics consist ically spacer fabrics used for FRP appli- of polyester and viscose yarns. Mounta- cation are made of high-performance fib- sir et al. [8] exclusively investigated the ers, such as carbon, glass or aramid fibers mechanical properties of woven spacer characterized by lower density as well fabrics. The spacer fabrics developed are as a higher tensile strength and Young´s composed of glass-polypropylene hybrid Modulus [4]. yarns. Similar to woven spacer fabrics, 3D woven wire structures have also been Studies on spacer fabrics show a vari- studied [13-17]. The development of 3D ety of approaches for their production, woven wire structures of a cellular de- characterisation and varied application sign for multifunctional multi compo- possibilities. Spacer fabrics for technical nent-composite semi-finished products is applications are commonly produced by reported in [13]. However, this paper pre- the circular knitting process (weft-knitted sents a fundamental approach that aims spacer fabrics), double needle bar warp to provide a novel fundamental tech- knitting process (warp-knitted spac- nological basis for the production and er fabrics) or weaving process (woven characterization of such structures. This spacer fabrics) [5-7]. However, woven paper is organised into 3 sections, where spacer fabrics exhibit superior mechan- the structure development is presented in ical properties, for instance higher stiff- the Theoretical structural realization ness, strength and dimensional stability, for the development of multi-material than those of knitted spacer fabrics [8]. woven spacer fabrics (MWSF) section, Woven spacer fabrics typically consist the implementation of structures – in the of two sets of warp and weft yarns each. Technology development section, and These yarn systems are used for the fabri- fabrics developed are analysed in the Re- cation of two layers of spacer fabrics (up- sults and discussion section. Introduction per and lower layer) and the warp yarns interchange their position after a certain Theoretical structural In recent years, research on spacer fab- interval to make a fabric layer in the ver- rics as a reinforcement structure for fiber tical direction between them. realization for the development reinforced plastics (FRP) application has of MWSF become increasingly popular because of In previous works executed at the Insti- The MWSF proposed also consists of two the better mechanical properties on offer tute of Textile Machinery and High per- fabric layers, in which the top and bottom such as tensile, flexural and compression formance Material Technology at Tech- are similar to conventional woven spac- strength when compared to other materi- nische Universität Dresden, machine and er fabrics. These layers are connected

Ashir M, Sennewald C, Hoffmann G, Cherif Ch. Development of Woven Spacer Fabrics Based on Steel Wires and Carbon Rovings. 49 FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017; 25, 1(121): 49-55. DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.1710

fabrics (MWSF) section, the implementation of structures - in the Technology development

section, and fabrics developed are analysed in the Results and discussion section.

Theoretical structural realization for the development of MWSF

The MWSF proposed also consists of two fabric layers, in which the top and bottom are similar

to conventional woven spacer fabrics. These layers are connected together by profiled wires as

opposed to pile yarns or fabric layers, which are used in conventional woven spacer fabrics.

Structural variation possibilities

Theoretical structural variation possibilities for the development of MWSF can be realised by the

interlacement of yarns, profiled wire geometry, direction of insertion of the profiled wire in

between the top and bottom layer of fabrics, the number of yarns per repeat and the undulation Further structural variation of MWSF structures can be realized considering the direction of

profiledof weft wire yarnsinsertion. in between the upper and lower layer of MWSF during weaving. Profiled

wire can be inserted in either warp or weft as well in both directions. For the realization of The interlacement variation of warp yarns, weft yarns and profiled wires in MWSF structures MWSF structures, profiled wire insertions between two layers of MWSF are considered only in

the can weft be direction implemented, so that the by geometrical plain, twill shape or of satin the profiled weave wire patterns can be retain. Theed structuralduring deformation, slippage

picking. resistance, yarn pull-out force, bending resistance and handling stability of plain woven fabric is

Differentbetter MWSF than structures that of cantwill also or besatin realized fabrics by varying [16] .theFor arrangement this reason, of the theprofile plaind wire weave pattern is taken into and the number of warp yarns in a repeat. Different variation possibilities in this aspect are as consideration for further structural realization of MWSF. follows:

i. AllProfiled profiled wire wire in a geometryMWSF structure variations can be arranged such in asan identical trapezium manner (flat and warptop yarns surface), zigzag (pointed top

can be interlaced with weft yarns as well as profile structures at the peak of the profiled surface) or combined (combination of a flat and pointed top surface) profiled wire (c.f. Figure 1), structure – (A), can be used. In this work, however, only zigzag and trapezium profiled wire were considered in ii. All profiled wire in a MWSF structure can be arranged in an identical manner and warp yarns

canorder be interlaced to reveal with weftthe yarns effect as ofwell the as profileprofiled structures wire atgeometry the peak of (flat the profiled or pointed wire in top surface) on the sliding

additionresistance to the space of warp between yarns two ,peakwhichs of thein turnprofile determinesd wire – (B). In the this structurevariation, the stability. warp

yarn density is twice that of variation (A). well in both directions. For the realization of MWSF structures, profiled wire insertions between two layers of MWSF iii. Two profiled wires are placed face-to-face but turned upside downare consideredin a repeat only, and in the warp weft direction, so that the geometrical shape of yarns are interlaced with weft yarns and profiled wire at the peak of the profiled wire – (C). Here Trapezium Zigzag Combined the profiled wire can be retained during profiled wire profiled wire profile wire picking. the profiled wire density is twice that of variations (A) and (B). Figure 1. Different profiled wires for realization of the MWSF structure. Different MWSF structures can also be Variations (A), (B) and (C) are shown in Figure 2, where dots indicate realizedwarp yarns. by varying the arrangement of the profiled wire and the number of warp Figure 1. Different profiled wires for realizationyarns of in the a repeat. MWSF Different structure. variation pos- i. MWSF structures with undulated weft yarns – (U) or sibilities in this aspect are as follows: n All profiled wires in a MWSF struc- ii. MWSF structures with straight weft yarns – (S). ture can be arranged in an identical manner and warp yarns can be inter- Variation A Variation B Variation C laced with weft yarns as well as pro- Sample construction of structure proposed file structures at the peak of the pro- Figure 2. Structural variation possibilities based on the arrangement of profiled wires and filed structure – (A), 3 theA number Figureproposed of warp2 .MWSF Structural yarns. structure variation is shown possibilities in Figure 3. basedThis is ona r epresentativethe arrangement samplen All of profiledof profiled the wires wires ina MWSFand structure can be arranged in an identical structure realized in Figure 4. the number of warp yarns. manner and warp yarns can be interlaced with weft yarns as well as profile structures at the peak of the profiled Depending on the undulation of weft yarns during interlacement with thewire warp in ,addition two variations to the space of between two peaks of the profiled wire – (B). MWSF structures can also be realised: In this variation, the warp yarn density is twice that of variation (A). n Two profiled wires are placed face-to- face but turned upside down in a repeat, and warp yarns are 4interlaced with weft yarns and profiled wire at the peak of the profiled wire – (C). Here, the profiled wire density is twice that of variations (A) and (B).

Variations (A), (B) and (C) are shown FigureFigure 3. 3Example. Example of MWSFof MWSF structures structures proposed proposed – left: -front left: view, front right: view, side right: view side view (HPF = (HPF = High-performance fibers). in Figure 2, where dots indicate warp High-performance fibers). yarns.

together by profiled wires as opposed to plain weave pattern is taken into consid- Depending on the undulation of weft pileIn yarns Figure or fabric3, the layers, MWSF which structure are used is formerationed offor an further upper structural and lower realization layer of fabricsyarns withduring a interlacement with the in conventional woven spacer fabrics. of MWSF. warp, two variations of MWSF structures trapezium profiled wire – (T) in between them. This trapezium profile wire is inserted in the weft can also be realised: Structural variation possibilities direction between the upper and lower layerProfiled of fabrics wire. Thegeometry profiled variations wire, weft ,such andn oneMWSF set structuresof with undulated weft Theoretical structural variation possibil- as trapezium (flat top surface), zigzag yarns – (U) or itieswarp fors thein thedevelopment upper and of lower MWSF layer can of fabric(pointed are topmade surface) of wire. or combinedAnother set (com of -warpns is MWSF made ofstructures with straight weft be realised by the interlacement of yarns, bination of a flat and pointed top surface) yarns – (S). profiledhigh-performance wire geometry, fibers . Twodirection trapezium -of in profiledprofiled wirewires (c.f. areFigure placed 1 ),face can to be face used. but turned upside sertion of the profiled wire in between In this work, however, only zigzag and thedown top ,and and bottom warp yarnslayer ofare fabrics, interlaced the withtrapezium both profile profiled wires wire and were weft considered yarns at theSample peak of construction the of structure number of yarns per repeat and the undu- in order to reveal the effect of the pro- proposed lationprofiled of weft wire yarns. – (C). The weft yarns are filedundulate wired and geometry interlace (flatd with or warp pointed yarns top A – proposed (U). From MWSF structure is shown in surface) on the sliding resistance of warp Figure 3. This is a representative sample these three points, the MWSF structure shown in Figure 3 is concluded as TCU. The interlacement variation of warp yarns, which in turn determines the struc- of the structure realized in Figure 4. yarns, weft yarns and profiled wires in ture stability. MWSF structures can be implemented In Figure 3, MWSF structure is formed Realization of possible structures by plain, twill or satin weave patterns. Further structural variation of MWSF of an upper and lower layer of fabrics The structural deformation, slippage re- structures can be realized considering with a trapezium profiled wire – (T) in From the variation possibilities described above and the corresponding MWSF development sistance, yarn pull-out force, bending the direction of profiled wire insertion between them. This trapezium profile wire is inserted in the weft direction be- resistancepoint of andview, handling overall stability12 types of o fplain MWSF in structures between thewere upper realized and lowerin this layer work. of For each profiled woven fabric is better than that of twill MWSF during weaving. Profiled wire tween the upper and lower layer of fab- or wiresatin type fabrics of trapezium[18]. For this (T) reason,and zigzag the (Z)can developed be inserted, 6 typesin either of MWSFwarp or structure weft as wererics. designed. The profiled wire, weft, and one set

50 MWSF structures realized by means of their coding are represented in Table 1. FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017, Vol. 25, 1(121)

of warps in the upper and lower layer of fabric are made of wire. Another set of warps is made of high-performance fibers. Two trapezium profiled wires are placed face to face but turned upside down, and warp yarns are interlaced with both profile wires and weft yarns at the peak of the profiled wire – (C). The weft yarns are undulated and interlaced with warp yarns – (U). From these three points, MWSF structure shown in Fig- ure 3 is concluded as TCU.

Realization of possible structures From the variation possibilities described above and the corresponding MWSF development point of view, overall 12 types of MWSF structures were realized in this work. For each profiled wire type of trapezium (T) and zigzag (Z) developed, 6 types of MWSF structure were designed. MWSF structures realized by means of their coding are represented in Table 1.

Since the warp and weft yarns in the upper and lower layers of the MWSF struc- For the production of profiled wire for connecting the upper and lower layer of the MWSF tures realized are interlaced in a plain weave pattern, only two sequences are necessary to represent their interlace- proposed, a crimping machine was employed. This machine is composed of two gear wheels, a ment. MWSF structures based on trapezium profile wires, including their first handle to operate the wheels and an adjusting handle to control the space between them. Steel and second sequence of interlacement, are demonstrated in Figure 4. In the wire from the spool is introduced into the two wheels of the crimping machine, and during the structures developed, the warp yarn combination consists of both wire as well as high performance fibers. The material rotationFigureFigure 4. ofMWSF the4. MWSFstructures handle structures consisting, profiled of consistingasteel trapezium wire profile ofis produced.a intrapezium between the A profileupper schematic and in lower between diagram the upperand actual and set up of for the weft and profile structure is wire. layer of fabrics (here, HPF = High-performance fibers). Each MWSF structure comprises 2 sets the crimpinglower layer machine of fabrics employed (here, HPF are = illustrated High-performance in Figure fibers) 5. . of warp yarn combination, 2 sets of weft yarns and 1 set of profiled wire. Technology development

Technology development Materials Materials For the first approach to develop MWSF, the steel wire- carbon roving combina- For the first approach to develop MWSF, the steel wire- carbon roving combination was used in tion was used in this study for the development of MWSF. The diameter, tensile this study for the development of MWSF. The diameter, tensile strength and density of the steel strength and density of the steel wire selected (Harald Uhlig Stahldraht GmbH, wire selected (Harald Uhlig Stahldraht GmbH, Germany) for the fabric development proposed Germany) for the fabric development Figure 5. Schematic diagram (left) of the crimping machine with actual set up (right). proposed were 0.4 mm, 752 N/mm2 and Figurewere 5. 0.4Schematic mm, 752 diagramN/mm2 and (left) 7.85 of g/cm the3 ,crimping respectively machine [17]. The with fineness, actual tensile set up strength, (right). 7.85 g/cm3, respectively [19]. The fineness, tensile strength, elongation and Tableelongation 1. MWSF structures and density realized. of the carbon roving used (Toho Tenax Europe GmbH, Germany) were density of the carbon roving used (Toho The shape of the profiled wire depends on the shape of the gear wheel of the crimping machine. Tenax Europe GmbH, Germany) were Profiled400 tex, wire 4400 geometry MPa, 1.8%Undulation and 1.77 g/cmType3, respectivelyDesignation [18]. 400 tex, 4400 MPa, 1.8% and 1.77 g/cm3, Specifications of the profiled structure Aproduced for thisTAU / ZAUstudy on this crimping machine are respectively [20]. U B TBU / ZBU Production of profiled wire listed in TableT / Z 2. C TCU / ZCU Production of profiled wire A TAS / ZAS For the production of profiled wire for S B TBS / ZBS C TCS / ZCS connecting the upper and lower lay- Table 2. Specification of the profiled wire produced 7 FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017, Vol. 25, 1(121) 51 Parameter Profiled wire type Value (mm) Height of profiled wire Trapezium 11 Zigzag 10 Distance between two adjacent peaks Trapezium 28 Zigzag 14

Modified weaving machine

A modified needle ribbon weaving machine (NFREQ42/2/130-3N, Maschinenfabric Jakob Müller

AG, Frick, Switzerland) was employed for the production of MWSF. This is a semi-automated

weaving machine featuring a dobby shedding mechanism. The retention mechanism of warp

yarns are electronically controlled by the weave data program. The maximum width of the fabric

produced on this weaving machine is 130 mm. All the primary functions as well as secondary

functions of weaving are controlled by a servo motor. The total number of heald frames in this

machine is 20. The modified needle ribbon weaving machine was fitted with a guide element to

prevent the projecting out of warp wires from the fabric, as well as with a linear take-up unit as

opposed to a rotating unit so as to prevent any damage to the three-dimensional structures

produced. The motion of the linear take-up unit is controlled by a stepper motor. The

consecutive arrangements of the needle ribbon weaving machine are demonstrated in Figure 6.

The detailed machine technology of this modified loom can be found elsewhere [14].

Warp creeling system Warp tensioning system Warp path over the reed

Shedding unit Take-up unit Overall machine set-up

Figure 6. Constructive arrangement of a needle ribbon weaving machine for the development of MWSF. Figure 6. Constructive arrangement of a needle ribbon weaving machine for the er of the MWSF proposed, a crimping on this crimping machine are listed in a servo motor. The total number of heald machinedevelopment was employed. of MWSF. This machine Table 2. frames in this machine is 20. The modi- is composed of two gear wheels, a han- fied needle ribbon weaving machine was dle to operate the wheels and an adjust- Modified weaving machine fitted with a guide element to prevent the ing handle to control the space between A modified needle ribbon weaving- ma projecting out of warp wires from the fab- them. Steel wire from the spool is intro- chine (NFREQ42/2/130-3N, Maschinen- ric, as well as with a linear take-up unit ducedDevelopment into the two wheelsof MWSF of the crimp- fabric Jakob Müller AG, Frick, Switzer- as opposed to a rotating unit so as to pre- ing machine, and during the rotation of land) was employed for the production of vent any damage to the three-dimension- the handle, profiled steel wire is - pro MWSF. This is a semi-automated weav- al structures produced. The motion of the duced. A schematic diagram and actual linear take-up unit is controlled by a step- All the 12 types of MWSF structuresing machine realized featuring were a dobby developed shedding in preliminary weaving trials. set up of the crimping machine employed mechanism. The retention mechanism of per motor. The consecutive arrangements are illustrated in Figure 5 (see page 51). warp yarns are electronically controlled of the needle ribbon weaving machine are However, based on their handlingby stability,the weave four data typesprogram. of TheMWSF max- (TCU,demonstrated TCS, ZCUin Figure and 6ZCS). The detailed are The shape of the profiled wire depends imum width of the fabric produced on machine technology of this modified onfurther the shape described of the gear inwheel this of paper. the this Considering weaving machine the is 130machine mm. All construction,the loom can be spools found elsewhere instead [14]. of a crimping machine. Specifications of the primary functions as well as secondary profiledweaver’s structure beam produced were for used this study for thefunctions development of weaving of are MWSF. controlled Here by warpDevelopment yarns of MWSFsteel wires and All the 12 types of MWSF structures carbon rovings were let-off from different spools during weaving.realized The steelwere developed wire and in preliminary carbon Table 2. Specification of the profiled wire produced. weaving trials. However, based on their handling stability, four types of MWSF roving spoolsParameter are placed on theProfiled creel .wireWarp type yarnsValue, are mm drawn by the negative let-off motion, (TCU, TCS, ZCU and ZCS) are further Trapezium 11 Height of profiled wire described in this paper. Considering the where the tension on warp yarns impartsZigzag the driving force10 against machinefriction construction,forces. Structures spools instead are of Trapezium 28 Distance between two adjacent peaks a weaver’s beam were used for the de- realized on the weaving machine byZigzag the proper designing14 of a weavingvelopment plan. of MWSF. From Herethe warpweaving yarns of steel wires and carbon rovings were let- off from different spools during weaving. Table 3. Dimensional parameters of MWSF developed. The steel wire and carbon roving spools 9 MWSF type Height, mm Width, mm Length, mm are placed on the creel. Warp yarns are TCU 11 100 250 drawn by the negative let-off motion, where the tension on warp yarns imparts TCS 11 100 250 the driving force against friction forc- ZCU 10 50 250 es. Structures are realized on the weav- ZCS 10 50 250 ing machine by the proper designing of

52 FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017, Vol. 25, 1(121)

sample, this test is repeated seven times. The parameters under which this test is carried out

are stated in Table 4.

Table 4. Parameters to carry out the pull-out test

Test speed (mm/s) 20 Clamping distance (mm) 100 Initial force (N) 1 Load sensor (kN) 2.5 Travel sensor Traverse

Results and discussion

Visual evaluation of samples produced

An exemplary representation of the MWSF developed (TCS) is illustrated in Figure 7.

a)a b)b

c)c d)d

FigureFigure 7. Exemplary 7. Exemplary representation representation of MWSF of developed MWSF developed(TCS). (TCS).FigureFigure 8. 8.Multi-material Multi-material woven spacer fabricsfabrics a) a) TCU, TCU, b) TCS,b) TCS, c) ZCU, d) ZCS. c) ZCU, d) ZCS. The warp yarn density of MWSF made of zigzag profiled wire is twice more than the trapezium

because the adjacent peak distance of the zigzag profile is half of that of trapezium profiled a weavingIn order plan. to accentuate From the weavingthe interlacement plan, was among conducted. yarns, A all tensile carbon testing rovings, machine except tance one adjacentof the zigzag profile is half of that for the development of MWSF, the repeat (Zwick Z2.5, Germany) waswire used. Due for to thethis flat topof surfacetrapezium of the profiled trapezium wire. profiled wire,Due to the the warp yarns remain in the pair, from both the top and bottom fabric layer of MWSF are removed. The MWSF developed (8x8) and drafting system (plain draft) purpose. No specific standard is current- flat top surface of the trapezium profiled middle of the profiled wire. On the contrary, the warp yarns of the zigzag profile do not remain in are arederived. represented 8 heald inshafts Figure are 8,employed where the twoly available MWSF’s to in carry the firstout rowthis oftest. Figure In this 8 (a andwire, b) the consist warp yarns remain in the middle during the development of MWSF, where testing, one end of the testthe specimen middle position is ofof thethe wire;profiled however wire. the On carbonthe contrary, roving remainsthe in the top position. the ofsteel trapezium wire and profiled carbon rovingswire, and are the lift -last clampedtwo samples by the in lower second clamp row of (c the and tensile d) are warpMWSF yarns based of the zigzag profile do not ed in pairs. The insertion of the profiled tester. From another end, onlyComparing one yarn the structuresto remain composed in the ofmiddle trapezium position and zigzag of the profiled wire; wire, the handling stability wireon in zigzag between profiled two layerswire. The of fabricfirst and is secondbe tested column is clamped of the imagesby theof MWSFupper represent madeclamp upthe of undulatedhowever, zigzag profiled theand carbonwires is inferiorroving toremains that of trapeziumin profiled wire due to executed in the shedding mechanism. As of the tensile tester. Then the warp yarn is the top position. Comparing the struc- the straightmachine weft used yarns. is semi-automated, the cut at the bottom and is pulledtheir geometrical out from shape. tures composed of trapezium and zigzag picking for both weft yarns and profiles MWSF at a constant speed of 20 mm/s profiled wire, the handling stability of wires are executed separately by hand. until the set length and theEvaluation corresponding of sliding resistanceMWSF made up of zigzag profiled wires Among the three fixed take-up speeds in force to pull out a yarn fromFigure the9 depicts fabric the force-distanceis inferior tocurve that for offour trapezium different types profiled of MWSF (TCU, TCS, ZCU, the weaving machine – high (38 mm/s), is measured. For each sample, this test wire due to their geometrical shape. middle (28 mm/s) and low (18 mm/s), is repeated seven times. ZCS)The parametersresulting from the pull-out test. In this graph, sample representations of pull-out curves of the low speed is chosen for the prelimi- under which this test is warpcarried yarns out made are of steelEvaluation wire are shown. of sliding resistance nary test because of the high tension of stated in Table 4. Figure 9 (see page 54) depicts the the wire between the creel and the clamp force-distance curve for four different of linear take-up. The linear take-up dis- 11 Results and discussion types of MWSF (TCU, TCS, ZCU, ZCS) tance of the loom is set to 15 mm. By this resulting from the pull-out test. In this set distance, the linear take-up unit moves Visual evaluation of samples produced graph, sample representations of pull-out forward after inserting weft yarns and An exemplary representation of the curves of warp yarns made of steel wire profiled wires in a repeat, corresponding MWSF developed (TCS) is illustrated in are shown. to their beat-up. After reaching the length Figure 7. of MWSF required, it is cut by pliers and In the course of testing, the number of stored in a planar form. Besides the line- In order to accentuate the interlace- weft yarns and profiled wire rubbing ar take-up motion, the shape of MWSF ment among yarns, all carbon rovings, against the warp yarn being pulled out 12 is retained by inserting two wood pieces except one adjacent pair, from both the is reduced, hence after an initial peak, equal to the profiled wire height in- be top and bottom fabric layer of MWSF less force is required to pull out warp tween the two layers of MWSF on both are removed. The MWSF developed are yarns. It is specifically noticeable that all sides of the fabrics in the warp-direction. represented in Figure 8, where the two curves in Figure 9 jump after a certain The MWSF with three-dimensional pa- MWSF’s in the first row of Figure 8 rameters developed are listed in Table 3. (a and b) consist of trapezium profiled wire, and the last two samples in second Testing Table 4. Parameters to carry out the pull- row (c and d) are MWSF based on zigzag out test In order to investigate the effect of the profiled wire. The first and second - col flat and pointed top surface of the profile umn of the images represent the undulat- Test speed, mm/s 20 structure on the sliding resistance of warp ed and straight weft yarns. Clamping distance, mm 100 yarns with weft yarns and profiled wires, Initial force, N 1 the interaction between different types of The warp yarn density of MWSF made Load sensor, kN 2.5 materials and to obtain structure stability of zigzag profiled wire is twice than the for the subsequent process, a pull out test trapezium because the adjacent peak dis- Travel sensor Traverse

FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017, Vol. 25, 1(121) 53

for the realization of multi-material woven spacer fabric from wire and carbon rovings in this research. The sliding resistance of the structures developed is evaluated by means of the pull-out test. The result of the pull-out test indicates Figure 9. Force-distance curve of warp yarns during the pullthat-out the test. pull out force of warp yarns from zigzag profiled wire is higher than that of the trapezium profiled wire due to the ge- In the course of testing, the number of weft yarns and profiledometry wire ofrubbing the profiled against wire. Furthermore the warp the pull-out force of the warp yarns from yarn being pulled out is reduced, hence after an initial peak, lessthe undulated force is structure required is higher to pullthan thatout of the straight structure. These multi-material woven spacer fabrics, due to their warp yarns. It is specifically noticeable that all curves in Figuregeometry 9 jump and after material a certain properties, interval can be , used in the automobile industry as hy- which is due to the linear take-up distance among the set of weftbrid yarns sandwich and constructions profiled wires. for impact The and crash applications. Such fabrics can

Figureaverage 9. Force -pulldistance out curve force of warp along yarns during with the the pull -standardout test. deviation of the stealsoel bewire suitable and ascarbon lightening roving protection from Figure 9. Force-distance curve of warp yarns during the pull-out test. and in high temperature resistance ap- InM theWSF course isof testing,demonstrated the number of weft in yarnsFigure and profiled 10. wire rubbing against the warp plications, for example in the aerospace yarn being pulled out is reduced, hence after an initial peak, less force is required to pull out industry. The result of this research work has formed the basis of the promising re- warp yarns. It is specifically noticeable that all curves in Figure 9 jump after a certain interval, alization of multi-material woven spacer which is due to the linear take-up distance among the set of weft yarns and profiled wires. The fabrics and their characterization in [13]. average pull out force along with the standard deviation of the steel wire and carbon roving from

MWSF is demonstrated in Figure 10. Acknowledgements This article presents a sample of results from the research program B2 CoMeT (100117440) at Technische Universität Dresden, Germany. The authors would like to thank the European Center for Emerging Materials and Processes (ECEMP) for the financial support of the above-mentioned project.

References Figure 10. Pull out test of wire and carbon roving from MWSF. 13 1. Chen S, Long HR, Liu YH, et al. Mechan- ical properties of 3D-Structure composites based on warp knitted spacer fabrics. interval, which is due to the linear take- higher than that of carbon rovings, which AUTEX Res J 2015; 15: 127-137. up distance among the set of weft yarns is due to the higher stiffness of steel wire 2. Włodarczyk B, Kowalski K. Technology13 and Properties of Distance Five-layered and profiled wires. The average pull out than that of carbon rovings. The results Double-Weft-Knitted Fabrics with Elas- force along with the standard deviation of th pull-out test show that MWSF tomeric Threads. Fibres & Textiles in of the steel wire and carbon roving from possess sufficient stability, so that these Eastern Europe 2014; 22: 68-73. MWSF is demonstrated in Figure 10. structures can force-fittingly be infiltrat- 3. Chen S and Long HR. Investigation ed in a subsequent infiltration process. on compression properties of polyure- From Figure 10, it can be concluded thane-based warp-knitted spacer fabric that the pull-out force of the steel wire composites for cushioning applications Conclusion Part I: experiment. Industria Textila and carbon rovings in structures con- 2014; 65: 200-205. sisting of zigzag profiled wire is higher The objective of this research was to cre- 4. Flemming M, Ziegmann G and Roth S. in comparison to the trapezium profiled ate a fundamental technological basis for Faserverbundbauweisen: Faser und wire because of the pointed top surface the production of multi-material woven Matrices. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer of the latter. The pull out force of the spacer fabrics. It succeeded in develop- Verlag, 1995. warp yarns from the undulated structure ing multi-material woven spacer fabric 5. Vassiliadis S, Kallivretaki A, Psilla N, et is higher than the straight structure ow- structures and producing selected struc- al. Numerical Modelling of the Compres- sional Behaviour of Warp-knitted Spacer ing to the active contact area between tures based on steel wire as well as car- Fabrics. Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Eu- the warp and weft yarns increasing in the bon roving on a modified needle ribbon rope 2009; 17: 56-61. undulated structure. It can also be seen weaving machine. Two types of profiled 6. Soin N, Shah TH, Anand SC, et al. Nov- that the pull-out force of the steel wire is wire – trapezium and zigzag were used el “3-D spacer” all fibre piezoelectric tex-

54 FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017, Vol. 25, 1(121) ficationtiles for energy applying harvesting a photocatalytic applications. reac- tion.Eng EnvironSurface SciCoating 2014; Technology 7: 1670-1679 2006;. 7. 201:McCarthy 3761 – BJ. 3766. Textiles for Hygiene and 23. ZiajaInfection J, KoprowskaControl. 1st J ed. and Cambridge: Januszkie- Woodhead Publishing, 2011, pp. 30-32. wicz J. Rusing Plasma Metallisation for 8. Mountasir A, Hoffmann G and Cherif ManufactureCh. Development od Textile of weaving Screens technolo Against- Electromagneticgy for manufacturing Fields. three-dimensional Fibers and Tex- tilesspacer in Eastern fabrics Europe with high-performance 2008; 16, 5(70): 64-66.yarns for thermoplastic composite appli- 24. Koprowskacations: An J,analysis Doruchowska of two-dimensional E, Reszka The Scientific Department of Unconventional Kmechanical and Szwagier properties. A. MorphologyText Res J 2011; and 81: 1354-1366. Technologies and Textiles specialises in interdisciplinary Electromagnetic Shelding Effectiveness 9. Badawi SSAM. Development of the research on innovative techniques, functional textiles and textile ofweaving PP Nonwovens machine and Modified 3D woven with spacer Metal- licfabric Layers. structures Fibers forand lightweight Textiles in compos Eastern- composites including nanotechnologies and surface modification. Europeites materials. 2015; 23; PhD 5(113): thesis, 84-91 Technische 25. NiewiadomskaUniversität Dresden, I and Germany, Przybył K,2007. Elec- 10. troconductiveTorun AR, Mountasir yarns A,of Hoffmannstample fibers G, et Research are performed on modern apparatus, inter alia: al. Production Principles and Technolog�- as a multifunctional product, V Ogól- n ical Development of Novel Woven Spac- Scanning electron microscope VEGA 3 LMU, Tescan with nopolska Konferencja Naukowa „Nau- er Preforms and Integrated Stiffener EDS INCA X-ray microanalyser, Oxford kaStructures. i Przemysł” Appl, Kraków Compos 2010; Mater 1: 78-85. 2013; 26. Niewiadomska20: 275-285. I., Frydrysiak M., Up- n Raman InVia Reflex spectrometer, Renishaw 11. cyklingMountasir yarns A, Hoffmann from waste G, fibersCherif Ch, on et the n Vertex 70 FTIR spectrometer with Hyperion 2000 microscope, electroconductivityal. Mechanical characterization properties, of Przet hy-- wórstwobrid yarn Tworzyw thermoplastic 2013; composites 156,: 630-635. from Brüker multi-layer woven fabrics with function 27. Dobrzański L A. Podstawy nauki o n Differential scanning calorimeter DSC 204 F1 Phenix, integration. J Thermoplast Compos Ma- materiałach i metaloznawstwo. WNT, ter 2011; 25: 729-746. Netzsch Warszawa 2002. 12. Großmann K, Mühl A, Löser M. et al. n 28. DobrzańskiNew solutions L A. for Kształtowanie the manufacturing struk- Thermogravimetric analyser TG 209 F1 Libra, Netzsch with turyof spaceri własności preforms powierzchni for thermoplastic materiałów FT-IR gas cuvette textile-reinforced lightweight structures. inżynierskich i biomedycznych. WNT, n Sigma 701 tensiometer, KSV GliwiceProd Eng 2009. Res Devel 2010; 4: 589-597. 13. Sennewald C, Kaina S, Weck D, et 29. Nowak I, Januszkiewicz Ł and Krucińska n Automatic drop shape analyser DSA 100, Krüss al. Metal sandwiches and metal-ma- I. Production of electroconductive paths trix-composites based on 3D woven n PGX goniometer, Fibro Systems on textile substrates using PVD meth- wire structures for hybrid lightweight n Particle size analyser Zetasizer Nano ZS, Malvern ods,construction. X Jubileuszowe Adv Eng Sympozjum Mater 2014; El-tex 16: 2012;1234-1242. 12-13. n Labcoater LTE-S, Werner Mathis 30.14. Urbaniak-DomagalaKang KJ. Wire-woven W, Krucińska cellular metals: I, Cy- n Corona discharge activator, Metalchem bulaThe present M and and Wrzosek future. H. Prog Deposition Mater Sci of 2015; 69: 213-307. n a polypirol insulating layers on copper Ultrasonic homogenizer UP 200 st, Hielscher 15. Kieselstein E, Weinrich T, Adam F, et al. monofilaments using a low – tempera- Cellular metals based on 3D-wire struc- turetures. plasma In: 6th technique.International Materials conference Tech on- The equipment was purchased under key project - POIG.01.03.01-00- nologyporous 2009;metals 24: and 24-28. metallic foams, Bras- 004/08 Functional nano- and micro textile materials - NANOMITEX, co- 31. Lewandowskitilava, Slovakia, S and 1-4 DrobinaSeptember R. Predic 2009,- financed by the European Union under the European Regional Development tionp. 94. of Properties of Unknotted Spliced Fund and the National Centre for Research and Development, and Project 16. EndsSennewald of Yarns C, Hoffmann Using Multiple G, Cherif Regres Ch.- WND-RPLD 03.01.00-001/09 co-financed by the European Union under Fabric structure with cellular construc- sion and Artificial Neural Networks. Part tion. Patent 0368835, US, 2015. the European Regional Development Fund and the Ministry of Culture and 17. II:Hoffmann Verification G, Anderson of Regression O, Böhm R, Models. et National Heritage. Fibersal. Novel & Textilescomposites in Easternfor hybrid Europe light�- 2008;weight 16, constructions. 6(71): 20-27. In: International 32. HorcasECEMP-colloquium I, Fernandez, Dresden, R, Gomez-Rod Germa-- riguezny, 25-26 J, October Colchero 2012. J, Gomez-Herrero 18. JCherif and C. Baro Textile A M.WSXM: Materials afor software Lightweight for Constructions: Technologies-Methods- scanning probe microscopy and a tool Materials-Properties. Berlin, Heidelberg: forSpringer-Verlag nanotechnology. GmbH, Review 2016, of Scientificpp. 170- Instruments174. 2007; 78: 013705. 33.19. ZgłoszenieHarald Uhlig patentowe Stahldraht P. 403672,GmbH, 2013Speci- 34. Reicheltfication Ksheet and (18.01.2015).Lutz H O. Hetero-epitax- Textile Research Institute 20. ialToho growth Tenax, of http://www.tohotenax.com/ vacuum evaporated silver Scientific Department of Unconventional Technologies and Textiles andtenax/en/products/standard.php gold. Journal of Crystal Growth (ac- cessed 19.12.2015). Tel. (+48 42) 25 34 405 1971; 10: 103-107. e-mail: [email protected]

ReceivedReceived 03.12.201319.07.2016 ReviewedReviewed 06.03.201608.08.2016

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