“Open Reciprocity” in the Tanzanian Union in Hong Kong and China
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JRCA Vol. 20, No. 1 (2019), pp.297-323 297 The Logic of “Open Reciprocity” in the Tanzanian Union in Hong Kong and China Sayaka Ogawa Graduate School of Core Ethics and Frontier Sciences, Ritsumeikan University Abstract Starting at the beginning of the twenty-first century, informal transnational trading developed rapidly between China and African countries. Tanzanians in Hong Kong and southern China formed a union with the intention of providing mutual assistance and solving the various problems they face in Hong Kong. This union includes a multitude of “commercial travellers” who move frequently between China/Hong Kong and African countries, while the core members of the union are brokers who stay in China/Hong Kong for a relatively long period of time. Thus, the union cannot request that its members contribute to the group based on an expectation of reciprocity. Further, the union includes many criminals, and there is a lack of mutual trust at the individual level among members. This paper discusses the logic of “gambling on open reciprocity” in such unions in China/Hong Kong to examine the nature of civil society organizations formed by people who have been excluded from the narrow classification of “good citizens.” Further, we propose that this civil society organization of Tanzanian immigrants is more similar to the sharing economy platforms provided by commercial business via the Internet than to the type of civil society proposed by conventional civil society theories. 298 Tanzanian Union in Hong Kong 299 Key words: Civil society organization, Open reciprocity, Trust, Tanzania-China relations, Informal economy Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of the Sciences (JSPS) KAKENHI Grant Number 16H05947. I appreciate the kind support from the members of the Tanzania Hong Kong Unions. Introduction Transnational informal trade between China and other countries, including those in Africa, has developed rapidly since the beginning of the twenty-first century. African traders began flocking to China (which had conflicting intellectual property rights, immigration regulations, and commercial laws, as well as other legal controls), purchasing a variety of products, including knockoffs and counterfeit goods, and then transporting them to their home countries. African traders typically congregate in specific sites in Hong Kong and southern China. In Hong Kong, most African traders live in Chungking Mansions and Mirador Mansions, commercial complexes featuring cheap lodging houses located on Nathan Road (see Mathews 2011). In southern China, the main destinations of most African traders are Guangzhou City in Guangdong Province and Yiwu City in Hangzhou Province, where many large-scale wholesale malls sell inexpensive commodities for African markets (e.g. Bodomo 2012; 2016; Mathews, Lin, and Yang 2017). Several African communities have recently formed based on national and religious ties in these trading sites. 298 Tanzanian Union in Hong Kong Sayaka Ogawa 299 Key words: Civil society organization, Open reciprocity, Trust, The aim of this paper is to clarify the logic of “open reciprocity” Tanzania-China relations, Informal economy that governs a union formed by Tanzanians living in Hong Kong and China. As such, this paper discusses the nature of civil society organizations formed by people who have been excluded from the Acknowledgements narrow classification of “good citizens.” This work was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Civil society theorists conventionally describe “citizens” and “civil the Sciences (JSPS) KAKENHI Grant Number 16H05947. I society” with normative nuances referring to the “ideal people for appreciate the kind support from the members of the Tanzania Hong democracy” and a “good society to be aimed toward” (Sakamoto ed. Kong Unions. 2017: 6-7). Michael Edwards categorized the different theoretical histories of civil society as follows: 1) civil society as a part of society, Introduction emphasizing the importance of associations and human networks, 2) civil society as a kind of society that is characterized by certain values Transnational informal trade between China and other countries, and norms such as cooperation, trust, tolerance, and non-violence, including those in Africa, has developed rapidly since the beginning emphasizing the concept of the “good citizen,” 3) civil society as a of the twenty-first century. African traders began flocking to China public sphere in which “citizenship” is exercised positively by making (which had conflicting intellectual property rights, immigration deliberations available to all citizens communicating based on reason regulations, and commercial laws, as well as other legal controls), and seeking common interests (Edwards 2008: 10-12). purchasing a variety of products, including knockoffs and counterfeit The Tanzanian Hong Kong Union (THKU) discussed in this goods, and then transporting them to their home countries. African paper is a civil society organization that was founded under the first traders typically congregate in specific sites in Hong Kong and of these three theoretical categories. The THKU was established with southern China. In Hong Kong, most African traders live in the aim of providing mutual help among Tanzanians living in Hong Chungking Mansions and Mirador Mansions, commercial complexes Kong/China and resolving various conflicts with the host society; in featuring cheap lodging houses located on Nathan Road (see fact, the union is officially recognized by the Tanzanian Embassy in Mathews 2011). In southern China, the main destinations of most Beijing. However, the core members of this union are people who African traders are Guangzhou City in Guangdong Province and have been excluded from the “good citizen” category, such as exiles, Yiwu City in Hangzhou Province, where many large-scale wholesale asylum seekers, prostitutes, brokers, and dealers trading illegal items. malls sell inexpensive commodities for African markets (e.g. Bodomo In addition, among its peripheral and potential members, the union 2012; 2016; Mathews, Lin, and Yang 2017). Several African includes a huge number of traders who flow in and out of Hong communities have recently formed based on national and religious Kong, China, and African countries. These characteristics of the ties in these trading sites. union render it unfit to be regarded as a civil society as defined in the 300 Tanzanian Union in Hong Kong 301 third category above. For example, the concept of the bourgeois public sphere (die bürgerliche Öffentlichkeit) proposed by Jürgen Habermas indicates a mode of relationship to civil society that is resistant to public authority but simultaneously oppresses and enlightens those who have been excluded from it (Habermas 1994). The bourgeois public sphere is a public constituted by the people who are located above the middle class and have their own assets, social positions, and education, while those located in the lower levels of society exist outside of the group. Habermas referred to the public that emerges outside of the civilian public as the plebeian public sphere (plebejische Öffentlichkeit), but did not discuss its concrete contents. Furthermore, as Edwards states, in many cases, the first theoretical category, which focuses on the organization of civil society, is also based on the second theoretical category, which defines civil society as a “good society.” This can be seen in the “social capital theory” advocated by Robert Putnam (Edwards 2008: 78-79). Putnam argued that by participating in civil society organizations, social capital characterized by mutual trust and reciprocity is nurtured and democratic society will be efficiently materialized with rich social capital (Putnam 1993; 2006). Putnam states that the most important of these norms for the source of civic communities is two types of reciprocity balanced (or specific) reciprocity and generalized (or diffuse) reciprocity. Balanced reciprocity refers to the simultaneous exchange of items of equivalent value, as when office-mates exchange holiday gifts or when legislators log-roll through bargaining. Generalized reciprocity refers to a continuing relationship of exchange that is, at any given time, unrequited or imbalanced but involves mutual expectations that a benefit granted in the present will be repaid in the future. Putnam insists that the norm of generalized reciprocity is a highly productive 300 Tanzanian Union in Hong Kong Sayaka Ogawa 301 third category above. For example, the concept of the bourgeois public component of social capital and that communities in which this sphere (die bürgerliche Öffentlichkeit) proposed by Jürgen Habermas norm is followed can more efficiently restrain opportunism and indicates a mode of relationship to civil society that is resistant to resolve problems of collective action (Putnam 1993: 171-173; cf. public authority but simultaneously oppresses and enlightens those Putnam 2006). who have been excluded from it (Habermas 1994). The bourgeois How can generalized reciprocity function well within civil society? public sphere is a public constituted by the people who are located The France-based American anthropologist Mark Anspach (2012) above the middle class and have their own assets, social positions, and argues that two-sided reciprocities are established on the expectation education, while those located in the lower levels of society exist that “the other will do the same thing.” Reciprocal help has