Ecotourism-Impacts, Potentials and Possibilities, Stephen Wearing and John Neil, 1999 2.57 MB PDF Uploded 1

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Ecotourism: Impacts, Potentials and Possibilities This Page Intentionally Left Blank Ecotourism: Impacts, Potentials and Possibilities

Stephen Wearing and John Neil

OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI Butterworth-Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041 A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd

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First published 1999

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ISBN 0 7506 4137 1

Composition by Genesis Typesetting, Laser Quay, Rochester, Kent Printed and bound in Great Britain Contents

Foreword vii 7 Case studies: the local and the national Case study 1: the local – Costa Rica, About the authors ix the Santa Elena Ecotourism Rainforest Reserve and Monteverde Cloud Forest Acknowledgements xi Preserve 86 Introduction xiii Case study 2: the national – ‘Issues in protected area policy in Australia’ 94 Penelope J. Figgis, AM Vice President, 1 Departure – surveying the ground 1 Australian Conservation Foundation

2 If ecotourism is not just an activity 8 Marketing ecotourism: meeting and but a philosophy, which philosophy? 10 shaping expectations and demands 104

3 Tourism development: government, 9 Could the ‘real’ ecotourist please industry, policy and planning 21 stand up! 119

4 Ecotourism and protected areas: 10 Ecotourism – a model for sustainable visitor management for sustainability 39 development 130

5 The role of interpretation in Appendix I: Select glossary 138 achieving a sustainable future 57 Bibliography 145 6 Linking conservation and communities: community benefits and social costs 72 Index 159 This Page Intentionally Left Blank Foreword

Ecotourism, the idea that nature based tourism industries. Scientists and environmentalists could contribute social and environmental bene- could see that there was little hope of saving fits, burst into public consciousness in the late these lands unless they could generate income 1980s and became virtually a phenomenon in from their natural state to meet the needs of their the 1990s. In many countries, it became a people. Ecotourism appeared to offer a sustain- substantial focus of debate, generating numerous able development option for countries, regions conferences, new courses and challenging policy and local communities, which would provide an development at all levels of government, the incentive to retain and manage their wild lands tourist industry and the environment and wildlife and hence the crucial biodiversity of movement. life. It could be an alternative to rapacious, It is not too difficult to explain the extraordi- resource extraction of logging and mining. It nary rise of interest. The publication of the could earn the desperately sought foreign cur- Brundtland Report, Our Common Future, in 1987 rency and bring in revenues to properly manage by the United Nations Commission on Environ- protected areas. ment and Development was the catalyst which A crucial component of the concept is that saw a major world-wide rise in environmental affected local communities need to be recipients consciousness. It focused on the greatest of such benefits if this incentive is to work. dilemma of life on earth – in a world of over 5 However, beyond simply being an incentive to billion people how do you meet the needs and keep forests alive and keep dynamite fishing demands of humans without destroying the very away from reefs, many saw that such tourism ecological fabric of the planet which underpins could actually foster an environmental ethic all life and human well being? The report through both the experience and good inter- identified the concept of sustainable develop- pretation. Most people who have swum on a ment as the answer. coral reef would want that reef to remain While conceptually there was broad agree- protected for all time. ment, it was not easy to find clean, green Ecotourism also appeared to hold promise to industries which were truly environmentally ameliorate another dilemma of our age. The benign or had positive outcomes over the long twentieth century has seen the tragic and rapid haul. This was especially true in developing demise of the rich cultural heritage of the countries where nature had its strongholds, but world’s indigenous people by the relentless where short-term economic drivers often saw pressure of modern industrialized society. Envir- natural lands and wildlife disappearing fast to onmentalists viewed this as both a human and satisfy both the needs of survival and resource ecological tragedy as ‘the wisdom of the elders’ viii FOREWORD seemed doomed to disappear. Ironically, as the seen ecotourism as the thin end of the wedge diversity and integrity of native cultures and in allowing for development in protected areas natural places were increasingly under threat, and fragile environments. Spreading benefits to the world’s educated and environmentally local communities is also fraught with prob- aware travellers sought contact with them. Low lems and often inadequate to offset the appeal key tourism appeared to offer an economic of short-term but more lucrative extractive return to such communities for conserving and industries. Tourism is after all an industry celebrating their cultures. frequently locked into the dynamic of short- Overall therefore the ecotourism concept was term profit before long-term social, cultural or to some degree the right idea at the right time. ecological sustainability. Tourism interests were looking for areas where This broad-reaching and comprehensive book their country had a competitive advantage and gives an excellent coverage of this important new angles to market their countries or regions. issue. It asks all the key questions about whether Environmentalists were looking for reasons why ecotourism can ultimately deliver on its governments should conserve land, as well as undoubted promise. In fact the book itself may examples of green industries and an alternative assist in the process of ecotourism realizing its to the rapacious model of mass tourism. Indige- potential benefits as its wide ranging chapters nous and rural communities were looking for identify many of the key issues practitioners and alternatives to destructive industries, new policy makers need to consider and identify employment opportunities, particularly ones many of the pitfalls. that could enhance their communities. Govern- I certainly commend the call in the introduc- ments were looking for economic development, tion for the need to get the frameworks right, income from their protected area assets and ecotourism is unlikely to succeed unless many of lower costs in land management. the key components such as an adequate pro- However, in the decade of ecotourism we tected area system, sound regulation and ade- have found that these benefits are not always quate funding of good management are easy to deliver. Undoubtedly there are forests available. still standing, rivers still clean and wildlife alive because of ecotourism. But we have also Penelope Figgis AM About the authors

Dr Stephen Wearing’s background is in environ- education, guiding and interpretation manage- mental and tourism planning and management. ment, environmentalism and sociology of tour- He has an undergraduate and masters degree in ism. He is a Senior Lecturer in the School of town planning. He has worked in both local and Leisure and Tourism Studies, Faculty of Business state government and consulted internationally at the University of Technology, Sydney where in the area or ecotourism. His work in establish- he teaches in a number of these areas. ing the Santa Elena Ecotourism Rainforest Reserve in Costa Rica saw him receive an award John Neil is a freelance researcher, writer and from the Costa Rican Government and this work teacher across a range of subjects including also forms the core of his PhD. Stephen’s community development, ecology, poststructur- research focuses on the social sciences in natural alism, continental philosophy and textuality. He resource management including community is currently completing a PhD at the University development, community-based tourism, eco- of Sydney and is a research officer and tutor at tourism, gender and leisure theory, outdoor the University of Technology, Sydney. This Page Intentionally Left Blank Acknowledgements

We have many people to thank for this book: Thanks also to Penny Davidson for all her To Penny Figgis, for providing the motivation comments and her contribution to Chapter 10; to begin this book by choosing to put her family her insights added great depth. first. We thank her for her inspiration and for Finally, thanks to all those students who have providing case study material and her Foreword. contributed to the development of the ideas in She has also contributed the second case study in the numerous workshops in ecotourism and Chapter 7, ‘Issues in protected area policy in protected area management – their enthusiasm Australia’. It is an infinitely better book for her and creativity created the basis for the book; to contribution. Barbara Almond in particular for work done that Thanks to Paula Drayton and Isabel Sebastian contributed to Chapter 5; to Joanne McLean and for their research and editorial comment and just Nikki Phillips for their ideas; and to Mark for being fun to be around. Jackson for the index. To Julie for the support. S.W. To Geraldene. J.N. This Page Intentionally Left Blank Introduction

Ecotourism? A simple enough word but a spaces sought after by ecotourists often are complex and often contradictory concept. A extremely fragile and sensitive to human impact, fashion, a fad? Ecological travel is the ‘next big however ‘lightly we tread’. One thing however is thing’; the hippest way to travel is to backpack off the certain, the increasing global interest and expo- beaten track to experience ‘nature’ up close and nential growth in ecotourism cannot simply be personal (with all the luxuries of home included). explained as another in a long line of recreational A tourism industry marketing exercise that trends. Instead it reflects a fundamental shift in effectively packages ‘nature’ for affluent urban the way human beings view and engage with dwellers to ‘experience’ a romantic world now nature. lost to us moderns? Lush rainforests, arid deserts, We have begun with a lot of questions and no the polar caps – these are the ‘hottest’ destinations easy answers yet in sight. Where would you dare (while they last). start? Well, why not the word itself – ecotourism? Or a way for environmentalism to enter the Within this word exist two seemingly contra- mainstream in the 1990s after losing its impetus dictory meanings. Let’s take the most obvious: in an economic rationalist world? Conservation tourism. Tourism is currently the world’s largest issues are now at the forefront of public opinion. The industry. World tourism grew by 260% between decline of natural rainforests, loss of endangered 1970 and 1990 and world-wide international species, global warming and land degradation have arrivals are predicted to reach between 637 and galvanized public support for conservation. 956 million by the year 20001 (World Tourism But can we even speak of ‘nature’ in a world Organisation, 1990). The projected growth in that has less of it than ever before in human travel and tourism is expected to be between 2% history? Western society is indifferent if not and 4.5% per year. A growth rate of 4.5% for downright hostile to the existence of wilderness example would see world travel and tourism except where its value can be quantified as a increase to around 600 million international resource or as a spectacle, a tourist attraction. arrivals (over 50% increase). This would contrib- Does a suicidal society need nature to justify its ute to the creation of up to 55 million jobs by the travel? Is it an escape, an excuse, or simply a end of the 1990s (WTTC, 1992). distraction? Or is it something more profound? Tourism has a gross throughput of more than Whatever the origins, nature is calling and we US$3.5 trillion per year, employing around 127 are responding in droves. And ecotourists are leading the charge. But getting ‘off the beaten track’ often means that the track soon becomes a 1 World-wide international arrivals have increased from road, even a highway. And the beautiful wild 25 282 000 in 1950 to 476 000 000 (WTO, 1990, 1993). xiv INTRODUCTION million people world-wide, accounting in 1993 specific type of ‘special interest tourism’. In a for over 7% of the world’s capital investment relatively short period of time it has caught the (WTTC, 1995). It is currently estimated that imagination of many local communities, govern- tourism will generate: ments and international environmental organizations. Estimates of ecotourism’s growth are ᭹ 10.9% of world GDP, or $3.4 trillion; extremely variable at the present time, but range ᭹ over 11.4% of the world’s capital investment; from anywhere between 10% and 30%3 (Kallen, ᭹ over $665 billion to total tax payments world- 1990; Vickland, 1989). Despite this variability, the wide (WTTC, 1995). tourism industry has wholly embraced ecotourism, even to the extent of the term ‘ecotourism’ For these reasons alone tourism is valued highly becoming the buzz word of the late 1990s, and by many countries and often holds a very we are witness today to the plethora of tourism prominent position in development strategies. It forms with the ‘eco’ prefix attached like some is actively promoted and industry bodies are badge of honour. courted by governments due to its potential to In a multifaceted world something can mean significantly bolster foreign exchange and anything depending on how the light strikes it. domestic employment. So let’s narrow the prism and focus on the prefix Increases in leisure time, the growth in real – eco – from the word ‘ecology’ which itself is income, mobility, technological improvements in derived from the Greek word oikos meaning communications and international transporta- house or habitat. The environment that we tion, and demographic changes in the West all humans inhabit is, at its most fundamental, our have led to the strong global demand for home, our dwelling, our life support. And tourism.2 This growth has significant implica- despite the relative newness of the term, ecotour- tions for developing countries. Revenues ism’s origins are deeply rooted in a form of received from tourism receipts now account for philosophy and experience, and its philosophical more than 10% of the value in 47 developing heritage is embraced by conservationists and countries and more than 50% of the comparable environmentalists alike. The environmental amount received from export revenues in 17 movement was born from the nature conserva- countries (Healy, 1989: 4). Relatively cheap air tion movement, which recognized that nature is travel puts the entire planet within reach of the essential to human well-being. In recent years modern-day tourist – half of the people who this conviction has been strengthened by the holiday do so in the Third World. scientific understanding that biodiversity is And somewhere in this tourism ‘explosion’ essential to not only well-being, but to human lies ecotourism. ‘Ecotourism’ has evolved into a survival. Many have also articulated the need for type of speciality travel, incorporating a diverse nature to be conserved regardless of any utility (and often bewildering) array of activities and or value to humans but because nature has a tourism types, from birdwatching, scientific right to exist and conversely the human species study, photography, diving, bushwalking, to does not have the right to determine the fate of regeneration of damaged ecosystems. It is a all other species (Nash, 1989). broad and loose garment this word ‘ecotourism’. But tourism involves travel away from our For some it is a subset of ‘nature-based’ tourism origin, from our individual homes, into dwell- activities; for others it is a ‘niche’ market, a ings that are not our own, but that may be

2 According to one study a 10% increase in real income in 3 As we shall see, the diversity of tourism forms and developed countries leads to consumers increasing their controversies in classification partly explain the difficulties foreign travel expenditures by 15 to 20% (Artis, in Goldfarb, and variability in estimating the size of the ecotourism 1989: 131). market. INTRODUCTION xv constructed specifically for us, us tourists; to the shift in the way nature is valued, both places that we tread upon which are a life historically and philosophically, and how eco- support for ‘others’ both human and non- tourism fits into this change in values. human. The world is a stage and we relentlessly In our dominant market economies policy strive to satisfy our desire, striding across the implications are predominantly defined by the globe to experience these ‘others’ – cultures, interplay of government regulation and market nature, sights, sounds and smells – to see sights forces. Chapter 3 examines why tourism is that are unusual, to explore the unknown, the particularly attractive for governments, partic- alien, the ‘magical’. The not-here. ularly in its potential for providing an alternative This book embarks on its own journey, a to traditional industry, such as forestry or mining. journey in understanding that will, through the However, in many cases tourism has not lived up following pages, take us across the globe. We to its high expectations as its benefits are often will be making stops along the way: visiting sites circumscribed by the significant impacts tourism such as Costa Rica, Australia and Africa. The engenders upon ecosystems and local commu- initial part of this journey takes place in Chapter nities. Tourism is often promoted by government 1, where we will discuss ecotourism’s key or industry without an overall strategy, without principles. Fundamentally ecotourism involves adequate attention to legislative frameworks, travel to relatively undisturbed or protected without consultation or inclusion of local com- natural areas, fostering understanding, apprecia- munities and without effective protected area tion and conservation of the flora, fauna, geology management plans. We will examine the key and ecosystems of an area. The fauna, geology policy issues that relate to ecotourism, including a and ecosystems of an area highlight the nature- discussion of mechanisms to ensure that it does based aspect of ecotourism. But ecotourism is not exceed its sustainable base, in moving not defined by this relationship alone. Biological towards understanding the provision of infra- and physical features are central to ecotourism structure for development and the policy and and the conservation of natural areas and sus- institutional prerequisites for planning and man- tainable resource management is therefore essen- aging ecotourism. tial to the planning, development and manage- Nowhere are the conflicting views over eco- ment of ecotourism. However, it also involves tourism more evident than the current debate the notion that the activity of ecotourism must over the function and purpose of protected areas. positively contribute to conservation in the It is a conflict over two primary orientations, destination area or host community. The under- ‘preservation’ versus ‘use’, and tourism in pro- standing that ecotourism has the potential to tected areas embodies precisely this dilemma. create support for conservation objectives in Such an opposition is illustrated and reinforced both the host community and in the visitor alike, through accepted institutional arrangements in through establishing and sustaining links which tourism and conservation goals are pur- between the tourism industry, local commu- sued by independent organizations. The current nities, and protected areas will provide the basis focus of the debate on tourism in protected areas for our journey, and leads us into understanding is the extension of a long controversy, a con- the central issues of conservation and sustain- troversy that has existed since the conception of ability of natural and social environments. protected areas and equivalent reserves. The Chapter 2 places ecotourism within its histor- imperative for conservation advocates becomes ical context to connect it to the major philosophic how to conserve rather than whether or not to and social currents that have contributed to its conserve. In this way ecotourism, as a sustain- development. We focus here specifically on the able development strategy, is increasingly being human/nature relationship and the interaction turned to as part of a political philosophy for between them as this will help us to understand protected area managers and conservation xvi INTRODUCTION agencies as a means of providing practical Chapter 7 presents two case studies to give an outcomes in the struggle to provide a basis for operational context to what has been presented continued protection for these areas. in the early chapters of the book. The first case Chapter 5 introduces the key elements of study focuses on the local level in examining a interpretation and education which further small community-based ecotourism project in helps us to differentiate ecotourism from other Costa Rica. The Santa Elena Rainforest Reserve forms of nature-based tourism. A focus on the (SERR) project demonstrates the critical prob- dimensions of visitor experience reveals that lematic between development and the natural the visitor is concerned not with simply look- environment in attempting to foster economic ing at a setting or object, but with feeling and self-sufficiency and natural resource conserva- realizing some of its value. In this way, inter- tion among a low-income community. It illus- pretation is oriented towards a visitor’s cogni- trates ecotourism’s potential as an alternate tive and emotional state in order to raise strategy for development, particularly when the awareness, enhance understanding and, hope- development process is actually led and con- fully, clarify or enlarge each participant’s per- trolled by the local community. spective and attitude. In this way, interpreta- The second case focuses on the national level tion is essential to conservation goals and by examining the institutional arrangements in therefore central to ecotourism. which ecotourism and conservation goals are The tourism industry makes extensive use of pursued in relation to protected areas in Aus- natural assets – forests, reefs, beaches and parks, tralia. The dominance of economic rationalist but what does it contribute to management of ideologies by government is inherently hostile to these assets? The provision of tourism infra- protected areas and has marginalized the role, structure, and the costs of managing the impact and consequently the support for protected of tourism on host communities, are often borne areas. by the environment, the community itself and The global political agenda is increasingly the government. Local communities are sig- being dominated by economic principles which nificantly vulnerable to the deleterious impacts serve actively to promote the ever-increasing of tourism development – particularly indige- consumption of resources in the West. Chapter 8 nous cultures – as they directly experience the explores the relationship between ecotourism sociocultural impacts of tourism. In many cases and one of the fundamental tools to enhance indigenous cultures are used extensively to consumption, marketing. We examine the struc- promote destinations to overseas markets yet ture and nature of marketing in the tourism many indigenous people rightly feel that the industry, focusing particularly on understanding tourism industry has a poor track record, in and evaluating the connection between ecotour- disregarding their legitimate interests and rights, ism and marketing – the issue of supply versus and profiting from their cultural knowledge and demand-driven marketing. Pivotal to under- heritage. standing the marketing relationship to ecotour- Chapter 6 explores ecotourism’s relationship ism are the implications for protected areas, to local communities, particularly as an alter- conservation and local communities. Ecotourism native form of development that is able to satisfy marketing has been surrounded by much confu- conservation and sustainability objectives. Fea- sion and controversy as it attempts to take into tures of the natural and cultural environment account the dual objectives of protected areas and supportive host communities are the foun- and local communities on the one hand and dations of a successful industry. Neglect of those of the tourism industry on the other. conservation and quality of life issues threatens By analysing the market of ecotourism we find the very basis of local populations and a viable a new group of tourism clients, the ecotourists. and sustainable tourism industry. In Chapter 9 we examine who they are and what INTRODUCTION xvii they are demanding. We will explore the charac- efits from tourism often create insufficient incen- teristics that differentiate ecotourists through an tives for local communities to support conserva- analysis of tourist motivation, demographic and tion. Benefits are often offset in the eyes of the psychographic characteristics, the needs of eco- local communities by the intrusion of tourists, tourists, the images and attitudes ecotourists greater income inequality within and between ascribe to a destination, and the influence of local communities, increased pollution, seques- social, cultural and physical environments. tering of profits from outsiders and rising local Ecotourism is a catalyst for change and this prices. book will explore broad issues such as ecology, Without continual questioning and evaluation biodiversity, bioregionalism, economic rational- we risk losing the impetus of change that ism, equity of access, approaches to management ecotourism offers. Without adequate regulation of protected areas, social policy, directions of the of private sector activities and sound protected tourism industry and local communities. Central area management, ecotourism development may to all of these areas is the question of sustain- have adverse impacts on the resource base upon ability and its centrality to development. Sus- which it depends. However, a viable tourism tainable development underpins questions of practice needs to address the imperatives of the resource use, not only in providing income market. Alternative approaches in areas like benefits to a region but also the preservation of research, management, marketing and planning social infrastructure and biosphere conservation. can provide new answers to perennial questions Chapter 10 discusses these issues in relation to that may keep ecotourism at the cutting edge of ecotourism as a model for sustainable change in society. development. In spite of the complexities of these issues, But what of the future? Despite ecotourism’s ecotourism is one of the few areas where the link potential as a model for sustainable development between economic development and conserva- we need to be aware of ecotourism’s future tion of natural areas is clear and direct and we direction. Frameworks are needed in which to need to keep this at the forefront of our minds as evaluate ecotourism, mindful that economic ben- we undertake our learning journey. This Page Intentionally Left Blank 1

Departure – surveying the ground

Despite the conflicting interpretations and con- many elements that belong under the term venient deployment of the term ‘ecotourism’ ‘ecotourism’. The term itself encompasses a within the tourism industry, one thing is certain wide range of elements and we will be covering – the increasing global interest and exponential each in detail throughout this book: growth in ecotourism cannot simply be explained as another in a long line of recreational ᭹ a form of ‘alternative tourism’ opposed to trends. Instead it reflects a fundamental shift in mass tourism; the way human beings view and engage with ᭹ a particular philosophical orientation towards nature. nature; This chapter will briefly trace the evolution of ᭹ tourists characterized by particular the ecotourism phenomenon and some of the motivations; definitional debates which have marked its ᭹ touristic practices; evolution. Originally conceived as an alter- ᭹ a touristic product; native to the increasing threat posed to both the ᭹ levels of technology; culture and the environment of destination ᭹ solutions to planning; areas by mass tourism, the original emphasis of ᭹ an approach to local, regional, national and ecotourism was on low key, unobtrusive tour- international politics; ism which had minimal impacts on natural ᭹ a strategy for sustainable development. ecosystems. However, the term ‘alternative tourism’ is interpreted by various authors in widely differing and sometimes openly contradictory ways. For some it is up-market package The ecotourism alternative tours of rich people to exotic destinations, mostly wilderness areas, whereas others define The word ‘alternative’ logically implies its it as rucksack wandering by young people with opposite. ‘Alternative tourism’ then is contrary limited financial means (cf. Butler, 1990; Cohen, to that which is seen as negative or detrimental 1972). about conventional tourism: it is characterized For these reasons a definition of ecotourism, by its attempt at minimizing the perceived particularly as alternative tourism, is both con- negative environmental and sociocultural tentious and difficult to determine with preci- impacts of people at leisure in the promotion of sion. For clarity, let’s begin by unpacking the radically different approaches to conventional 2 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES tourism.1 Therefore the terminologies of alter- well-prepared special interest tours, rather than native and mass tourism are mutually interde- on actual development of facilities. pendent, each relying on a series of value-laden Another body of literature dealing with tour- judgements that themselves structure the defi- ism typologies gives greater attention to partic- nitional content of the terms. In this way the ular variations in terms of tourism classifica- concept of alternative tourism can itself be as tions, often with a particular tourism form being broad and vague as its diametrical opposite, placed in three or more categories. However, with many divergent leisure types being classi- ‘alternative tourism’ rarely occurs specifically as fied as alternative tourism, including adventure one of the classes in the typology literature, holidays, hiking holidays, or the solitary jour- which reflects the often disparate and very broad neys undertaken by globe-trotters. Some characteristics that it may encompass. Miecz- authors even go so far as to suggest that kowski (1995) does identify ‘alternative tourism’ anything other than mass tourism classifies as as a tourism type but only in its relation as one of alternative tourism. two broad categories along a spectrum of tour- Dernoi (1988: 253) initially defined alternative ism types. The first is conventional mass tourism tourism by accommodation type: ‘In alternative (CMT), which has prevailed on the market for tourism the “client” receives accommodation some time. The second broad category is that of directly in, or at the home of, the host with, alternative tourism (AT), a flexible generic cate- eventually, other services and facilities offered gory that contains a multiplicity of various forms there.’ However, he then went on to list a number that have one feature in common – they are of other features by which alternative tourism alternatives to CMT. That is, they are not might be distinguished from ‘mass tourism’: associated with mass large-scale tourism but are essentially small scale, low-density, dispersed in Simply stated, AT (alternative tourism)/CBT non-urban areas, and they cater to special inter- (community-based tourism) is a privately est groups of people with mainly above average offered set of hospitality services (and fea- education and with relatively high disposable tures), extended to visitors, by individuals, incomes. families, or a local community. A prime aim of As to the specific forms of AT, Mieczkowski AT/CBT is to establish direct personal/cul- (1995) distinguishes such forms as cultural, tural intercommunication and understanding educational, scientific, adventure and agri-tour- between host and guest (Dernoi, 1988: 89). ism, with rural, ranch and farm subsets (see Figure 1.1). Significantly, there is some overlap Similarly, for the ECTWT (Ecumenical Coali- with CMT but the main criterion of distinction is tion of Third World Tourism): the scale and character of the impacts. Another alternative tourism is a process which pro- overlap occurs between the various types of AT motes a just form of travel between members themselves. Cultural tourism, for example, is to a of different communities. It seeks to achieve large extent educational and ecotourism is mutual understanding, solidarity and equality aligned with nature-based tourism. Thus Miecz- amongst participants (Holden, 1984: 15). kowski (1995) finds it difficult to place ecotourism in the context of AT because, while not The stress here is on the facilitation and coinciding directly with cultural tourism, it improvement of contacts between hosts and overlaps with the educational, scientific, adven- guests, especially through the organization of ture and agri-tourism forms. Rather than entering into an increasingly 1 Like ‘alternative tourism’, ‘conventional tourism’ itself has been designated by varying terms, the most prominent complex debate over classifications of particular being conventional mass tourism (CMT: Mieczkowski, tourism forms as alternative, specific features are 1995) and mass tourism (MT: Butler, 1990). common to alternative tourism and we have DEPARTURE – SURVEYING THE GROUND 3 identified here several of the key characteristics. Although not considered to be exhaustive, they are included here to provide the conceptual ideas and specific practices of forms of tourism that are in opposition to ‘mass tourism’.

Features of alternative tourism

᭹ The attempted preservation, protection and enhancement of the quality of the resource base which is fundamental to tourism itself. ᭹ The fostering and active promotion of development, in relation to additional visitor attractions and infrastructure, with roots in the specific locale and developed in ways that complement local attributes. ᭹ The endorsement of infrastructure, hence Figure 1.1 The alternative tourism (after economic growth, when and where it Mieczkowski, 1995: 459) improves local conditions and not where it is destructive or exceeds the carrying capacity of the natural environment or the limits of the social environment Thus, in its most general sense, alternative whereby the quality of community life is tourism can be broadly defined as forms of adversely affected (cf. Cox, 1985: 6–7; tourism that set out to be consistent with natural, Yum, 1984). social and community values and which allow ᭹ Tourism which attempts to minimize its both hosts and guests to enjoy positive and impact upon the environment, is eco- worthwhile interaction and shared experiences. logically sound, and avoids the negative Against the above broad characteristics we can impacts of many large-scale tourism begin to see ecotourism as a form of alternative developments undertaken in areas that tourism. In its simplest terms, ecotourism can be have not previously been developed (cf. generally described as a low key, minimal Bilsen, 1987; Gonsalves, 1984; Saglio, impact, interpretative tourism where conserva- 1979; Travis, 1985). tion, understanding and appreciation of the ᭹ An emphasis on not only ecological sus- environment and cultures visited is sought. It is tainability, but also cultural sustainability. a specialist area of tourism, involving travel to That is, tourism which does not damage natural areas, or areas where human presence is the culture of the host community, minimal, with the ecotourist involved in the encouraging a respect for the cultural ecotourism experience expressing an explicit realities experienced by the tourists motivation to satisfy the need for environmental, through education and organized social and/or cultural education and awareness ‘encounters’ (cf. Holden, 1984). through visiting and experiencing the natural area. 4 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

Hector Ceballos-Lascurain is widely acknowl- tourism’ to name a few.2 These diverse forms of edged as having first coined the term ecotourism tourism all focus on the natural environment to itself. In 1981 Ceballos-Lascurian began using some extent and, although closely aligned and the Spanish term turisimo ecologico to designate related to ecotourism, need to be distinguished forms of ecological tourism. This term then from ecotourism as there are a number of became shortened to ecoturisimo in 1983 and he dimensions to nature-based tourism. Most used the word in discussions in his capacity as important for our concerns here is to what president of PRONATURA, a conservation Non- degree the tourist experience depends upon Government Organization (NGO) and director nature. general of SEDUE, the Mexican Ministry of Urban Development and Ecology. At the time he was lobbying for the conservation of rainforest areas in the Mexican state of Chiapas and a The nature of ecotourism primary strategy for maintaining the integrity of forest ecosystems involved the promotion of Nature-based tourism, according to the World ecological tourism in the region. He emphasized Resources Institute, is growing by up to 30% that ecotourism could become a very important whilst general tourism has increased at a rate of tool for conservation. approximately 4% (Lindberg, 1991). While this The first appearance of the word in the written increase may be slightly exaggerated, there can form was in the March–April 1984 edition of be no doubting the increasing trends in environ- American Birds as an advertisement for a tourist mental concern allied with the historically preva- operation run by Ceballos-Lascurain. His defini- lent trend of travel as a form of escape to nature, tion as we now know it first appeared in the driven by ‘the pressures of urban living [which] literature in 1987 in a paper entitled ‘The future encourage people to seek solitude with nature’ of ecotourismo’ which was reprinted in the therefore increasing ‘the numbers of visitors to Mexico Journal of 27 January 1988 (Ceballos- national parks and other protected areas’ (Cebal- Lascurain, n.d 2). los-Lascurain, 1990: 1). Ceballos-Lascurain identified ecotourism as a There are a number of dimensions to nature- form of travel in which the natural environment based tourism. All forms of travel to natural is the primary focus and it is this element which areas are not necessarily ecotourism, but this provides us with a simple, yet core, starting provides a useful step in differentiating nature- point in understanding the ecotourism phenom- based tourism from ecotourism and gives us a enon; particularly as a specific form of alter- number of levels at which to distinguish the native tourism. The centrality of the natural relationship between specific tourism activities environment to ecotourism comprises two main and nature: facets: ᭹ those activities (experiences) that are depend- ᭹ It involves travel to unspoilt natural ent on nature; environments. ᭹ those activities (experiences) that are ᭹ This travel is predominantly for experiencing enhanced by nature; the natural environment. ᭹ those activities (experiences) for which the natural setting is incidental. Ecotourism’s focus on the natural environment has, in recent years, facilitated its evolution into 2 Other examples include green tourism (Jones, 1987) ‘nature- a catchphrase that encompasses numerous tour- oriented tourism’ (Durst and Ingram, 1989), ‘soft tourism’ ism forms including ‘nature tourism’, ‘wilderness (Mader, 1988) and ‘defensive tourism’ (Krippendorf, 1982, tourism’, ‘low impact tourism’ and ‘sustainable 1987). DEPARTURE – SURVEYING THE GROUND 5

There are several classes of nature-based tour- demand-driven rationale. Thus, it is a funda- ism, each utilizing a combination of these dimen- mental consideration that LIT should not sions. Birdwatching for example is dependent on degrade the cultures they are involved with. nature for ‘satisfaction comes entirely from Control by a destination country of tourism nature observations’ (Valentine, 1991b: 477) and development requires a full and broad commit- without the natural environment it would be ment. It requires regulations to protect the difficult to carry out the activity. Similarly, environment and the quality and integrity of the camping is an activity/experience which is often tourism experience, the establishment of carry- enhanced by nature. Most people would prefer ing capacities, a large percentage of small opera- to camp in some type of bush or natural setting tors as suppliers, value-added tourism and a rather than on the side of a busy road. Therefore sensitively developed infrastructure. nature is an integral part of these experiences but The goals of LIT then are to ‘establish, coor- not the fundamental motivation for them. dinate and mutually support conservation and This is in contrast to non-specialist nature tourism policy, to fund parks development and tourists whose interest may fundamentally lie in management and foster indigenous natural or a desire to experience ‘somewhere different from protected areas and to improve village standards home’. These tourists ‘may also have an interest in tour destination areas’ (Lillywhite and Lilly- in nature’ but ‘satisfaction comes mainly from white, 1990: 92) and LIT’s characteristics include: the superficial interaction with nature and the sense of discovery associated with it’ (Valentine, ᭹ local management; 1991b: 477). However, fundamental concerns of ᭹ the provision of a quality travel product and ecotourism include environmental degradation, tourism experience; impact on local communities, and the need for ᭹ active valuation of culture; high quality tourism management for achievable ᭹ a training emphasis; sustainability. Clearly the overall definition of ᭹ a dependency on natural and cultural nature-based tourism is not totally appropriate resources; in defining ecotourism. ᭹ the integration of development and conserva- Within this auspice we find ‘low-impact tour- tion (Lillywhite and Lillywhite, 1990). ism’ (LIT), which is a specific form of tourism that enhances our understanding of ecotourism’s The principles of low-impact tourism are aligned nature base. Low-impact tourism focuses on strongly with ecotourism but, significantly, LIT establishing indigenous natural resource man- has no specific location. Whether it be a remote agement through private sector incentives and rainforest village, or a specialized chocolate- investment in rural village-based tourism busi- making plant, its main focus is on the impact on ness infrastructure and on training villagers and the location of travel experiences. The important rural area dwellers to take part in the tourism point to make here is that LIT does not necessarily business. LIT is supply-driven (see Chapter 8), take place in relatively undisturbed natural areas, that is, it only takes on as many visitors as the while ecotourism generally does. cultural and physical environment can cope with. It is concerned explicitly with ‘social impact, economic development and natural management of the supplier country and desti- Sustainable tourism: conserving nation sites’ (Lillywhite and Lillywhite, 1990: 90). nature’s base Being supply-driven, LIT places control and regulation of tourism development into the The natural environment is central to ecotour- hands of the destination country, rather than the ism which has a focus on biological and phys- travel and tour operators which are reliant on a ical features. The conservation of natural areas 6 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES and sustainable resource management is there- ism as: a ‘form of tourism that supports the fore essential to the planning, development and ecological balance’, suggesting ‘a working defi- management of ecotourism. Valentine (1991b) nition of sustainable development in the context draws attention to the ‘two-way interaction’ of tourism as: tourism which is developed and between ecotourism and the environment upon maintained in an area (community, environ- which it depends, by suggesting that one char- ment) in such a manner and at such a scale that acteristic of ecotourism is that it is both contrib- it remains viable over an indefinite period and utory to conservation as well as enjoyment of does not degrade or alter the environment’. nature. That is, ecotourism involves a focus on Similarly, the World Tourism Organization nature as the primary motivation for travel, to guidelines concluded that: further knowledge and awareness of nature. However, it also involves the notion that the Sustainable tourism can only take place if activity of ecotourism must positively contrib- carrying capacities for key tourism sites are ute to conservation in the destination area or conducted and then rigorously implemented host community. Planning for ecotourism is through a system of effective planning and based on resource limitations as ecotourism operating controls. These studies and regula- opportunities will be lost if the resilience of an tions will constitute the cornerstones of long area and the ability of its communities to term, local tourism management strategies absorb impact are exceeded, or if its biodi- and plans . . . it also requires acceptance of the versity and physical appearance are altered concepts of validity and cooperation in its significantly. implementation from the tourism private sec- Therefore an essential feature of ecotourism is tor, as well as the participation of local sustainability – and sustainable development by communities and tourists themselves. (WTO, implication – and we shall be dealing with 1990: 47) these issues in detail in Chapter 3 and 4. Suffice it here to say that, despite the ambiguity sur- Having minimal impacts implies that ecotours rounding it, the concept of sustainability is operate on a small scale thus requiring little fundamental to the positioning of any tourist specialized infrastructure and therefore not con- experience as alternative. The Bruntland tributing to damaging the environment on which Report3 introduced the concept of sustainable ecotourism (and all forms of tourism) depends. development, defining it as: ‘development that For, as Butler succinctly puts it: ‘if ecotourism meets the needs of the present without com- damages the natural resource then it isn’t eco- promising the ability of future generations to tourism’ (Butler, 1992). Similarly Bragg (1990) meet their own needs’ (Mieczkowski, 1995: states that ‘ecotourism has by definition minimal 457). Sustainability requires the establishment environmental impact, since unspoiled natural of baseline data from which change and rates of environments are the attraction of this type of change can be measured (World Commission tourism’. on Environment and Development, 1987; World Fortunately, after much discussion at inter- Wide Fund for Nature, 1992). Environmentally national conferences4 conservationists and sustainable tourism has come to be fundamen- responsible tourism operators now believe that tally identified with alternative tourism. Butler conservation is an essential part of any definition (1991) defines environmentally sustainable tour- of ecotourism. As discussed previously in the

4 Chief among these were held in 1992: United Nations Earth 3 The report of the World Commission on Environment and Summit; International Union for Conservation of Nature Development, also known as ‘Our common future’, Oxford: and Natural Resources (IUCN); IV World Congress on Oxford University Press, 1987. National Parks and Protected Areas. DEPARTURE – SURVEYING THE GROUND 7 introduction, the ‘eco’ prefix is derived from the However, this does not mean that ecotourism word ‘ecology’. Thus, to be considered as eco- is exclusively limited to relatively undisturbed tourism, an activity or experience must pos- natural areas. Ecotourism can rejuvenate nature itively contribute to the environment: ‘if the as well. Rehabilitating degraded areas as a result environment has not at least achieved a net of human activity can be classified as ecotourism benefit towards its sustainability and ecological as in this case there is a definite contribution to integrity, then the activity is not ecotourism’ the environment and a direct benefit to the local (Butler, 1992). However, the ‘environment’ here community. There is an ethical impetus for refers not only to the natural environment – tourists in travelling to these areas in volunteer- flora, fauna, landforms and atmospheric con- ing their services to the environment. Common siderations – but also the social, economic, examples include oil spill clean-ups. scientific, managerial and political elements. The Thirdly, ecotourism is conservation-led. As an Ecotourism Society agrees with this principle, segment of the tourism industry, ecotourism has stating that ecotourists ‘must contribute to a emerged as a result of ‘increasing global concern sustainable future for the destinations they visit’ for disappearing cultures and ecosystems’ (O’Neill, 1991). (Kutay, 1990: 34) and as a repudiation of ‘inappropriate tourism development’ which ‘can degrade a protected area and have unanticipated economic, social or environmental effects on the Moving towards a definition surrounding lands’ (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1990: 1). Ecotourism therefore aims to take small groups Ecotourism then includes four fundamental ele- of people to natural or protected areas with a ments: Firstly, the notion of movement or travel minimum impact on the physical, social and from one location to another. This travel should cultural environments. Further to the notion of be restricted to relatively undisturbed or pro- conservation is the idea that ecotourism will tected natural areas as ecotourism’s focus is ‘contribute to a sustainable future’ (O’Neill 1991: fundamentally on experiencing natural areas. 25) for the destination it occurs in, in the form of Protected or undisturbed natural areas offer the economic returns or volunteer assistance. In this ‘best guarantee for encountering sustained natu- way, ‘ecotourism has the potential to foster ral features and attractions’ (Ceballos-Lascurain, conservation of natural resources by increasing 1990: 2). the awareness by people in the importance of the This leads to the second component which natural resources’ (Swanson, 1992: 2) and for this must be included in a definition of ecotourism, reason, the notion of conservation must be that ecotourism is nature-based. Activities such included in a definition of ecotourism. Ecotour- as business travel, travel to cities, conventional ists are, as a general rule, more concerned with beach holidays and sporting holidays cannot be environmental impacts than mass tourists and as considered as ecotourism as their focus is not such ecotourism ‘promotes a greater under- primarily on an experience based on the natural standing and respect of cultures, heritage and environment of the area visited: ‘Ecotourism is the natural environment – and people usually travel, often to developing countries, to rela- protect what they respect’ (Richardson, 1991: tively undisturbed natural areas for study, 244). In essence, ecotourism experiences are enjoyment or volunteer assistance that concerns sustainable in respect both to the environment itself with the flora, fauna, geology and ecosys- and local populations, their culture, needs and tems of an area – as well as the people (care- desires. takers) who live nearby, their needs, their cul- The fourth idea that must be included in a ture and the relationship to the land’ (Swanson definition of ecotourism is that it has an educa- 1992: 2). tive role. The ecotourist generally express a 8 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES strong desire to learn about nature on their Ecotourism then is a vehicle for the enhance- trips (Eagles et al., 1992). Therefore, a great ment of an understanding of environmental emphasis is placed on nature appreciation, edu- values, as well as an activity which has arisen cation and interpretation through the explana- due to a fundamental shift in the way nature is tion of ‘concepts, meaning and inter-relation- viewed by society. ships of natural phenomena’ (McNeely and Thorsell, 1989: 37). Ecotourism’s dependency on nature, as opposed to other forms of tourism where nature is incidental to the experience, Ecotourism travel essentials includes the touristic motivation of satisfying an educational need which is derived from ᭹ Ecotourism encourages an understanding of interactions with the natural environment.5 Eco- the impacts of tourism on the natural, cultural tourism operators may therefore be expected to and human environments. provide an appropriate level of environmental ᭹ Ecotourism ensures a fair distribution of bene- and cultural interpretation, usually through the fits and costs. employment of appropriately qualified guides ᭹ Ecotourism generates local employment, both and the provision of environmental information directly in the tourism sector and in various both prior to and during the trip. This educa- support and resource management sectors. tive role refers not only to the tourists them- ᭹ Ecotourism stimulates profitable domestic selves but also to industry operators and local industries – hotels and other lodging facilities, communities: ‘The need to disseminate infor- restaurants and other food services, trans- mation to tourists on appropriate behaviour in portation systems, handicrafts and guide fragile social and ecologic settings is increas- services. ingly being recognized as the responsibility of ᭹ Ecotourism generates foreign exchange for the industry operators’ (Blangy and Epler-Wood, country and injects capital and new money 1992: 1). By their active participation, ecotour- into the local economy. ists are educated to appreciate the importance ᭹ Ecotourism diversifies the local economy, par- of natural and cultural conservation. Ecotour- ticularly in rural areas where agricultural ism attracts people who wish to interact with employment may be sporadic or insufficient. the environment and, in varying degrees, ᭹ Ecotourism seeks decision-making among all develop their knowledge, awareness and appre- segments of the society, including local pop- ciation of it. Ecotourism can also provide local ulations, so that tourism and other resource people the opportunity to learn about and use users can coexist. It incorporates planning and the area and attractions that tourists come to zoning which ensure tourism development visit (Wallace, 1992). For the host community appropriate to the carrying capacity of the ecotourism may also stimulate renewed appre- ecosystem. ciation of the ‘unique value of their own cul- ᭹ Ecotourism stimulates improvements to local tural traditions’ as a result of the interest shown transportation, communications and other by tourists (Kutay, 1990: 40). basic community infrastructures. ᭹ Ecotourism creates recreational facilities which can be used by local communities as well as domestic and international visitors. It 5 Consider for example a family on holiday in a resort in also encourages and helps pay for preserva- Hawaii. They each use the foreshore for leisure, pleasure tion of archaeological as well as domestic and and recreation such as swimming, running, reading and so on. Had a component of their visit been for the purpose of international visitors. It also encourages and learning about the sand dune ecosystem, then they would helps pay for preservation of archaeological be considered as ecotourists. sites, and historic buildings and districts. DEPARTURE – SURVEYING THE GROUND 9

᭹ Nature tourism encourages productive use of resources to a community’s economic and lands which are marginal for agriculture, social well-being and can help to preserve enabling large tracts to remain covered in them. natural vegetation. ᭹ Ecotourism monitors, assesses and manages ᭹ Cultural tourism enhances local community the impacts of tourism, develops reliable esteem and provides the opportunity for methods of environmental accountability, and greater understanding and communication counters any negative effect. among peoples of diverse backgrounds. Source of Ecotourism travel essentials: Adapted from Globe ‘90 ᭹ Environmentally sustainable tourism demon- Conference, Tourism Stream, Action Strategy adopted at strates the importance of natural and cultural Vancouver, BC, Canada 2

If ecotourism is not just an activity but a philosophy, which philosophy?

This chapter places ecotourism within its we fashion our distinct ways of life – our broadly historical context, in order to chart the symbols, meanings and behaviours which con- major philosophic and social currents that have stitute the diversity of our cultures; even our contributed to its development. We approach very conception of self is mediated by and this chapter’s question by looking closely at the through nature. Poets and artists, from our human/nature relationship and the interaction earliest beginnings – from the cave paintings at between them for, as we have seen in Chapter 1, Lasaux in France, from traditional and contem- ecotourism by definition relies on the natural porary indigenous art, to the Romantic poets, environment as its basic resource. This, however, have turned to nature in expressing all that is tells us little, for the logging, mining, pastoral human. However it was the Scottish empiricist and fishing industries all rely on the environ- philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) who expres- ment in fundamental ways. However, differ- ses most succinctly our modern inheritance of entiating specific activities is crucial in determin- the natural world in claiming that everything in ing the relationship between human activity and nature is waste until people transform it into the environment, especially in understanding the usable things of value (cf. An essay concerning specific values that such activities embody and human understanding, 1976). It is an ethos that this will help us to understand the shift in value Western societies have embraced with unre- of nature that ecotourism embodies. strained enthusiasm. All over the world vital ecosystems are being replaced with infrastructure – houses, towns, industry, roads – all for the exclusive benefit and utility for the human Human nature species alone. The environmental devastation that has resul- Throughout human history it has been nature ted from this impetus to ‘develop’ and use that has provided both the raw material and nature for our own material ends is now becom- inspiration for human existence. Nature sustains ing increasingly hard to ignore as we near the our very existence, from the most basic of needs new millennium. It is indeed a grim harvest to – water, food, air – to the materials from which reap and is a product of our own making, a result IF ECOTOURISM IS NOT JUST JUST AN ACTIVITY BUT A PHILOSOPHY, WHICH PHILOSOPHY? 11 of our historical and contemporary human rela- oil, can a southern government really be expec- tions for our social customs, institutions and ted to tell its people to tighten their belts further economy are the embodiment of specific systems and make room for two structural adjustments: of value, many of which have a long historical one forced on us by external debt, the other by lineage: what we do about ecology depends on new ecological imperatives? The legacy and our ideas of the human–nature relationship inequality of anthropocentric policies followed (White, 1967). Indeed, many have argued that by the industrial North is now being inflicted on the remedy for our environmental predicament the South’ (Peng, 1992: 25). lies precisely here, in a change of values. How- ever, it is of little real import to identify a certain set of values and to claim that we need simply to Exchanging value(s) change them. Only by understanding the complexity of relations and the historical ideas that Questions of value are central to considerations have contributed to our current position can we of the (often competing) conceptions of, and begin to make sense of the ‘ethic’ or behaviours practices towards, the natural world. Godfrey- that these values underpin. Smith (1980) identifies two primary ways in Facts, figures and scientific data in themselves which value is assessed in Western society. If the do not seem to have been enough to challenge value that something is said to hold is a means to the global trends of environmental decline: ‘The a valued end then it is designated as being of spread of detailed knowledge about how man ‘instrumental’ value. ‘Intrinsic value’ on the degrades and threatens his own planet has not other hand is value that exists in its own right, produced of itself the likelihood of serious or for its own sake. permanent remedial action’ (Pepper, 1984: 36). In What is central here is the ethic that such ideas December 1987, the Nobel Prize for Economics and values underpin. was awarded to Robert Solow of the United States for his theory of economic growth, not ᭹ An ethic of ‘use’ – this is the normative or surprising in itself, but of particular interest was dominant mode of how human beings relate Solow’s overt premise: the dispensability of to nature: where nature is viewed predom- nature. In his own words: ‘[t]he world can, in inantly as a set of resources which humanity is effect, get along without natural resources, so free to employ for its own distinct ends. It is exhaustion is just an event, not a catastrophe’ an instrumental and anthropocentric view. (Shiva, 1989: 219). Equally noteworthy was the ᭹ An ethic ‘of’ nature – holds that non-human former United States President Bush’s address in entities are of equal value with the human 1992 before departure to the UN Earth summit in species. It is broadly intrinsic and ecocentric. Brazil. He made his position and that of the United States clear in refusing to sign any treaty An ethic of use begins from a human locus and it or document involving environmental controls is this univocal perspective that is often descri- that would inhibit US economic growth. As has bed as anthropocentrism. The ultimate ground- been noted by a range of commentators, the ing of value in the Western world is instru- motto for the industrialized North at the UN mental, as human beings are placed as the source Earth Summit seemed to be ‘What is yours is of all value and, by extension, the measure of all mine; what is mine is mine.’ things. Such a view allows nature no intrinsic This is the heart of the problem faced by not value in itself and for itself as its value lies only only ecotourism but all forms of activities that in satisfying human needs and desires. However, involve resource use: the question of how we use it is unfair to make Locke the villain of this piece resources: ‘If northern politicians are afraid to for anthropocentrism has a very long and deeply advise their public to buy fewer cars and use less entrenched history. It has, to all intents and 12 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES purposes, been the single deepest and most which fundamentally challenges intrinsic and persistent assumption of (at least) all the domi- anthropocentric value systems. It is a broad nant Western philosophical, social and political philosophy that encompasses many elements traditions since the time of the classical Greeks and often includes: (Fox, 1990). For the ancient Greeks it was the mind that set ᭹ a belief in humanity’s harmony with humanity apart from nature. As the exclusive nature; repositories of mind we humans became the ᭹ attempts to alleviate (or eliminate) negative exclusive locus of meaning. Similarly the Judaeo- human impacts on the environment – atmos- Christian tradition set the soul apart from, and pheric pollution, land degradation etc.; above, a merely physical natural world and in ᭹ the argument for all life having its own doing so devalued nature and transformed it specific intrinsic value; into an object. Matter, all that is not soul or mind, ᭹ arguments against economic growth and became the inert and dead and raw material consumerism; which is possessed only by the value that we ᭹ embracing of alternative technology – such choose to project upon it (Mathews, 1987: 38). as solar power, passive energy systems, The ‘anthropocentric morality’ and its ethic of recycling; use are difficult for us to argue against. The ᭹ the devolution of political and institutional notion that a wilderness or natural area might structures; have intrinsic value in itself is often dismissed as ᭹ the promotion of minority, oppressed and a transparent example of wishful thinking marginalized groups into the political (Messer and Mosley, 1980), for in the great process. majority of cases it is an instrumental justification that is used to argue for the preservation It is a broad philosophical position which and conservation of nature. Godfrey-Smith attempts to give validity to intrinsic value and (1980: 56–71) places such justifications in four which is holistic, strongly grounded in the main categories: biology and ecology of nature and rejects the view that the world is divided into mutually ᭹ the aesthetic/spiritual (the ‘cathedral’ argu- exclusive parts. Therefore it affirms the intrin- ment) – where nature is valued for providing sic interconnectedness of all things, both living spiritual revival and aesthetic delight; and inert. It is a belief that the world is a ᭹ the biological/biodiversity (the ‘silo’ argu- shared web of life. A view: ment) – where nature is valued for its stock- pile of genetic diversity; shared by most indigenous peoples and ᭹ the scientific (the ‘laboratory’ argument) – environmentalists . . . that nature is the fabric where nature is valued for scientific inquiry; of all life – a vast interconnected web that ᭹ and the athletic (the ‘gymnasium’ argument) – sustains life on earth, that humans are but where nature is valued for tourism and one species among the millions and have no recreation. intrinsic right to dominion over all other life forms. Nor do humans have the exclusive Within the last few decades, however, an right to decide whether other life forms have ecocentric philosophy has (re)emerged,1 one the right to survive. In this philosophy nature has the right to exist and thrive regardless of whether it delivers commodities 1 Re-emerged in the sense that such a view is not particularly new, its origins can be traced back to at least the pre- or dollar benefits or in any way meets Socratics – Pythagoras, for example – or many indigenous human needs and demands. (Nash, 1989: and non-Western cultures throughout the world. 149) IF ECOTOURISM IS NOT JUST JUST AN ACTIVITY BUT A PHILOSOPHY, WHICH PHILOSOPHY? 13

Towards ecocentrism: modern ogy then is deployed to make the world a better roots place for all its peoples by converting a hostile nature into a benign productivity. Such a philos- In the Roots of Modern Environmentalism, David ophy satisfies most people who are concerned Pepper (1984) cites four eras in recent history about a global environmental issue as it lends where deep-felt concerns of the public for the comfort to the uneasiness felt in the face of the quality of the environment have been voiced – all-too evident damage of humanity’s impact on the 1890s, 1920s, late 1950s and the early 1970s. the earth by providing a justification for not To these dates we could also add Chernobyl relinquishing any of the privileges and comforts (1985), the Exxon Valdez disaster (1989), global currently enjoyed. warming and the systematic land clearing prac- Beneath its rational facade however (for the tices that reached their apotheosis in the late technocentric the universe is indeed, above all, 1980s and 1990s and which continue unabated. rational) is ‘a raw and sometimes irrational faith The serious questioning of anthropocentri- – a faith in the idea of progress’ (Pepper, 1984). cism, however, was not taken up significantly For technocentrism’s underlying principles are: until the early 1960s and 1970s, provoked in large part by the influence of Rachel Carson’s ᭹ an overt belief in the ability and efficiency of (1962) Silent Spring and Lynn White’s (1967) The management; Historical Roots of our Ecologic Crisis. ᭹ that problems can (indeed should) be solved This shift, once begun, posed a fundamental by the use of objective analysis and recourse to challenge to the priority of a human-centred the laws of physical science (and value system in a reorientation towards an technology); identification with a more impartial, ecosphere- ᭹ that the ‘natural’ authority of the above is centred view of the world and of advocating legitimated with recourse to economic ‘laws’ behaviours appropriate to such a view (cf. Fox, (Pepper, 1984). 1990). The type of behaviours, or ethic, appropriate An ecocentrist perspective on the other hand to such a view, as we shall see below, can be would argue that reform is fundamentally neces- interpreted in varied ways. However, those who sary at all levels – a re-evaluation of our social, dismiss that nature has an intrinsic value in itself economic and educational institutions, indeed a argue that such a position is essentially not complete reorientation of society as we currently rational, or logically founded (often rhetorically know it. A major element of this shift in values characterized as overly ‘emotional’), with no would be the recognition of nature’s right to biological or economic justification (scientific exist in its own right, apart from the benefits basis), and would therefore define an ethic ‘of’ humankind can derive from it. In these terms nature, or ecocentrism, on more pragmatic and maintaining biodiversity or the ‘web of life’ on rational grounds. Such a perspective is often earth is clearly in the interest of not only the referred to as technocentrism, or ‘technological human species but all species. Charles Birch environmentalism’ (Pepper, 1984). speaks of the importance of a biocentric ethic: For the technocentric, it is the function of economic growth and technological advance- Our way of life is tied to an anthropocentric ment to provide material well-being for human- ethic that sees the non-human world as simply ity. Conservation, when advocated, is seen as the the stage on which the drama of life is domain of efficient environmental management performed. All other creatures have no more – the utilization of scientific and technological than instrumental value to us. What is now knowledge to provide responses to the environ- urgently called for is a biocentric ethic that mental effects of industrial processes. Technol- sees in all life some intrinsic value as well as 14 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

instrumental value. Sentience, the capacity for that respectfully attempt to alter the views and feeling, gives life intrinsic value. A great behaviour of those who persist in the delusion achievement of our time could be to extend the that self-realization lies in dominating nature concepts of compassion, rights and justice to and transforming it to satisfy our own needs all living creatures, not only in theory but in (Young, 1990). the practice of a biocentric ethic. (Birch, 1991: 82)

James Lovelock’s (1988) GAIA hypothesis can be A platform for deep ecology seen as the ultimate expression of this ecocentric view. For Lovelock, the earth is a living organism 1 The value of non-human life is independ- where its species and their environment are ent of the usefulness of the non-human coupled together evolving as a single system, the world as resources. largest living organism. As humans we are 2 The diversity of life forms has a value in simply a part of this interdependent organism, itself and humans may reduce this variety but have a disproportionate effect on its life only to satisfy vital needs. cycle. This organism, through its planetary feed- 3 The flourishing of non-human life back mechanisms, will optimize the necessary requires a diminution of the size of the conditions needed to maintain life but not human population. necessarily for human life. 4 The increasing manipulation of the non- This line of thought moves us into the ideas human world must be reversed by the surrounding ‘deep ecology,’2 which is one of the adoption of different economic, techno- most widely discussed ecocentric streams of logical and ideological structures. thinking. Deep ecology is a comprehensive 5 The aim of such changes would be a philosophical world-view that believes in a greater experience of the connectedness of holistic view of nature in which the human all things and an enhancement of the being, through the self, is intrinsically connected quality of life rather than an attachment to to all life. No absolute boundaries exist between material standards of living. humanity and nature (a single ontology), there- 6 Those who agree with this have an obliga- fore there is no point at which ‘I’, the individual tion to join in the attempt to bring about or self, ends and other life-forms begin. The self the necessary changes. encompasses the entire earth around us, and nature becomes an extension of ourselves (cf. Source: Adapted from A. Naess, ‘Deep ecology and Mathews, 1993). Thus it becomes incumbent on ultimate premises’, The Ecologist, 18 (4/5), 1988, us to respect and serve cross-species common 128–31 interests. A recognition of our interrelatedness with life and the intrinsic value of other things, deep ecologists argue, necessitate that we reduce our impact on the earth, taking only what Aldo Leopold (1886–1948) can be considered satisfies our vital needs. Actions which follow as one of the first modern deep ecologists. Deep from this philosophical position include not only ecology’s concern with addressing a ‘trans- ‘treading lightly on the earth’ but also actions personal sense of ecological self’ that embraces other beings (human and non-human) and ecological processes, would, in Leopold’s terms, be 2 Deep ecology begins primarily with the Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess (1912–) who was strongly influenced by an ‘ecological conscience’, which reaches its ecology and the philosophy of Benedict Spinoza fullest expression in a ‘land ethic’. For Leopold, (1632–77). our relation to the land, or earth, should not be IF ECOTOURISM IS NOT JUST JUST AN ACTIVITY BUT A PHILOSOPHY, WHICH PHILOSOPHY? 15 governed solely by economics: ‘our basic weak- Perhaps the most serious obstacle impeding ness in a conservation system based wholly on the evolution of a land ethic, or ethic ‘of’ nature, economic motives is that most members of the is that Western societies are headed away from land community have no economic value’ (1966: an intimate connection to land – a ‘stewardship’ 20). In Antarctica, for example, some treaty of nature – through the dominance of a predom- countries are weighing up the economic value of inantly individualistic and economic value sys- oil and mineral exploration against the preserva- tem. The pre-eminence of technology (backed up tion of the existing unique ecosystem. But can by enormous advances in scientific understand- the ecosystem be valued solely (or adequately) in ing) allied with a growing secularization of economic terms? It is inextricably bound to social institutions has led to an alienation of existing (and future) relationships of species humans from the land and hence to the demise dependency, relationships between species and of an ‘environmental ethos’ or ethic ‘of’ nature communities that are often intangible to our (White, 1967). And this loss of a sense of human dimension. As Leopold stated: ‘these stewardship has become institutionalized creatures are members of the biotic community, through the growth of private property and all of and its stability depends on its integrity, they are its associations of legal exclusivity, ownership entitled to continuance’ (1966: 21). The stability and profit maxims (cf. Eckersley, 1992). of an ecosystem depends on all of its members. Most significant here is that Leopold’s ideas Overharvesting the krill in Antarctica is having reflect a concern for conservation based solely in major impacts on the bird life, seals, whales and economic terms. He maintains the basic weak- other members of the community, in fact the ness in a conservation system based wholly on whole Antarctica marine ecosystem. economic motives is that most members of the A land ethic, for Leopold, is based on the land community (i.e. animals, plants etc.) have principle that each individual organism is a no economic values. ‘Ecosystems’ cannot be member of a complex community of interrelated valued in economic terms for they are commu- parts. This community exhibits values such as nities of inextricably linked elements. Removing diversity, connectivity and stability/change and, one member or link, by valuing only one for Leopold, processes that preserve the integrity, dimension, will damage the whole community. stability and beauty of the biotic community are However, resource conservation, resource ethically the ones to pursue. Leopold argued that preservation and alternative approaches to contemporary land economics does not achieve development do not necessarily challenge this, for economics places a ‘value’ on land that anthropocentricity or economic value as they are rests on ‘ownership’ and property rights. usually advocated on the grounds of nature’s Leopold advocated a drastic revision of soci- instrumental value to society (as we have seen ety, a profound change in intellectual emphasis, above), be it for the cathedral, laboratory, silo, or human loyalties, affections and convictions. This gymnasium value. change is based on an ethical relation to the land which requires care, respect and admiration for land and a high regard for its intrinsic value (cf. Leopold, 1966; Lovelock, 1988; Mathews, 1993; Whose sustainability? Young, 1991). Our relation to land, or the ‘earth’, or ‘environment’ should be determined by ethics The concept of sustainability has become a in the social world, an ethic which ‘reflects the mediating term in bridging the ideological and existence of an ecological conscience and this in political differences between the environmental turn reflects a conviction of individual responsi- and development lobbies, a bridge between the bility for the health of the land’ (Leopold, 1966: fundamentally opposed paradigms of eco- and 20). anthropocentrism. 16 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

‘Perhaps it arises from the federal govern- impacts) whatsoever. This is the ‘hard’ deep ment’s boundless ability to be gulfed by some ecology orientation. greenies, in this case by sticking the adjectives But is the ‘preservation’ or non-intervention ‘ecological’ on the front of the Brundtland term position excessively utopian? As Eckersley sustainable development. A sleight of hand (1992) suggests, it is self-defeating to focus solely unique in the world I believe. The choice of on setting up small areas of pristine wilderness adjective has severely distorted the whole proc- while ignoring the growing global population ess and made any economic perspective a and pollution, since these problems sooner or defensive one’ (Hore-Lacy, 1991: 375). However, later impact upon those remaining areas of ‘wild’ ‘this sleight of hand’ is not a particularly nature. Therefore deep ecology and non-inter- unique one to ‘greenies’. Often the interests vention approaches must at least consider the aligned with conventional development influence of human beings. ‘Soft technologists’ (growth in the production of commodities for exhibit one such approach in embracing the profitable sale) have recourse to sustainability ideals of deep or transpersonal ecology in the in justifying the present conditions of produc- conservation of nature but suggest that the tion against the environmental advocates who human species play a necessarily evaluative role, use it to promote alternatives. This is advanced one that recognizes the diversity of interrelation- through the magical transmutation of the term ships between humanity and nature but not ‘ecological sustainable development’ into ‘eco- solely premised on an economic value. Such nomically sustainable development’ through approaches realize the importance of the biotic the substitution of the letter E in the acronym community and are opposed to the technological ‘ESD’. It is an indication of the latitude with optimism of the technocentrics. The ‘soft tech- which the concept of sustainability can be nologist’ approach3 would also consider the interpreted. Thus the concept of sustainability is welfare of humans as equally as significant as the both contested and deployed, often, for pro- biotic community because of their essential foundly different reasons. interdependence. This position advocates a For the technocentrist the concept of what ‘stewardship’ ethic that is premised on the belief heritage we leave our children is not phrased in that we must protect and nurture the biological terms of clean air, water and biodiversity but in systems on which we rely to exist. Human terms of ‘intergenerational equity’; that is their beings’ role as stewards of nature is a necessary inheritance should include an accumulation of one in order for both the human and non-human community wealth generated by environmen- species to survive. The continued study of nature tally acceptable economic growth (Hore-Lacy, in order to monitor human impacts on nature is 1991). Apparently we are all entitled to a thriving central to such a position and underpins most economy. approaches to resource management. Sustainability is inherently linked to conserva- Resource conservation is thus a form of tion as it relies on the ability of the environment ‘restrained development’ in that, at a minimum, to renew itself without impairing or damaging development must be sustainable in not endan- its ability to do so. Definitions of conservation gering the natural systems that support life on are numerous but most often include ideas such earth – the atmosphere, the waters, the soils and as: ‘to keep from harm, decay or loss especially all living beings. An early advocate of resource for future use’; ‘protection, preservation and conservation was the first head of the United careful management of natural resources and of States Forest Service, Gifford Pinchot. In his book the environment’. Certain environmental groups, for example, believe that natural areas 3 This approach is related to ‘human welfare ecology’ which should be conserved by non-intervention, which also realizes that humans are necessary parts of the natural means little or no human involvement (thus process. IF ECOTOURISM IS NOT JUST JUST AN ACTIVITY BUT A PHILOSOPHY, WHICH PHILOSOPHY? 17

The Fight for Conservation (1910), Pinchot’s three (1968) proposes that to control this kind of principles of conservation were: development, undisciplined exploitation, an attitude of tem- prevention of waste, and development for the perance rather than prohibition is required, benefit of the many and not merely the profit of through mediation of administrative law and the few. Such an approach is evident today in ‘coercion’ (via taxes, incentives and other biased many public resource management bodies. It options). These are fundamental implications for considers natural resources as factors of produc- policy and management regimes and will be tion and as such, the term ‘resource develop- discussed in detail in Chapter 3. ment’ would be more appropriate. The commons argument has significant impli- However, the use of the terms conservation cations for ecotourism. The commons or destina- and development may seem incompatible. It tion area can only be justifiably used under low could be argued that resource conservation and population (visitor) densities. As visitor numbers alternative approaches to development, such as increase, the destination area has to be controlled resource development or restrained develop- or even abandoned. The only way to preserve ment, while acknowledging the need for a and nurture other more precious freedoms (such change from the practices of unrestrained exploi- as host populations) is by relinquishing the tation and economic growth, merely change the freedom to visit or the number of visitors. temporal framework of exploitation by forestall- Freedom in these terms is the recognition of ing it. A technocentric frame is built into such a necessity, the necessity of relinquishing the view in the belief that any impediments to the personal or individual (human) freedom in system – resource depletion and pollution for placing restrictions on visitor numbers and example – can be remedied by a technical experiences. solution. However, a technical solution may be Hardin’s answer to the ruin of commons is defined as ‘one that requires a change only in the mutual coercion. This is not prohibiting certain technique of the natural sciences, demanding acts, but having in place carefully biased options little or nothing in the way of change in human which makes these acts uneconomic for example. values or ideas of morality’ (Hardin, 1968: 124). These options would coerce companies to not act Moreover, it in no way guarantees its own in certain ways and the options would be success. For if humans continue to search for mutually agreed upon by the majority. The end technical solutions to the world’s economic, result would be less freedom for individual social and ecological problems, they will fall far companies but more long-term sustainability, short of producing an adequate solution. which could be seen as freedom in other ways. According to Hardin’s (1968) article that intro- As Hardin suggests individuals locked into the duces the ‘Tragedy of the commons’, all resour- logic of the commons are free only to bring on ces owned in common – air, oceans, fish, bush- universal ruin; once they see the necessity of land etc. – are or eventually will be mutual coercion, they become free to pursue overexploited. The rational individual has the other goals. incentive to take as much as possible before ‘Freedom’ in these terms is the freedom that someone else does. No one is motivated to take comes with the necessity of mutual coercion, in responsibility for the resource. Because it belongs other words, individuals are only free to pursue to everyone, no one protects it. Applying these their own goals when abiding by laws mutually ideas to tourism suggests that each tour com- agreed upon by the majority of the people pany would seek to maximize its own gain, and affected. Those who oppose any restrictions on becomes locked into a system that compels each their ‘rights’ – the rights to do as they please – to ‘increase his herd’ (maximize its profit by will only bring on universal ruin. increasing the number of tourists) without limit, These issues are at the heart of ecotourism and in a resource system which is finite. Hardin environmental management – the rights of 18 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES individuals and their duty to others, to how far It is becoming increasingly apparent that, at any person can understand the effects of their least for the immediate future, natural areas can individual actions on the well-being of the only be defended for their instrumental value. ecosystem and the enjoyment of others, what the But we shouldn’t dismiss efforts to create new cumulative consequences are when many abuse modes of ecological understanding simply as an area (each in small ways), and how society ‘wishful thinking’. Even within the fields of should regulate individual use so that freedom economics, mathematics and analytic philoso- of access is not unfairly restricted which main- phy much work has been done on equating the tains environmental quality. value of non-measurable and non-comparable Any form of government intervention requires value dimensions.5 that the exercise of Hardin’s (1968) dictum of ‘mutual coercion’ is mutually agreed upon, because without public acceptance of authority regulation cannot be enforced. If tourists are Ethics and (of) resource made more aware of the consequences of their management acts, will they become more morally concerned about the effects of these consequences on others It can be argued that management itself is an and on future generations, and will they accept anthropocentric concept, for if we accept that and respect the fact that some kind of govern- natural areas have intrinsic worth then why do mentally imposed regulation of use is necessary they have to be managed? Further, if a localized in the public interest? ecosystem is protected as a wilderness area, Ecocentrically informed resource management ‘management’ itself can be seen to be an intrus- recognizes that modern science and technology ion into the system. Similarly, in enclosing nature cannot prevent environmental degradation if within certain boundaries, who is it we are current economic growth and resource use trying to protect? Where do we draw the trends continue. What is required is a change in boundary line – are resource managers deciding philosophy, politics and economics to ensure that what is natural? More pragmatically still, man- a sustainable human population can exist in agement requires expenditure – whose responsi- balance with its environment. This ‘preservation- bility is it to finance the management of pro- ist’ position (which we shall discuss in more tected areas? detail in Chapter 4) emphasizes the need for prior macroenvironmental constraints, such as government legislation, scientific monitoring and use restrictions.4 Case study The Himalayas: a Therefore conservation involves the manage- protected ecosystem? ment or control of human use of resources (biotic and abiotic) in an attempt to restore, enhance, In May of 1992 some thirteen expeditions protect and sustain the quality and quantity of a totalling 250 climbers scaled Mount Everest desired mix of species, ecosystem conditions and in Nepal. At one stage thirty-two people processes for present and future generations were on the summit at the same time. If (Dunster and Dunster, 1996: 69). those 250 climbers had been asked why they chose to climb Mount Everest, somewhere in their answer would have been sentiments 4 Deep ecology can be viewed as an extreme preservation position as it argues for the recognition of an intuitive acceptance of the notion of intrinsic (as opposed to instrumental) value in nature and thus the recognition of 5 Cf. Peterson et al., 1988 in specific relation to natural ‘rights’ for non-human species. resources. IF ECOTOURISM IS NOT JUST JUST AN ACTIVITY BUT A PHILOSOPHY, WHICH PHILOSOPHY? 19

The imposition of regulation reduces freedom, expressing ‘a desire to experience one of the and by definition, reduces the need for indi- wildest places on earth’ (Edward, 1992). viduals to exercise moral judgement . . . [e]th- Technological innovations in mountaineer- ical behaviour willingly takes the rights, the ing and clothing equipment, a growing class needs and welfare of others into account. It is of people who are able to purchase such not behaviour that simply responds to the equipment and have the mobility and lei- pressure of the law, regulation or code sure time to join such expeditions, will ever (Mackay, 1992: 3). increase the numbers of people attempting to fulfill that desire to experience wildness/ However, sustainable tourism development can wilderness. only be achieved through international coopera- The base camp at Anapurna has been tion and agreed regimes for surveillance, devel- described as the highest slum in the world – opment and management in the common inter- littered with bottles, noodle packets, sardine est (cf. World Commission on Environment and cans, film containers and wrappings and the Development, 1987). But at stake is not just the ever-present toilet paper. sustainable development of shared ecosystems, Deforestation and erosion, the increasing our ‘commons’, but of all nations whose tourism demands of the tourist industry, overgraz- development depends to a greater or lesser ing and the changing land ethics of the extent on their rational management. Without Nepalese, as contact with the West increases equitable rules future generations will be impov- through tourism, are resulting in major erished by the loss of these places to visit, and shifts within the Himalayan ecosystem. The the people who suffer the most will be those who present Nepalese government will continue live in developing countries that are least capa- to encourage tourism, as it is the country’s ble of imposing regulation in the market global highest income earner. International groups economy that tourism operates in. – such as the Mountain Protection Commis- Ecocentric management, in the case of tour- sion – advocate a drastic reduction in ism, would recognize that modern science and expedition numbers and call for the com- technology cannot prevent environmental degra- plete banning, for one year, of climbing on dation if the current economic growth and all peaks over 8000 m high. Many within resource use trends continue, and that a change this group would like to see all accommoda- in human philosophy, politics and economics are tion shacks at Anapurna removed ‘to pro- needed to ensure that a sustainable tourism vide more of a wilderness experience’ population (guest) can exist in balance with its (Edward, 1992). This then is the looming social and physical environment (host). Further tragedy of the Himalayas. It is a salutary to this, ecocentrism can be viewed as ‘commu- lesson for any management body in trying nalist’ – a preservationist position, which re- to mediate a compromise between the con- emphasizes the need for prior macro-environ- flicting needs of access, availability and mental constraints on economic growth and presentability of an environmental or eco- favours a decentralized socio-economic system – logical product – wilderness – with those of or ‘deep ecology’ underpinned by the notion of the local population and the regenerative intrinsic (as opposed to instrumental) value in capacity of the ecosystem. nature for non-human species (cf. Pepper, 1984). Mistakenly, ecocentrism is often criticized as a For environmental ethics to be of significance ‘hands-off’, ‘only in theory’, ‘wishful thinking’, they must be able to be acted upon, that is, made ‘put it on the agenda for future discussion’ operationally relevant: approach which is ideal yet impractical to 20 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES implement on any real level. However it is our tourism systems will raid the ecosystems of important here to express ecocentricism’s cen- the biosphere for resources as raw materials for trality for ecotourism clearly and purposefully in this growth. In order to achieve and justify such relation to the management question. Ecocen- growth natural systems must be viewed through trism as an approach to management would economic rather than ecological eyes. These argue that protected areas are not being con- natural systems will be valued for their resource served or preserved or protected for anyone but utility rather than their ecological value. can exist because they have a value in and for As demonstrated through this discussion, themselves. This approach is a challenge to a numerous philosophical and political ideologies more dominant world view that has been basi- have contributed to the present form of eco- cally adopted by resource economists and which logical thought and the formation of the nature supports the idea that the non-human world is travel known today as ecotourism. Various other valuable only in as far as it is valuable to forms of tourism including ‘nature tourism’, humans. ‘low impact tourism’ and ‘sustainable tourism’ These are the extreme views of a continuum of have formed the basis of the definitions debate perceptions, yet they deal with the same bio- surrounding the ecotourism phenomenon. Com- sphere. What place and role does the market mon themes are evident in the numerous have in a finite natural world? Conversely, what descriptions of ecotourism and can be linked to a is the place of the natural environment in an number of underlying philosophical approaches economically rationalist world? How do we which help to define it as an activity. begin, and is it possible, to reconcile or move As ecotourism has the potential to impact on from an economically based mass tourism sys- such a variety of sectors, debate by various bodies tem to a more eco-orientated system? including governments, the tourism industry, the community and conservation groups is widespread and quite intense. These agencies play a major role in promoting, planning and imple- Conclusion menting sustainable ecotourism practices as a means of satisfying the tourist, the economy and An economist sees tourism as a part of a 13 the environment. The next chapter will examine trillion dollar economy looking to expand five to this exchange in an attempt to investigate how ten times over the next few decades. To do this regulation might work for ecotourism. 3

Tourism development: government, industry, policy and planning

Tourism has become a central platform in many tourism operations – chief of which is capital – countries’ development strategies. It is partic- along with the range of goods and services ularly attractive for governments in its potential desired by tourists. As a result leakages are for providing an alternative to other forms of usually high. Leakages are the flows of money economic development: through employment out of a country or specific area as a result of the generation, for its ability to generate foreign necessity to import certain skills, infrastructure, exchange, and its ability to generate regional technologies and commodities along with the growth (Goldfarb, 1989: 131). flow of revenue in the form of profits taken out However, in many cases tourism has not lived of a locale by operators. This is significant for up to these high expectations. Although tourism tourism development, for in many cases the is highly regarded in its ability to generate necessary infrastructure required for tourism is significant levels of revenue in the form of Gross provided by foreign owned corporations, partic- Domestic Product (GDP) – in many cases tour- ularly airlines, hotels, car rental agencies and ism’s potential in generating foreign exchange package tours. In many cases1 leakages have has surpassed that of traditional commodity been estimated at up to 80%–90% in developing exports thus allowing for flow-on benefits in the countries that do not have a significant share of form of local infrastructure such as roads and the necessary tourism services such as airlines, electricity – these benefits are often circum- hotels and transportation companies (Mathieson scribed by the significant impacts tourism engen- and Wall, 1982). ders upon local communities, such as increased Tourism expenditure is considered to have pollution and rising local prices and the export significant flow-on effects throughout all levels of profits from tourism out of the community and sectors of a local economy. This is the itself. Even without considering the physical ‘multiplier’ effect whereby initial expenditure impacts, the flow of revenues out of the country of tourist dollars is calculated to initiate or local region significantly challenges tourism’s status as a foreign exchange generator. Many 1 Lindberg (1991: 24) estimates that only 10% of tourism local communities and economies where tourism spending remains in Zimbabwe: similarly Church (1994) development takes place lack the infrastructure estimated that only 10–20% of tourism spending is retained and necessary skills required in establishing in Jamaica. 22 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES expenditure on local goods and services. That is, mistic projections of project outcomes. The for every dollar spent an additional amount of development of ecotourism and its infrastructure dollars is further spent throughout the economy. in providing for tourism experiences in the 1990s Despite the multiplier effect, however, in many may suffer the same fate. cases the negative economic, environmental and In order to ensure that tourism does not social effects of tourism build over time and are exceed its sustainable base, an understanding of often not felt directly and are only experienced the mechanisms that lead to the provision of after the initial positive economic impacts. These infrastructure for development and the policy problems are further exacerbated through the and institutional prerequisites for planning and political imperatives to realize the short-term managing ecotourism is fundamental. Through gains of tourism which often offset government an examination of the principles of sustainable intervention in planning or managing tourism. development, the nature of ecotourism and its The result is that the immediate economic potential environmental effects we will discuss benefits are valued highly and accrue to national the role of government and industry policy in accounts while the often significant social and facilitating ecotourism. We will discuss a range environmental costs have to be borne by local of sustainable approaches, from the role of communities. government- and industry-led policy and plan- Similarly, tourism is often promoted by gov- ning initiatives along with the relative strengths ernment or industry without an overall strategy, and weaknesses of self-regulation. While there without adequate attention to legislative frame- are many advocates for effective control meas- works – such as determining if the planning and ures developed through integrated programmes nature protection laws are adequate – without that incorporate federal, state and local legisla- consultation or inclusion of local communities tion and policy (cf. McKercher, 1991a: 69), others and without effective protected area manage- present a case for industry-based ‘best practice’ ment plans. This raises significant policy ques- (cf. Richardson, 1995). Regardless, the develop- tions for government. ment of strategic plans and control mechanisms Against these effects we shall discuss ecotour- are only as effective as the will to implement ism’s potential to generate significant benefits to them. local communities as an alternative form of development, through employment, increased revenues for infrastructure and for community projects. Importantly is the potential for these Case study ‘Carrying capacity’: benefits to be realized without compromising Galapagos Islands, Ecuador conservation or sustainability objectives. Indeed, ecotourism is a significant alternative develop- The Galapagos Islands are located 1000 km ment strategy due to its ability to link local from the South American coast and form a income generation directly through conservation unique ecotourism attraction based on initiatives. native species endemic to the region. Con- During the 1970s and 1980s, integrated rural servationists involved in sustaining the development projects were used to raise rural resources of the islands have increasingly living standards in developing countries, and attempted to control the expanding tourism focused primarily on irrigation, roads and social industry. In 1986, the island’s second airport services. However, the World Bank (1992: 86) opened, with arrivals escalating to 41 000 found that the results were often disappointing, per annum – almost four times the recom- with low success rates because of overemphasis mended carrying capacity of 12 000 visitors. in appraisals on outcomes, a tendency to select A third airport on Isabella Island is expected large and complex projects, and overly opti- TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY, POLICY AND PLANNING 23

to raise tourist numbers to over 50 000 per providing direct incentives to operate annum. within the regulatory frameworks. This may Despite the fact that the Galapagos produce a shift in planning from a short- Islands has had excellent controls on envi- term reactive response to a long-term proac- ronmental damage per tourist, it has had tive one for the benefit of social and physical few controls on the total number of tourists. environments. Strict government regulatory policies include the control of zoning, the stipulation Source: P. Steele, ‘Ecotourism, an economic analysis’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 3 (1), 1995, 29–44 that tourists be accommodated on boats, the registration of naturalist guides and strict regulations for onshore visits. However, the focus on controlling damage per tourist often neglects the fact that most impacts are Sustainable tourism development due to the volume of tourist arrivals. A steady growth in migration to the As we have seen in Chapter 1, ecotourism is an Galapagos Islands has been attributed to the alternative to mass tourism due to its small scale opportunity for profit derived from the infrastructure and the minimization of the envi- booming tourism industry, and resulted in a ronmental impacts that follow from it. This proliferation of on-shore accommodation suggests that it can be regulated and controlled establishments (in breach of the regulations at a sustainable level. Sustainable tourism is against such development). Local response tourism that produces economic advantages, in also denotes a shift in income derivation, as addition to maintaining environmental diversity traditional fishers convert their fishing boats and quality, thus ‘combining conservation with to small tour vessels. economic development’ (Wild, 1994: 12). A pri- Notably, very little of the revenue is mary means of maintaining sustainability is by returned to the local community. Largely limiting tourist numbers and therefore the possi- foreign owned cruise ships transport bility for environmental degradation (Inskeep, wealthy foreign tourists to the Galapagos, 1991). In this way ecotourism is a supply-led facilitating high leakage rates. More impor- approach (see Chapter 8) which involves deter- tantly, incentives for locals to maintain tight mining visitor numbers based on the environ- controls and regulations are non-existent ment’s capacity (its ability to support) rather and they compete to expand their own than by the demand for it. However, what often accommodation and boat tour operations. sounds fine in theory is often not always the case The islands’ ecology is the victim of this in practice. According to the WWF (1992), poor management. Agriculture is expanding although ecotourism is booming, much of its and its effects are proving more disastrous growth has been unsustainable (Steele, 1995). than those of tourism. Depriving locals of Sustainable development in relation to ecotour- their share of tourist revenue leaves them no ism is difficult to achieve because of the extraor- choice but to expand the agricultural sector. dinary expansion of ecotourism and the pres- The extinction of twelve native plant species sures of demand for access to natural areas. The is directly attributable to this expansion. question here is how should this demand (if it Placing locals in control of their tourism should at all) be controlled? industry, or at least returning some of the Unsustainable ecotourism is the result of financial benefits from visitation to local inappropriate developments taking place in sen- operators may reverse the current trends by sitive locations. The environmental effects caused by overcrowding, overdevelopment, 24 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES unregulated recreation, pollution, wildlife dis- its goals and objectives with the resource capa- turbances and vehicle use are more serious for bilities but also with conservation requirements. ecotourism than mass tourism (McNeely cited in Sustainability of ecotourism practices is therefore Hvenegaard, 1994). This is due to the fact that possible if planning balances the demands of ecotourism is more dependent on intact natural development with the supply of the environ- environments and is concentrated in ecologically ment in an attempt to manage potential benefits sensitive areas. Without appropriate regulations, now and in the future (Mieczkowski, 1995: 98). problems of overexploitation, and in particular However, as yet there are no clearly defined roles ecological degradation, may be intensified with as to whose responsibility this is. the development of ecotourism (Mieczkowski, 1995). This indicates that in practice the princi- Government-led planning and policy ples of sustainability are difficult to implement initiatives on a broad scale without a progressive planning and policy framework. It is widely recognized that governments have The negative effects of ecotourism are in large the greatest potential to shape tourism in dictat- part due to the fact that visitation often precedes ing how it is promoted, planned, managed, and effective management and planning. Thus there regulated. They are the only body that can is a need for suitable planning strategies to be provide long-term planning and management as formulated and implemented to ensure that the legislative and juridical protection of nature future expansion of ecotourism takes place in reserves for the benefit of future generations. accordance with the principles of sustainable Additionally, the importance of government development. There is a need then for an overall planning and policy is credited to its power to policy framework to facilitate sustainable eco- provide an overall harmony, consistency and tourism development. Those responsible for enforceable standards for the industry as a whole ecotourism need to understand its philosophies as the independent regulation of small areas is and their associated requirements and not enough to ensure environmental sustain- consequences. ability (cf. Mieczkowski, 1995: 467; Tolhurst, 1994). Government policy, through its ability to enforce necessary environmental regulations, Planning and policy frameworks: sets broad industry standards and therefore can who is involved and how? assist in minimizing negative impacts, and hence has a major role to play in facilitating sustainable Effective planning greatly enhances the sustain- ecotourism practices. The significance of govern- able development credentials of ecotourism: ment policy and planning in accommodating ‘central to the goals of environmental conserva- sustainable ecotourism lies in its ability to tion and resource sustainability is the protection effectively administer appropriate guidelines and maintenance of environmental quality. To and consistent standards, taking into account achieve this primary goal requires planning possible effects. which is grounded in environmental protection Governments at all levels are becoming more and enhancement yet fosters the realization of involved in ecotourism as it is increasingly tourism potential’ (Dowling, 1991: 128). Planning valued as an important source of revenue. This is involves anticipating and regulating change to evident especially in the Asia–Pacific region. encourage appropriate development so as to Countries such as the Philippines are in the increase the social, economic and environmental process of formulating an Ecotourism Act to benefits of the actual process (Murphy, 1985). safeguard the fragile ecosystem of tourism areas Planning development means not only matching (Gabor, 1997). Similarly, Tonga in 1997 developed TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY, POLICY AND PLANNING 25 a Sustainable Tourism Strategy with a view to The primary means of minimizing impacts is planning and implementing for long-term sus- to control tourist numbers, and as such much tainable development of the tourism industry government policy is formulated around this (Calkin, 1997). However, it has taken additional intention. Such controls include quantity con- international funding and consultants to imple- trols, for example zoning or limits to tour group ment the strategy, highlighting the fact that sizes, as well as price controls, such as fees or governments alone are not always capable of taxes on local operators. delivering what they have planned. However, the practice of limiting visitor num- The significance of government planning in bers is often a blunt and simplistic solution. regards to sustainability is highlighted by the Sustainability is about process, bringing stake- various National Strategies for Ecologically Sus- holders in to address the earliest stage of the tainable Development implemented throughout planning process.3 Governments also have the 1990s in many countries around the world.2 changing interests and priorities which can lead Such strategies recognized that through the use to policies being inconsistent and unfulfilled. of government planning the tourism industry Countries with unstable political systems often can be developed and managed in a way that cannot provide long-term vision and stability in conserves its natural resources and minimizes policy and planning for tourism and ecotourism. negative environmental impacts (cf. Evans- Even in countries where the political and demo- Smith, 1994). The main tools of government cratic processes are well established and secure, policy aimed at tourism-related environmental the frameworks and priorities for ecotourism problems are: change frequently.

᭹ legislation ᭹ regulation – including revenue collection and redistribution Case study Australian ᭹ control government policy ᭹ the coordination of policies and programmes ᭹ infrastructure and incentives The extent of tourism industry regulation, as ᭹ planning and promotion between national an important aspect of government policy, and local level ecotourism ventures. has become a major issue in Australia. Since the late 1980s there has been a move by the Commonwealth to deregulate the tourism industry in an attempt to improve service Case study Bhutan provision. Despite this trend, the significance of conservation issues has meant Bhutan limits tourism by requiring that increased demands for environmental pro- visitors spend $200 per day along with tection regulation and legislation (Hall, limiting tourists numbers each year (Wells, 1991). Likewise, it can be argued that eco- 1993: 171). There are additional restrictions tourism’s survival is reliant on regulation on development to regulate the scale and concerned with environmental protection. intensity of development. As such there is a need for increased

3 For a comprehensive range of international case studies demonstrating alternatives to regulation see Hall and 2 Cf. Sachs, 1995: 16. McArthur (1998). 26 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

of tourism’s importance. A government’s prior- regulation in regards to minimizing envi- ity for tourism can be derived from the position ronmental consequences and promoting of the tourism portfolio within larger depart- natural resource conservation. The implica- ments or if it is represented by a department tion is that while the future of the tourism designated solely for it. industry will generally be characterized by Generally, where ecotourism planning occurs, decreased regulation, ecotourism’s future it follows the development of an overall National development may well involve increased Development Plan and a Tourism Plan. A Tour- regulation, based on its environmental ism Plan should revolve around the natural and dependence. socioeconomic environment of a country, taking The Federal Government of Australia into consideration domestic and international established a National Ecotourism Strategy tourist market groups as well as residents’ use of in 1994 with the intention of formulating an tourist attractions and facilities. Fundamental overall policy framework for the planning, elements include: development and management of ecotourism, to contribute to the achievement of ᭹ tourist attractions and activities; sustainable tourism in natural areas (Evans- ᭹ accommodation; Smith, 1994: 4). Such a strategy highlights ᭹ transportation and other tourist facilities/ the importance of the government’s role in services; establishing the necessary guidelines for ᭹ other infrastructure; and which ecotourism can be developed in ᭹ institutional elements (Inskeep, 1991). accordance with the principles of sustainability. Through the formulation of a broad The aim of planning for ecotourism is often to framework promoting sustainable ecotour- identify major issues that are likely to affect the ism the federal government potentially had development and management of ecotourism, as a great amount of influence in determining well as to develop policies and programmes to the future direction of this type of tourism assist in making the industry more viable and and thus its sustainability. However, since sustainable. The actual content of an ecotourism the change of government in Australia plan should include the vision and aims of following the federal election of 1996, the having such a strategy and a rationale for having National Ecotourism Strategy has not been it in the first place. The strategy also needs to promoted or recognized as a valid strategy identify and consult with the many stakeholder by the newly elected government. In this groups and representatives of the ecotourism instance, the government support in imple- sector before a definition of ecotourism or menting this strategy has been withdrawn sustainable tourism is developed. A description and leaves the impetus of any further of ecotourism impacts in relation to environmen- actions with the industry and state govern- tal, economic, social and cultural dimensions ments. Some states in Australia have devel- should raise issues that need to be covered oped their own ecotourism or nature based through objectives and actions. Some of those tourism strategies. issues can include ecological sustainability, regulation, infrastructure, impact monitoring, industry standards and accreditation, education and marketing. The most important part of any Integrated policy and planning ecotourism plan is the implementation strategy, The tourism industry is represented at the which needs to coordinate the actions identified ministerial level in the form of specialist portfo- into groupings and responsible stakeholders lios which indicate a government’s recognition need to be assigned. Ideally, a resourcing or TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY, POLICY AND PLANNING 27 funding plan should accompany the implementation plan. Case study Masai Mara An ecotourism plan should ideally encompass the following steps: Following the closure of the Kenya–Tan- zania border in 1977 the land of the Masai ᭹ study preparation; Mara became the terminus of a tourism ᭹ determination of objectives; circuit that had previously continued south ᭹ survey; through Serengeti, to the Ngorongoro Cra- ᭹ analysis and synthesis; ter. As a result of this political action, the ᭹ policy and plan formulation; visitor load in Masai Mara increased rapidly, ᭹ recommendations; triggering ill-considered development. ᭹ implementation and monitoring. (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996: 97)

Effective control measures can only occur through integrated programmes that incorporate each be involved in collaborative partnerships. federal, state and local legislation and policy Although government has the power to legislate (McKercher, 1991b: 69). Clearly defined govern- regulative controls through policy and thus ment roles and coordination of government contribute to sustainable ecotourism practices, a policies are necessary to ensure effective planning cooperative approach between all involved par- for a sustainable tourism product (Hall, 1991). ties under government guidance would enhance With a consistent and combined effort that seeks its ongoing success. community support, governments have the potential to establish effective regulation which incorporates the principles of sustainability: ‘its successful implementation requires integrated The government role in policy, planning and social learning processes: its planning for sustainable political viability depends on the full support of tourism the people it affects through their governments, their social institutions and their private activ- Useful guidelines for the role of government ities’ (Gunn, 1994: 244). Integrated regional in the planning and implementation of planning, as outlined by Australia’s National sustainable tourism were developed at the Ecotourism Strategy, has already proved success- Globe ’90 conference held in Vancouver in ful in allowing for sustainable ecotourism prac- March 1990: tices in the Murray-Darling Basin and Cape York Peninsula for example, where community partici- ᭹ Ensure that all government departments pation and support has provided a strong involved in tourism are briefed on the con- foundation for government policy development cept of sustainable development. The (Evans-Smith, 1994). Governments also need to respective ministers (e.g. environment and examine regional planning across borders. natural resources) should collaborate to The coordination of government planning achieve sustainable tourism development. with private sector and non-government organi- ᭹ Ensure that national and local tourism zations is also fundamental, as is the establish- development agreements stress a policy ment of links with tourism operators and local of sustainable tourism development. communities to facilitate sustainable practices ᭹ Include tourism in land-use planning. (Wild, 1994). For sustainability to be achieved all ᭹ Undertake area and sector-specific re- levels of government, operators and developers, search into the environmental, cultural as well as tourists and local communities, must and economic effects of tourism. 28 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

᭹ Support the development of economic Industry-led planning and policy models for tourism to help define appropriate levels and types of tourism for Planning and policy initiatives in the tourism natural and urban areas. industry are often seen as preventative methods ᭹ Assist and support lower levels of govern- in striking a balance between self-regulation and ments in developing tourism strategies imposed regulation. This issue is of particular and conservation strategies and in integra- importance in managing the relationship ting the two. between tourism and the environment, due to the ᭹ Develop standards and regulations for fact that a proactive stance by industry on environmental and cultural impact assess- environmental issues will always be a preferred ments and monitoring of existing and industry solution rather than reacting to legis- proposed tourism developments, and lative regulations. However, self-regulation of ensure that carrying capacities defined for environmental impacts by industry has not tourism destinations reflect sustainable always been successful in other sectors, such as levels of development and are monitored mining and agriculture. It remains to be seen and adjusted appropriately. whether self-regulation can be effective in the ᭹ Apply sectoral and/or regional environ- tourism industry (Birtles and Sofield, 1996) as the mental accounting systems to the tourism very nature of the tourism industry, as a conglom- industry. erate of diverse segments, makes it increasingly ᭹ Create tourism advisory boards that difficult to regulate such diversity effectively. involve all stakeholders (e.g. the public, Industry planning and policy initiatives for sustainable tourism have traditionally focused indigenous populations, industry, NGOs), on improving professionalism, standards, train- and design and implement public con- ing and quality of customer service, some with a sultation techniques and processes to business and marketing emphasis and others involve all stakeholders in tourism-related with an environmental emphasis. Manidis decisions. Roberts (1994) developed an ‘Industry Quality ᭹ Ensure that tourism interests are repre- Continuum’ as a guide to the self-regulation sented at major caucus planning meetings measures for the tourism industry. Table 3.1 that affect the environment and the shows an adapted version of the continuum economy. including an explanation and examples for each ᭹ Design and implement educational and type of measure to improve industry standards. awareness programmes to sensitize peo- The continuum can also give an indication of the ple to sustainable tourism development maturity of the tourism industry in a country or issues. region, assuming that a Code of Practice is ᭹ Develop design and construction stan- usually the first step in encouraging recognition dards to ensure that tourism development of the need for environmental standards (Man- projects do not disrupt local culture and idis Roberts, 1994). natural environments. We will now focus on the three most important ᭹ Enforce regulations relating to illegal trade measures – codes of practice, compliance and in historic objects and crafts; unofficial accreditation. archaeological research and desecration of sacred sites. ᭹ Regulate and control tourism in envir- Codes of practice onmentally and culturally sensitive areas The development of a code of practice for (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). tourists and tour operators is typically one of the first industry initiatives on the path of TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY, POLICY AND PLANNING 29

Table 3.1 Industry Quality Continuum

Codes of practice Compliance Accreditation Quality system Certification

Explanation ᭹ Industry general guide to ᭹ Informal ᭹ Formal ᭹ Formal ᭹ Formal behaviour

᭹ No requirements for ᭹ Complying ᭹ Voluntary ᭹ Voluntary ᭹ Compulsory participation by with codes individual or organization

᭹ No enforcement ᭹ Voluntary ᭹ Administered ᭹ Externally ᭹ Externally participation by industry or driven approved other body standard

᭹ Little promotion ᭹ Can possibly ᭹ Involves ᭹ Conformity ᭹ May be require the standards of with external regulatory signing of an skill, experience standard or agreement or activity best practice

᭹ Rarely any ᭹ May involve ᭹ Involves ᭹ Involves audit enforcement audit of audit and individual or benchmarking organization

᭹ The entire ᭹ Withdrawal for organization noncompliance participates

᭹ Involves penalties

Examples ᭹ Ecotourism Association of ᭹ PATA Green ᭹ Savannah ᭹ AS3902 ᭹ Builders’ Australia Leaf Guides (Quality in licence Service)

᭹ Pacific Asia Travel ᭹ Green Globe ᭹ National ᭹ ISO 9000 ᭹ May include Association (PATA) Ecotourism Natural Accreditation Resource Program Manager permits

᭹ New Zealand Tourism ᭹ Tourism ᭹ ISO 14000 Industry Association Vanuatu Accreditation

᭹ The Ecotourism Society ᭹ BS7750

᭹ Tourism Council Australia

Source: adapted from Manidis Roberts, 1994 30 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES sustainable development: ‘one of the most prom- or thoughts beyond those detailed on the lists ising features of the ecotourism industry is its (Gertsakis, 1995). As such, although codes of willingness to both educate its operators and practice and guidelines are an attempt by the provide guidelines for their activities’ (Duff, industry to minimize its impacts they lack 1993: 18) in the form of codes of practice and enforcement and as such are limited in effective- guidelines. These codes of practice and guide- ness and value. lines seek to establish standards of environmen- Conversely, there are many advocates for the tal performance and minimize the environmen- development of codes of conduct for tourists (cf. tal impacts of tourism. Numerous codes of Weiler and Johnson, 1991: 125). This would practice for ecotourism operators, tourists and encompass appropriate social, cultural and developers have emerged in the early 1990s (cf. environmentally responsible behaviour. Exam- Dowling, 1992; Duff, 1993). Examples include the ples of codes of conduct developed specifically Ecotourism Association of Australia’s code of for visitors include the Himalayan Environmen- practice for ecotour operators (Duff, 1993), New tal Trust ‘Code of Conduct’ and the American Zealand Tourism Industry Federation code of Society of Travel Agents Code of Conduct, which practice (NZTIF, 1991), Pacific Asia Travel Asso- was one of the earliest proponents of responsible ciation code of practice (PATA, 1992), the Tas- tourism. While many sensitive regions have manian Professional Trout Fishing Guides Asso- regulations governing visitor and operator ciation code of ethics (Department of Tourism, behaviour, such as the regulations governing Sport and Recreation, 1994) and the Tourism visits to New Zealand’s Sub-Antarctic Islands Council Australia Code of Sustainable Practice being some of the most rigorous, none of the (TCA, 1998). codes of practice is in any way binding on the industry or the individual. Distribution and enforcement are major issues that underline its Case study Kingfisher Bay usefulness (cf. Hall et al., 1991). Resort and Village, Queensland, There have also been attempts to introduce Australia affirmation programmes, requiring operators to display codes of practice and become signa- Environmental codes of conduct for devel- tories. However, their main role has been to opers were written into all contracts ensur- create a sense of awareness within industry and ing environmental protection in the devel- visitors of environmental responsible practice opment stages was not neglected (Hackett, (Manidis Roberts, 1994). 1992). The most important aspect to note in this example is that the guidelines were legally enforceable and as such there were penalties involved for non-compliance. Case study Codes of conduct – the Arctic

The above example is unfortunately a rela- The use of codes of conduct in the Arctic has tively isolated case. Most guidelines or codes of attracted debate as to the effectiveness of practice are ineffective as they lack any enforce- their use, particularly in relation to the often ment policy, statements of objectives, targets or inadequate implementation of such codes. A evaluation procedures (Blangy and Nielsen, draft visitor code for the Artic is presented 1993). Further, such codes of practice and princi- below as an indication of the content which ples have also been criticized as they are usually has fuelled debate on the effectiveness of adopted as narrow checklists, thus creating strict such documents: frames of reference that do not encourage actions TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY, POLICY AND PLANNING 31

Mason and Mowforth (1996) identify four Conserve resources: main areas of concern in relation to codes of ᭹ Please leave wildlife habitats alone; where conduct, namely: this is not possible, keep disturbance to a minimum. ᭹ Monitoring take-up and effectiveness. ᭹ Please do not take plants, animals and ᭹ The use of codes as a marketing tool. other samples from nature – these must be ᭹ The need for coordination. left where found. ᭹ The question of whether self-regulation or ᭹ Please limit damage by vehicles such as external regulation should be utilized. snowscooters. ᭹ Hunting and fishing are under the strict The critical component to any code of conduct is control of national and regional author- the need to evaluate the effectiveness of the code ities. Permits can be obtained from . . . through an assessment of effects and record the ᭹ Accessibility to nature reserves and results. The validity of such issues is well National Parks is strictly restricted illustrated by the Arctic Case Study, with behav- through the use of permits. These can be iour reliant on the interpretation and honesty of obtained from . . . the tourist. Stop pollution: ᭹ Please do not leave behind any equipment Compliance or litter – this will decay only slowly, may Compliance schemes are an attempt to develop injure wildlife, and could cost you a fine. environmental constraints for the industry and ᭹ All materials that have been brought in improve the type and nature of the experiences and not consumed during your visit for visitors. They are similar to codes of practice should be taken out. for, unless binding agreements are made between Respect indigenous cultures: individual operators and an industry body who is ᭹ Almost all indigenous cultures in the responsible for the enforcement of the principles, Arctic have developed in harmony with the rigour and effectiveness of any such scheme is nature, without overexploiting resources questionable. However, compliance schemes are or creating unnecessary waste. Pay respect distinguished from a code of practice in that they to these cultures. may require operators to become signatories to a set of principles and intentions. Be a guest: An example of a compliance scheme in the ᭹ Please do not expect to come to a wilder- tourism industry is the Green Globe Programme ness and find all home comforts (GGP) which was developed by the World Travel supplied. and Tourism Council (WTTC) in 1994. The ᭹ Be a true guest – one who is welcome in WTTC brings together the chief executives of the landscape and amongst the local over seventy of the world’s largest travel and people. tourism companies drawn from the accommoda- Enjoy yourself and remember: tion, catering, recreation transportation and Take nothing but photographs, travel-related services sector. The GGP was Kill nothing but time, designed to help tourism businesses take tar- Leave nothing but footprints. geted environmental action to enhance both business and environmental performance (Haw- Source: P. Mason, ‘Tourism codes of conduct in the Arctic and sub-Arctic region’, Journal of Sustainable kins, 1995). It is a world-wide environmental Development, 5 (2), 151–164 management and awareness programme for the travel and tourism industry, open to any 32 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES companies of any size, type and location (WTTC, adherence to codes of conduct and compliance 1994). Research shows that operational changes schemes. Those factors included rewards, sanc- to minimize or negate adverse effects on the tions and enforcement, education and commu- environment which have a cost to the individual nication of policies as potential predictors of operator, will not necessarily induce the operator compliance. The study results showed that to introduce the required changes (Birtles and within a voluntary system of compliance, sanc- Sofield, 1996). The GGP, however, is based on the tions and deterrent measures did not play an assumption that tourism operators will be moti- important role in achieving conformance behav- vated to introduce operational changes for cost iour to the guidelines. Instead the positive savings, increased turnover and profit, moral reinforcers, such as education of tour operators pressure, or a competitive advantage. with respect to the benefits of compliance, were The promised services to members of the identified to be far more effective in achieving programme include a telephone hotline informa- adherence to the guidelines. Accreditation pro- tion service, training, education and information grammes involve a far greater degree of rewards guides, a global network of environmental advis- and education than codes of practice or com- ers, annual survey, member’s directory and pliance schemes and therefore have the potential extended support services. To become a member to be a more effective instrument in managing of the programme, an organization is required to sustainable tourism. complete an annual survey on the state of environmental practice and targets for the com- Accreditation ing year, as well as make a formal commitment to improvement in environmental practice and Choice, risk, involvement and interaction with accept the Green Globe goals. the natural environment are vital parts of the While there are many positive elements that ecotourism experience. The ecotour operator the GGP achieves in the greening of the tourism (provider) needs to instil trust in the ecotourist industry, there are also some questionable (client) in order to attract and encourage them aspects. While the WTTC has the potential to and this can be achieved through profession- have a global influence due to its high profile alism and accreditation. However, while these amongst the international industry, government provide the ecotourist with security, they can, in and policy makers, it is difficult to provide one turn, reduce the excitement and interaction set of guidelines and training materials for the found in the natural environments visited. diverse range of tourism destinations and opera- Accreditation has been proposed as one solutions in the world. Its objectives are also con- tion to the provision of security and a quality of strained by the lack of rigorous controls to experience. It offers the opportunity to improve ensure that standards are met. Often however industry standards generally and the opportu- any environmental conservation program is bet- nity to provide a degree of quality assurance in a ter than no program at all. The WTTC advocates highly competitive market. It may also improve a self-regulation approach for the industry with the protection of the natural environment on the rationale that if the industry acts now it may which ecotourism depends and ensure appro- through self-regulation be able to prevent con- priate practices and more informed decision strictive governmental regulation (cf. Birtles and making by ecotourists. Sofield, 1996). Accreditation involves the formal acknowl- A recent study conducted by Sirakaya and edgement of adherence to agreed standards Uysal (1997) investigated the compliance behav- (Allcock et al., 1994: 39). Benefits often associated iour of 127 tour operators with ecotourism with accreditation include quality assurance to guidelines in the USA, Canada and Ecuador. The both operators and tourists and the creation of a study tested major factors that promote the competitive edge in marketing. In accreditation TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY, POLICY AND PLANNING 33 systems, the primary responsibility for the inte- nominated criteria, their accreditation status gration and adoption of changes is with the may be suspended or revoked. The aim over tourism operator, through the identification and time is to increase the minimum standards on a evaluation of a number of the environmental regular basis and to ensure best practice can be best practice initiatives within the ecotourism realized on an ongoing basis (EAA, 1996). industry. However, a number of issues limit the While initiatives such as the National Ecotour- effectiveness of ‘environmental best practice’ ism Accreditation Program are more accountable initiatives of the ecotourism industry, one of and enforceable than any code of practice or which was highlighted by PATA (1992) in that compliance scheme, there are still concerns over the industry does not control or own any major the credibility of its self-assessment component. part of its assets. As such this leads to the However, this concern will most likely decrease industry developing a ‘selling mentality to the with the increasing amount of accredited eco- resource as distinct from a sense of ownership tourism operators who have the capacity to act and stewardship’ (PATA, 1992: 9). Although this as ‘watchdogs’ amongst themselves, and the is the case, the diversity of not only the bodies continual review and raising of the minimum involved in ecotourism but also destinations standards: ‘if we have switched the emphasis makes it extremely difficult to create and imple- from defining ecotourism to improving its per- ment a national accreditation scheme, as indi- formance, then we have come a long way in a cated by both Allcock et al. (1994) and the short time. The challenge now is to go beyond Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport rewarding bona fide ecotourism operators to (1994). The high level of fragmentation of the establish measures that help other operators tourism industry further reinforces such antici- change their practices and become bona fide pated difficulties (Forestry Tasmania, 1994; Gil- themselves’ (McArthur, 1997b). bert, 1984). Nevertheless, the world’s first National Eco- tourism Accreditation scheme was developed and launched by the Ecotourism Association of Australia (EAA) and the Australian Tourism Case study Great Barrier Reef Operators Network in 1996. The programme is Marine Park, Queensland, based on ecologically sustainable development Australia principles and gives operators the opportunity to be innovative and continually improve their The issuing of licensing and permits is one practices. The application process involves the method used to control both the numbers completion of self-assessment in relation to and types of users of a particular area. An minimum standards, compiled in a compre- example of their use is in the Great Barrier hensive application document and the nomina- Reef Marine Park where commercial tourist tion of three referees. An appropriately qualified operators require a permit to operate. All and appointed Ecotourism Accreditation Asses- permit applications are assessed for possible sor evaluates the self-assessment and forwards impacts upon the conservation of the park’s the application to the Ecotourism Accreditation natural resources in order to reduce or Committee for approval or rejection. Apart from prevent potential adverse impacts (Shurcliff the referee checks, there are other forms of and Williams, 1992). In this way access is verification used to determine whether the appli- restricted to a select number who have met cation is bona fide, such as feedback from clients certain conditions or criteria which are seen and random audits on a certain percentage of as being compatible with the area’s values accredited operators. Should it be revealed that and desired uses. The main strength of the an accredited business is not fulfilling their 34 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

and the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) use of licences and permits is that they are which we discuss further in the following legally enforceable. An associated problem chapter – largely due to the fact that manage- with regard to industry-led best practice is ment organizations responsible for these that it is dependent upon the resource models simply aren’t attuned to attracting manager and not the user (such as the wider stakeholder involvement. There are ecotour operator) to establish and instigate three primary impediments to achieving this the conditions or criteria for the granting of outcome: the licences and permits. As such, all the operator has to do is fulfil the required ᭹ the use of the terms ‘impact’ and ‘limits’, conditions of the use situation. which the tourism industry has interpreted as being discouraging to growth and thus business; ᭹ the conventional narrow focus on the condition of the physical environment and to some Cooperative government and extent, the nature of the visitor experience; and industry initiatives: community ᭹ the lack of cooperative involvement of the involvement and cooperative tourism sector in identifying indicators and approaches standards that are acceptable to the industry.

Depending on the political and economic sys- Without the involvement of all stakeholders, the tem of a country, the ideal solution to the monitoring of results becomes conflictual and debate over self-regulation versus regulation is prone to conjecture, particularly if they reveal a cooperative approach to tourism planning surprising or controversial implications (McAr- and policy. Sustainable tourism relies heavily thur, 1997a). on stakeholder involvement, and ‘efforts must be made to improve the links between nature conservation, local community development, and the tourism industry’ (Ceballos-Lascurain, Case study TOMM 1996). One of the most critical aspects of the devel- The recent implementation of a tourism opment for models to monitor and manage planning and monitoring model on Kanga- tourism activity has been the establishment of roo Island in South Australia has attracted stakeholder endorsement and support (Prosser, world attention due to its strong focus on 1986). Stakeholders from the local tourism sec- involving all relevant stakeholders from tor and community are critical in implementing local and state government to tourism these models. The stakeholders can provide operators, the island’s community at large valuable input into desired conditions and and natural area managers (Manidis acceptable standards, and are usually essential Roberts, 1997). Its success was largely due to in providing the economic and political support the Tourism Optimization Management necessary to maintain monitoring programmes Model (TOMM), which builds on the Limits and implement management decisions. of Acceptable Change (LAC) system devel- However there has been a consistent failure oped by Stankey et al. (1985). (See Chapter 4 to establish sufficient stakeholder support for for a full discussion of the LAC system and sustainable management models – such as the other sustainable management models.) Visitor Impact Management Model (VIMM) TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY, POLICY AND PLANNING 35

potential to give direction to the rest of the TOMM was designed to serve a multitude tourism industry with regard to the environ- of stakeholders with a multitude of inter- mental issues the industry is facing as a ests, and can operate at a regional level over whole. a range of public and private land tenures. Best practice involves ‘striving for excellence, Specifically, TOMM has been designed to: keeping in touch with innovations, avoiding waste and focusing on outcomes which are in ᭹ monitor and quantify the key economic, the community interest’ (Edwards and Prineas, marketing, environmental, sociocultural 1995). It involves managing change and con- and experiential benefits and impacts of tinual improvement and in this way it encom- tourism activity; and passes all levels of an organization. Examples of ᭹ assist in the assessment of emerging best practice include aiming to increase cus- issues and alternative future management tomer service, improvements in productivity or options for the sustainable development in the management of people. Best practice is and management of tourism activity not limited to particular types of organizations (Manidis Roberts, 1997). or bodies, nor is it to particular aspects or issues within those organizations or bodies. TOMM is being used to help change the Rather it is an extremely diverse practice, which culture of the tourism industry and its can be implemented in an array of different stakeholders by generating tangible evi- situations to serve different purposes. However, dence that the viability of the industry is its central concern is related to change within dependent upon the quality of the visitor an organization. experiences it generates, and the condition Following from this, it seems fairly straight- of the natural, cultural and social resources forward that best practice can be associated it relies on. with tourism or ecotourism, especially in regard to the increasing levels of environmental concern and awareness world-wide. The form of best practice in this case can be referred to as environmental best practice, which is defined Using policy to achieve best by the Ecologically Sustainable Development practice Steering Committee (ESDSC) (1992) as business/industry culture and practices which align Tourism has the potential to be an ‘environmen- operational competitiveness to improved envi- tally friendly’ industry. Yet there are well-docu- ronmental performance. In this way it links mented examples of tourist destinations environmental management and operational becoming polluted, degraded and congested by management in a positive way, leaving the mass market travel (PATA, 1992: 7). One way of primary responsibility for both with the organi- attempting to deal with such problems of zation itself. Numerous forms of environmental increasing environmental degradation of the best practice are currently employed by eco- natural environment is through the incorpora- tourism operators, ranging from the issuing of tion of ‘environmental best practice’. This con- licences and permits for access to the develop- cept not only plays a role in the ecotourism ment of codes of practice for tourists, operators industry but also the ‘mainstream’ tourism and developers. A number of these forms will industry. We will now turn our attention to be discussed below, with emphasis placed on ‘environmental best practice’ in ecotourism as a their relative strengths and weaknesses. practical and effective approach to generating Tourism is no different from any other indus- solutions to environmental management and its try in its imperative for profitability. This 36 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES profitability imperative is somewhat limited in ᭹ achieving lower infrastructure cost; ecotourism ventures as they must realize and ᭹ reducing the number of inbound visitors – incorporate limits to growth and volume. (The which could conserve natural and cultural following chapter will elaborate on operational sites; techniques to achieve these objectives.) There is ᭹ an increase in the quality of visitor experience an inverse relationship between how envir- through understanding group and commu- onmentally friendly a local nature tourism nity interactions; operation is and how economically successful it ᭹ a means to increase long-term benefits for can ever hope to be (Cohen and Richardson, local communities. 1995). In this sense the environmental best practice initiatives of ecotourism are often not The extent to which ecotourism adheres to the adopted within the greater tourism industry as principles of sustainability appears to be greater they can be seen to place limits on profitability. with cooperative approaches between govern- This issue is further compounded by the tour- ment and stakeholder planning and policy. The ism industry’s overt pursuit of ever increasing principal role of such planning and policy, which volumes and the measurement of performance mainly occurs through legislation and regula- being exclusively linked to this increase (PATA, tion, is therefore to ensure that ecotourism does 1992). not negatively impact on the environment, but It would be a grave mistake, however, for the rather creates environmental, economic and tourism industry to disregard the environmen- sociocultural benefits. tal best practice initiatives of ecotourism. As we have seen, the most effective forms of regulation are those instigated by the industry itself and ecotourism is a leader in recognizing its Case study Rwanda: environmental responsibilities by attempting to diversification of ecotourism address these responsibilities through the estab- product lishment of codes of practice, guidelines and suggested accreditation schemes. Even though Many lesser developed nations are shifting such initiatives are not yet supported by penal- to ecotourism as a primary source of income ties for non-compliance, they provide a starting in preference to traditional agricultural pur- point or springboard with which to further suits. In such cases, management of this shift foster and encourage environmentally sound may be strengthened by diversification of practices in the tourism industry into the the ecotourism products promoted. future. However, the major drawback with eco- In Rwanda, data available suggests that tourism-led environmental best practice is that 75% of the country’s tourism income is actions are only adopted if they are seen as derived from gorilla visitation. The reven- desirable within the organization. If they are ues in 1991, estimated at $1 million through not legally enforceable their use and effect is direct expenditure and $9 million via indi- limited to those organizations already oriented rect expenditure, are derived through inter- towards environmental philosophies or which national visitation, as high tourism costs in have the aspiration to incorporate such the country deter domestic visitors to gorilla values. populations. In understanding the mechanisms for policy Most visitors to Rwanda are attracted to and planning we may be able to achieve a certain the Parc National des Volcans which houses flexibility in approaching future ecotourism the gorilla population; however, the country development by adopting a broad range of approaches which may assist in: TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY, POLICY AND PLANNING 37

Zoning has been attempting to promote its other protected areas. The Parc National d’Aka- Land use zoning divides sections of land into gera, created in 1954 and covering an area of areas based on their sensitivity and conserva- 2500 square miles, and the Nyungwe Forest tion values (Buckley and Pannell, 1990). By Reserve in Southern Rwanda, one of the doing so areas are designated for different largest untouched montane forests, with 250 purposes in an attempt not only to protect the species of birds, are two such areas. With valued areas but also to balance this with Rwanda still reeling from the recent civil appropriate use. It has the ability to facilitate war, genocide and mass population exodus, sustainable tourism through the regulation of advertising of new ecotourism destinations development and the implementation of design has understandably been given lesser prior- standards for tourist facilities to ensure they do ity. The effects of economic and political not impact to the detriment of the environment upheaval in less developed nations illustrate in which they are developed (McIntyre et al., the influence external factors may have on 1993). The main advantage of zoning is that it already limited government expenditure on is one way in which conflicting activities can be tourism, and such volatility threatens suc- separated, enabling the identification of the cessful ecotourism ventures which operate suitability of particular areas/sites for partic- in areas of significant natural beauty. Where ular uses, and the protection and conservation governments cannot afford to promote the of selected sites or areas (Simmons and Harris, region/attraction, operators are left to 1995: 14). Zoning is an effective means to limit bridge a large gap with finite resources. the extent of tourism activities within the sustainable boundaries of the region. Source: M. Shackley, ‘The future of gorilla tourism in Rwanda’, Journal of Sustainable Development, 3 (2), 1995, 61–72

Ecotourism travel essentials: Land use zoning is associated with the use of planning guidelines for carrying capacity. Generally carrying capacity ecotourism attempts to establish the level of use possible within the given environment without environ- ᭹ To encourage community, environmental, mental deterioration. Hall (1994) takes the issue of and tourism constituencies to work together carrying capacities a step further, highlighting toward a common goal. that they must include social and cultural aspects ᭹ The success of ecotourism depends on the as well as the above mentioned environmental conservation of nature. Many parks are issues. An example of the effective use of an threatened, and it is critical for everyone environmental carrying capacity is at the Point involved with ecotourism to realize that Nepean National Park in Victoria, where once the intact natural resources are the foundation. assigned quota of daily visitors is reached the ᭹ Ecotourism sites need revenue for protection gates to the park are simply closed (Wescott, and maintenance, much of which can be 1993). Once again though, the identification and generated directly from entry fees and sale of implementation of the carrying capacity is the products. Many protected areas charge nom- duty of the resource manager not the user. There inal or no entrance fees and provide few if are also inherent difficulties involved in quantify- any auxiliary services. Ecotourists also desire ing the associated environmental, social and gift shops, food services and lodging facilities cultural impacts (Dowling, 1992; Norris, 1994). and expect to pay for them. 38 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

᭹ Ecotourists are a valuable audience for envi- tourism industry. In some cases, tourism to ronmental education. In many parks, oppor- protected areas is not benefiting the surround- tunities are missed to provide environmental ing population because they are not education. Whether ‘hard-core’ nature tourists involved. or ‘new’ visitors with little background in ᭹ Opportunities are emerging for new relation- natural history, all tourists can enhance their ships between conservationists and tour appreciation of the area through information operators. Traditionally, these groups have not brochures, exhibits and guides. worked together; often they have been in ᭹ Ecotourism will contribute to rural develop- direct opposition. However, as more tourists ment when local residents are brought into the come to parks and reserves, tour operators planning process. For ecotourism to be a tool have the opportunity to become more actively for conservation and rural development, a involved with the conservation of these areas concerted effort must be made to incorporate through education for their clientele and local populations into development of the donations to park management (Boo, 1990). 4

Ecotourism and protected areas: visitor management for sustainability

Conservation issues are now at the forefront of ᭹ the demands of lobby groups seeking access public opinion. The decline of natural rain- for a range of recreational activities – four- forests, loss of endangered species, global warm- wheel driving, horse riding, hunting, fishing; ing and increasing land degradation have galva- ᭹ and the aspirations of indigenous groups for nised public support for conservation. It is no title and management of parks. accident that the interest and growth of ecotour- These demands raise distinct challenges for ism and nature-oriented tourism has coincided protected areas. Indeed, in the face of these with this world-wide concern. increasing challenges can (indeed, should) these Ecotourism and nature-oriented tourism often areas remain as protected refuges? take place in protected and remote regions, areas The traditional conception of protected areas is of exceptional beauty, ecological interest and the uninhabited, minimal interference park, and cultural importance. Today these areas are estab- as we have seen in Chapter 2, this is an overtly lished to conserve biodiversity and to halt the ‘preservationist’ position. However, in much of large scale loss of natural ecosystems. Globally the world population pressures are dictating that there are approximately 8500 protected areas excluding human presence from protected areas which cover about 5.17% of the earth’s land is no longer feasible. surface1 and the growth in the designation of The preservationist position is also under protected areas has increased remarkably over attack from the opposite end of the spectrum, by the past twenty years2. those that believe nature has one primary value However, protected areas are increasingly or function – for human use. ‘Use’ adherents coming under pressure a range of fronts: range from industry representatives seeking ᭹ the demands for ‘multiple use’ parks allowing access to park resources, such as the logging, extractive industries; grazing and mining industries, to the many diverse special interest groups who are generally hostile to nature-centred management, such as 1 Over 773 million ha. hunters and off-road enthusiasts. 2 Currently, 80% of the world’s protected areas were established after 1962 (World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Historically protected area policy has moved 1992). Protected areas in Costa Rica for example from 30 in significantly in the direction of human use. In 1970 to more than 230 by 1990 (Cornelius, 1991). the Caracas Action Plan, the major strategy 40 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES document to come out of the IVth World Tourism and protected areas Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas in Venezuela in 1992, the shift away from Nowhere are the conflicting views over intrinsic an overt preservationist position towards a and utilitarian value more evident than the human-needs orientation is unambiguous: ‘Pro- current debate over the function and purpose of tected areas must be managed so that local protected areas. It is a conflict over two primary communities, the nations involved, and the orientations, ‘preservation’ versus ‘use’, and world community all benefit (IUCN, 1992). tourism in protected areas embodies precisely We can see here, in both the use and preser- this dilemma. For tourism is in essence a vationist positions, the centrality of the anthro- recreational activity in which the value for pocentric premise. Nature conservation’s most nature aligns with both the ‘cathedral’ and acceptable and prevalent form3 is a utilitarian ‘gymnasium’ dimensions we have discussed in one in that such areas are deemed necessary to Chapter 2. Protected areas seemingly are incom- preserve or protect for their potential human patible with such activities for their primary benefits, be it for ‘aesthetic’, ‘gymnasium’, function lies in the preservation of natural ‘cathedral’ or ‘laboratory’ potential (see Chap- ecosystems. Such an opposition is illustrated and ter 2). Thus the use and preservationist posi- reinforced through accepted institutional tions are constrained by two orientations: at arrangements in which tourism and conserva- one extreme lies the emphasis on human needs tion goals are pursued by independent organiza- being met in parks, while the other leads to tions. The current focus of the debate on tourism overt opposition to the preservation and pro- in parks is the extension of a long controversy, a tection of natural areas as valueless ‘locking controversy that has existed since the conception up’ of land. This conflict intensifies with the of protected areas and equivalent reserves. pressures of an exponentially increasing global The originating conception of national parks population and the concomitant consumption placed recreation rather than conservation at the of resources this entails. centre of park functions. Yellowstone National As we have seen in Chapter 2, ecocentrically Park in the United States of America for example oriented philosophies have raised significant was originally conceptualized as ‘pleasuring challenges to the anthropocentric focus on nat- grounds for the benefit and enjoyment of the ure’s value lying in its relation to human people . . . for gaining great profit from tourists needs. However, an extreme ecocentrist and pleasure seekers’ and as ‘a national domain approach would actually challenge the funda- for rest and recreation’ (Strom, 1980: 3). Similarly, mental rationale of protected areas themselves the Royal National Park, established in Australia as a ‘Noah’s Ark solution’, for protected areas in 1879, was originally established as a recrea- are in effect isolated islands of biodiversity. An tional park. Historically then parks were estab- ecocentric perspective would argue that we lished for utilitarian reasons but since the early would not need protected areas if we did not conception of parks there has been a significant have such an exploitative relationship with reorientation away from a predominant recrea- nature (see Chapter 2) and this is the heart of tional/tourism focus towards conservation the protected area debate, particularly in rela- objectives. In the past recreation and tourism tion to ecotourism, for in essence ‘humanity were only a minor threat to parks because of depends upon that which it threatens’. distance and difficulty in access and the low levels of visitation. However, this has changed significantly in the past 15–20 years as protected areas are becoming of increasing significance through increases in mobility, leisure and envi- 3 This is often the only grounds accepted for its argument. ronmental awareness (Sheppard, 1987; 25), both ECOTOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS: VISITOR MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY 41 in terms of visitor numbers – and hence impacts ment controlled sectors – insurance, health, – and their centrality for conservation. education, energy, water, transport, banking – To accept increased levels of visitation as the being increasingly removed from public owner- price of support significantly compromises the ship and control in a shift towards a business natural qualities upon which parks are founded. rather than public interest model. The impact of Every day we witness increasing pressure on this change has seen no sphere of government as natural resources and a need for escalating quarantined from the market-based rationale. In protection of resources, particularly those found this way protected area agencies have also found in protected areas and equivalent reserves. The themselves under intense pressure to be more major problem is in deciding what directions and ‘commercial’, ‘customer focused’ and to produce actions should be taken to ensure the future of more of their revenue from the services provided such areas. by parks. Although protected areas are not conceived identically across the world, the International Union of the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identifies their common characteristics: Case Study Funding United States national parks 1 The area contains one or more ecosystems not materially altered by human activity and it With the drive to meet budget targets and contains fauna, flora, geomorphological sites, increased discussions on corporate sponsor- and habitats of scientific, educational and ship the National Parks Service has been recreational interest. forced to pursue alternative funding options 2 The highest competent authority of the country whilst still maintaining their stewardship has taken steps to prevent or eliminate as soon role. In 1997, in budget submissions to the as possible exploitation or occupation in the Department of Interior, the Park Service area and to enforce protection of its ecological, requested ($US) 1.5 billion. Congress allot- geomorphological, and aesthetic features that ted ($US) 1.42 billion. For the 1998 fiscal led to its establishment. year, the agency is seeking ($US) 1.6 billion, 3 Visitors are allowed to enter, under special including ($US) 100 million for an ambitious conditions, for inspirational, educational, upgrading of the Everglades National Park. cultural, and recreational purposes (IUCN, Although funding has steadily increased 1985: 7). from ($US) 900 million in 1984 to the 1997 This definition clearly identifies conservation figure of ($US) 1.4 billion, if this figure is values as a major purpose. This includes the measured in constant 1983 dollars, the protection of genetic and biological diversity, appropriations have decreased 14% and the provision of settings for base-line meas- Increased land management responsibili- urements of biological conditions for the com- ties have increased the strain on resource parison of effects associated with development. managers – consider these statistics along- However, it also recognizes the legitimate right side the decline in real funding: of public entry ‘under special conditions’ – recreational purposes for example. ᭹ Visits have steadily risen from 210 million in 1984 to over 260 million in 1996. Protected areas and capitalist ᭹ The number of parks has increased from realism 335 in 1984 to 374 today. ᭹ In the past five years, staff numbers have Across the industrialized West the role of gov- been reduced by 10%. ernment is shrinking, with many former govern- 42 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

not to conserve. However urgent it may be to In addition, there are estimated costs of wake people up to physical and ecological ($US) 6–8 billion required to rectify a back- changes, environmental reformers also need log of repairs and improvements. A debate political philosophies (Stretton, 1976) and for rages over appropriations, budgeting and quite practical purposes. In this way ecotourism, priorities, but the essence of the argument is as a sustainable development strategy, is increas- that parks need more money. One critical ingly being turned to as part of a political concern is that the Park Service maintain its philosophy for protected area managers and stewardship role in the face of the funding conservation agencies as a means of providing crisis. Congress approved a three-year pilot practical outcomes in the struggle to provide a programme to introduce entrance fees at 100 basis for continued protection for these areas. parks Nearly all of the money collected goes These outcomes include: back into parks, providing in 1998 an estimated ($US) 48 million for repairs and ᭹ maintenance. Congress is considering: a source of finance for parks and conservation and therefore providing a justification (eco- ᭹ Concession reform legislation. This could nomic) for park protection; ᭹ generate $50 million annually from pri- an alternative form of economic development; vate businesses operating within the ᭹ the broadening of conservation issues within park. the general public; ᭹ A revenue bond programme, allowing ᭹ the facilitation of a private conservation private non-profit groups to finance capi- ethic. tal parks projects by issuing bonds. ᭹ A bill to let taxpayers check off part of their return to go towards funding To operationalize conservation goals in a context parks. which involves decisions on the allocation of scare resources dictates that arguments for pro- However, the primary fear for the parks tected areas will almost inevitably involve eco- service is that the reduction in appropria- nomic rationalist and utilitarian premises. Being tions due to such an offset would in effect realistic (some would say pessimistic) it also defeat the purpose of such fund raising. seems unlikely that the potential value of protected areas to future generations will be a Source: W. Mitman Clarke, ‘Insufficient funds’, National sufficiently strong argument to cause current Parks, July/August, 1997, pp. 26–29 generations to set aside scare resources for their future offspring. However, to argue that protected areas are a Contemporary questions about whether to resource that can be enjoyed for recreation and utilize or conserve are really questions about tourism poses a serious dilemma. This dilemma who controls the resources (Stretton, 1976). They is one of current protection based on utilitarian are therefore like any other question of distrib- objectives and of future conservation based on utive justice and are inherently political. In our intrinsic value. Are these approaches compatible current economically dominant world-view, pro- or, more importantly, can either contribute tected areas are considered as no different from towards conservation? competing land use claims and most argue for their survival on these terms. With such a variety of pressures on natural The imperative for conservation advocates resources, the need for more and more inten- becomes how to conserve rather than whether or sive protection of those resources which are ECOTOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS: VISITOR MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY 43

currently found in protected areas and equiva- Tourism as a key lent reserves is all too evident. The manpower and financial resources which are needed for Society expects optimal use of natural resources the protection of the 2% of the Earth’s terres- as an integral part of the process of continual trial surface that are currently in protected economic development. In this circumstance the areas are far from adequate. Can we rest with economic justification of ecotourism in protected any confidence that the 98% of the globe which areas offers a means of providing outcomes that is not covered by the UN list of protected areas can demonstrate to society the benefits of pro- and Equivalent Reserves is adequately tected areas. Increasingly, tourism is often used managed? to provide an economic rationale to preserve [P]rotected areas are but one mechanism for natural areas rather than developing them for attaining conservation objectives. They are an alternative uses such as agriculture or forestry. In important mechanism but in themselves they current analyses of natural or protected areas it is are inadequate. (Eidsvik, 1980: 187) this element that has become central, pushing debate onto the question of maintaining an area 4 Many authors suggest that the use versus in its natural state as opposed to exploiting the preservation question is an ‘appropriate use’ resources it contains. dilemma. This dilemma of ‘appropriate use’ is a This economic valuation is increasingly being conflict of values which will always arise in any used to justify the existence of protected areas anthropocentric approach to conservation and through the demonstrable ‘value’ of both the management of ecosystems: wildlife and ecosystem features. Tourism is becoming increasingly central to these strategies Wilderness, however defined, belongs to all given that tourists are willing to pay to experi- Americans, yet to enjoy the wilderness is to ence these natural areas. destroy it – particularly if the enjoyment is Many studies are now being used to show that seen in terms of mass recreation. (Coppock protected areas make an economic contribution and Rogers, 1975: 510) of some significance.5 These studies have vari- ously used econometric modelling, input–out- Although protected areas are considered as put analysis and multiplier analysis to estimate primarily conservation based (cf. Runte, 1997; the impact of natural resource-based recreation Strom, 1980), there will always be conflicts and tourism on local and regional economies. between use and conservation.

Protected areas have been, are, and will continue to be used by people, irrespective of what park management agencies say and do. Case study Amboseli National (Sheppard, 1987: 23) Park

Section 72(4)(e) of the New South Wales, Aus- Mount Kilimanjaro is the majestic backdrop tralia National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974 for this park which features five different requires: wildlife habitats: the seasonal lake bed of Lake Amboseli, sulphur springs surrounded The encouragement and regulation of the by swamps and marshes, open plains, appropriate use, understanding and enjoyment of each national park, historic site and state recreation area by the public. 5 cf. For a review of these, see IUCN (1996) Economics of 4 (cf. Nash, 1989; Runte, 1997; Turner, 1988) Protected Areas. 44 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

involving millions of dollars may be appearing woodlands, and lava rock thornbush coun- to contribute to local or regional economies but, try. These habitats support elephant herds, in fact, such benefits may only be illusory. Rates black rhino, lion and cheetah as well as of leakage of tourist expenditures can be very Masai giraffe, eland, Coke’s hartebeest high; in the Caribbean for example, first-round waterbuck, impala and gazelle. leakage rates range from 30 to 45% and second- Amboseli National Park is estimated to be round leakages from 15–20%. worth 18 times the annual income of a fully The question of who gets the benefits and who developed commercial beef industry. The pays the costs is complex. Although visitors value of a single lion as a tourist attraction is expect some tourism money to directly benefit estimated at $US27 000 a year, while an the local population surrounding the area, in elephant herd may be worth as much as some cases little of that money actually is $US610 000 per year – thus they are ‘worth’ distributed to the local communities. Moreover, more alive than dead (MacKinnon et al., much of the economic impact literature focuses 1986). The total net return for a park such as only on benefits. Limited attention has been Amboseli in utilizing tourism, is estimated given to the economic costs imposed by the to be 50 times more per hectare a year than infrastructure developed to attract, accommo- 6 the most optimistic agricultural returns. date and facilitate tourism or to the costs of maintaining and/or restoring park resources adversely affected by tourists. This raises the concern of whether the perceived economic Tourism in protected areas can lead to returns of tourism in or associated with pro- increased economic benefits through both the tected areas will lead to inappropriate develop- direct expenditures of tourists and the associated ments and/or use levels that threaten the con- employment opportunities it generates, both servation objectives upon which the park is within and adjacent to the park. This can be founded. capitalized upon in promotional strategies – a Arguments for tourism’s ability to generate poster in Tanzania reads: ‘Our protected areas employment are also problematic, as often bring good money into Tanzania – Protect them’ employment goes to persons residing outside of (Nash, 1989: 344). This economic rationale in the area which directly experiences the impacts support of parks (cf. Machlis and Tichnell, 1985; of tourism. Wages also are typically low and MacKinnon et al., 1986) is especially important tourism is highly seasonal in many areas. Eco- where competing resource uses, such as agri- nomic benefits are also subject to external chan- culture or forestry, are involved. ges, such as shifts in exchange rates that can The economic benefits of tourism have the rapidly change the ‘attractiveness’ of a location potential to provide additional support for park as the cost of holidaying is one of the most protection and for giving parks a role in support- important factors in determining the desirability ing rural development. However, there are ques- of a region. tions about the distribution of the economic This illustrates several key limitations in the benefits of tourism. Large-scale developments economic justification of protected areas. Current economic analyses are capable of extending only to those more tangible economic measurements, 6 Similar studies abound in the literature: one study in Costa such as willingness to pay, travel costs and Rica showed that the value of a tropical rain forest reserve expenditure rates. These methods have been in its natural state was at least equal to or twice as high than the economic ‘price’ of the land itself; a macaw in Peru is effective to an extent in evaluating some human estimated as generating between $750 and $4700 annually behaviour associated with national parks and in tourist revenues (Munn, 1991: 471). protected areas, but they have not been widely ECOTOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS: VISITOR MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY 45 accepted as adequate methods for estimating past decade, expanded its theoretical parameters accurately the value of national parks and to include non-financial benefits. However, there protected areas. is an inherent bias for measurable economic Economics is by definition a zero sum equa- returns. tion and must therefore take account of all costs The solution to the problem should not be that are associated with a particular project in based on the development of better economic order for the economic equation to balance fully. and social indexes: ‘Indexes can’t alter the fact In terms of natural areas, a large proportion of that what one citizen sees as goods another sees the costs in changing the use of an area are social as costs or waste. What one wants to consume costs which, in many cases, are intangible and another wants to leave in the ground. Indexes of difficult, if not impossible to measure. net welfare have to be constructed by con- Economic concepts do not readily adapt to troversial judgements of good and bad. They are measurement of the intangible values of pro- still worth having (though every person may tected areas. The valuation of natural areas has want their own). Better accounting can serve all its basis in the framework for land use planning sorts of good purposes, and reconcile some in developed countries which centres around the mistaken conflicts of opinion, but it can’t recon- idea of ‘highest and best use’. For an economic cile real conflicts of interest outside’ (Stretton, cost, the highest and best use of land invariably 1976: 314). refers to the most economically viable purpose. Ecocentrically informed management recog- Inherent in this judgement are the limitations of nizes that modern science and technology cannot economic indicators to value all relevant factors prevent environmental degradation if the cur- with a consistent degree of accuracy. Clearly it is rent economic growth and resource use trends easier to quantify the value of raw materials, continue, and that a change in philosophy, land (as private real estate) or development politics and economics are needed to ensure that opportunities in accurate monetary terms, than it a sustainable human population can exist in is to identify the more intangible social impacts balance with its environment. This is a preserva- of utilizing a resource. tionist position which re-emphasizes the need When an economic valuation of a natural area for prior macroenvironmental constraints, such is proposed, it is usually done so in order to as government legislation. compare alternative uses of the resource. This Therefore, conservation involves the manage- comparison is almost always for the purposes of ment or control of human use of resources decision making, and this decision-making proc- (bionic and abiotic) and activities on the planet, ess is inherently political. While the concept of in an attempt to restore, enhance, protect and economic cost seeks to provide a figure that sustain the quality and quantity of a desired mix provides a platform upon which a political of species, ecosystem conditions and processes argument is built, almost inevitably this argu- for present and future generations (Dunster and ment moves to analysis of non-economic matters Dunster, 1996: 69). or the concept of ‘social cost,’ or, in economic Resource conservation is thus a form of terms, externalities. ‘restrained development’ in that, at a minimum, In basic economic terms a quality environment development must be sustainable in not endan- is a ‘good’ producing ‘satisfaction’ and therefore gering the natural systems that support life on must be accounted for in some way. Environ- earth – the atmosphere, the waters, the soils, and mental impact assessment has been developed as all living beings. a mechanism to begin accounting for these less An ecocentric systems approach to protected tangible values. However, the consideration of areas management allows a shift from the utili- social costs presents significant problems for tarian/instrumental justification toward the economic analyses. Economic analysis has, in the intrinsic values of the protected areas. However, 46 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES without this change in values the long-term tourism development. For every traveller pre- future of protected areas could be placed in pared to meet the wilderness on its own terms, jeopardy. there exist hundreds of others who demand that it be modified for their use – surfaced roads, cafeterias, toilets, parking, picnic facilities and a range of other amenities. Sustainable management This is a fundamental issue for ecotourism techniques and protected areas. Ecotourists prefer to experience natural areas in an unspoilt state While more conventional forms of tourism mod- and therefore there is a significant crossover of ify the surrounding environment to suit the interest for conservation objectives. However, specific needs of their clients, ecotourists do not although ecotourism to natural areas may have expect or even desire substantial modifications positive outcomes, it is important for manage- of the natural environment. Rather than measur- ment to be aware of possible adverse effects so ing the quality of the tour by conventional that they might be addressed through careful standards such as predicability and uniformity planning and effective management strategies of experience, ‘ecotourism’s success is based on (McNeely and Thorsell, 1989). Protected area the unexpected’ (Williams, 1990: 84). Ecotourism agencies may be significantly attracted to the provides the tourist with opportunities to dis- economic benefits of tourism which may com- cover and actively participate and interact with promise conservation objectives. Managers the surrounding environment, encouraging the must be clear of the park’s objectives along tourist to assume a proactive role in creating with the significant differences between forms their own tourism experience. of tourism and their impacts. Common issues Despite increasing interest from larger tour associated with tourism in natural areas that operators, ecotourism remains largely an activity need to be considered by managers include of small operators (O’Neill, 1991). Thus it occurs visitor crowding, conflict between different user at a different scale to traditional mass tourism as types, littering, user fees and information dis- small operators are restricted in the numbers of tribution (Lucas, 1984). clients that they are able to handle at any one Thus, an important consideration for manage- time (cf. Choegyal, 1991: 94; Williams, 1990: 85). ment involved in ecotourism activities in natural Due to the small scale of operations, political areas is the way in which a balance may be support, market stability, business costs and provided in order to maximize visitor enjoy- employment are not as reliable as conventional ment, while at the same time minimizing the tourism. However, limited group size provides a negative impacts of tourism development (cf. higher quality experience for the tourist. Ceballos-Lascurain, 1990; McNeely and Thorsell, There is concern, however, that ecotourism 1989). will act much in the same manner as mass It is essential here to note that even when tourism only destroying the resource at a slower ecotourism is deployed in order to supply rate (Butler, 1992). In the short term ecotourism is protected areas with economic benefits, the park viewed as ‘less conducive to causing change in itself must be strictly managed, monitored and destination areas than mass tourism, in part controlled through protective measures to pre- because of its dimensions and in part because of vent degradation of the site by tourists. Most the need for fewer and smaller facilities’ (Butler, protected areas with the highest biodiversity are 1990). However, it is thought that, over time, the fragile and even the smallest human impacts cumulative effects of this activity may penetrate have significant environmental effects. Protected deeper into the environment and the surround- areas are themselves areas that are in much ing communities, paving the way for mass demand for nature-based tourism because of the ECOTOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS: VISITOR MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY 47 very features that they are designed to protect – areas, driving off-road at night, feeding animals their biodiversity, remoteness, pristine ecosys- and others. tems. However many of these areas lack infra- Ecotourism groups ideally should be small in structure and park managers therefore have few scale in order to provide a higher quality resources to cope with increasing tourist levels. experience to the customer as this aids in the The defence of protected areas for their intrin- ability to keep environmental stress and impact sic value alone has proven to be difficult. In levels to a minimum, as well as allowing the capitalist societies such as ours, expensive and tourist’s intrinsic goals to be realized. Ecotour- often expansive claims on scarce land resources ism is able to foster an appreciation of natural must be based on broad grounds and integrated areas and traditional cultures by enabling the within a robust management framework; ecotourist to experience an area first hand. It is this tourism has presented an opportunity to achieve first hand experience with the natural environ- this. ment, combined with the quest for education As we have seen in previous chapters, one and other intrinsic enjoyment, that constitutes a critical element of ecotourism is sustainability. true ecotourism experience (Butler, 1992). Ecotourism’s goal then is sustainability which Carrying Capacity, Recreation Opportunity attempts to provide a resource base for the Spectrum, Limits of Acceptable Change, Visitor future, and seeks to ensure the productivity of Impact Management and Visitor Activity Man- the resource base, maintain biodiversity and agement Process are sustainability decision-mak- avoid irreversible environmental changes while ing frameworks used in protected area ensuring equity both within and between management. When implemented they help to generations. protect a country’s natural and cultural heritage, Ecotourism seeks to capitalize on the increase enhance public appreciation of the resource, and in tourism to protected areas renowned for their manage the conflict between resource and user outstanding beauty and extraordinary ecological (Graham et al., 1987: 292). To gain an apprecia- interest and return the benefits of this to the host tion of these strategies and their relationship to community. Ecotourism is premised on the idea managing ecotourism operations, protected that it can only be sustainable if the natural and areas will be used to elaborate the specific issues cultural assets it is reliant upon survive and relating to sustainability practices; their histor- prosper. This involves reducing social and bio- ical development within the context of an physical impacts caused by visitors, reducing the increasing environmental awareness and the leakage of potential benefits away from develop- ability to consider broad social factors will be ing countries, increasing environmental aware- examined. ness and action among tourists and opportunities for the people who would otherwise depend on the extraction of local resources. Management guidelines for natural attractions A short history of protected are frequently expected by nature-oriented tour- areas and sustainable ists. Management control serves to protect and management strategies conserve the area, ensuring that the expectations of visitors are met, thus ensuring that patronage The balancing of the tension between the continues along with the natural resource bases. resource and the user during the late nineteenth Factors which should be under management century and into the late 1960s was largely control and which may affect natural attractions achieved by focusing research, planning and as well as tourist expectations include tourist management efforts on the resource base in infrastructure and development, visitor levels, determining infrastructure and facilities in the guides, vandalism, souvenir collection, access to park. Social and economic factors were not an 48 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES integral component of park planning and man- factors set limits on the population that an area agement and little was known about the dimen- can sustain. When these limits are exceeded, the sions and nature of human use (Graham et al., quality of the environment suffers and ulti- 1987). In this respect, management did not have mately, its ability to support that population’ an understanding of the interdependent relation- (Stankey, 1991: 12). It was believed that objective, ship between social and biophysical systems. biological studies could determine the capacity There was no overall approach to the selection of an area’s natural resources, establishing how and management of visitor opportunities, and much use the environment could cope with and the effectiveness of services could not be meas- regulating access to the resource. According to ured, with incorrect decisions often being made Stankey (1991: 11), this ‘scientific’ basis explains about the size and location of facilities with little the wide appeal of carrying capacity as a public involvement in the development of park recreation and tourism management concept. plans, and often confusing information was There are three main elements of tourism given to visitors (Graham, 1990: 276). carrying capacity: Increasing recreational and tourism use of protected areas is generally accompanied by ᭹ Biophysical (ecological) – which relates to the negative environmental and social impacts. natural environment. These impacts have to be managed to conserve ᭹ Socio-cultural – which relates primarily to the ecological and recreational values. Numerous impact on the host population and its planning and management frameworks have culture. been developed to assist managers in prevent- ᭹ Facility – which relates to the visitor ing, combating or minimizing the effects of experience. recreational use on natural environments. The concepts of Carrying Capacity, the Recrea- Carrying capacity varies according to season tion Opportunity Spectrum (ROS), Limits of and, over time, factors such as tourists’ behav- Acceptable Change (LAC), Visitor Impact Man- ioural patterns, facility design and management, agement (VIM), Visitor Activity Management the dynamic character of the environment, and Process (VAMP) and the Tourism Optimization the changing attitudes of the host community Management Model (TOMM) are examples of will all vary in differing ways, thus affecting its visitor planning and management frameworks. determination. Each is intended to complement existing man- However, carrying capacity has not been as agement and decision-making processes. useful as anticipated. Perhaps it was expected to Carrying capacity is fundamental to environ- reveal precisely ‘how many is too many?’ mental protection and sustainable development. Instead, depending on assumptions and values, It refers to the maximum use of any site without the result has been ‘widely varying capacity causing negative effects on the resources, reduc- estimates’ of types and levels of use (Stankey, ing visitor satisfaction, or exerting adverse 1991: 12). There are a wide range of differing impact upon the society, economy and culture of values and perceptions of what an ‘unacceptable the area. Carrying capacity limits can sometimes impact’ is. There are no absolute measurements be difficult to quantify, but they are essential to of the resource’s condition that can be defined as environmental planning for tourism and constituting ‘crowding’ or ‘resource damage’ recreation. (Stankey, 1991: 13). As social issues, management, as well as natural resources, affect the calculation of carry- Carrying capacity ing capacity, it is not possible to come up with a The carrying capacity concept originated in the number beyond which unacceptable impacts 1970s. Its central idea ‘is that environmental occur: ‘To prevent most impact it would be ECOTOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS: VISITOR MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY 49 necessary to limit use to very low levels’ (Stan- biophysical, social and managerial attributes of key, 1991: 13). People continue to use an area for the park setting (Prosser, 1986: 7). ROS was recreational activities even when it is obviously further developed to provide a logical series of having an impact on the resource. This stems interrelated steps for natural area planning. from the absence of an adequate framework that This new framework is known as the Limits of links the relationship between visitor expecta- Acceptable Change (LAC) system (Prosser, tions, use and impact and management decisions 1986: 6). (Stankey and McCool, 1985). The ROS focuses on the setting in which Carrying capacity analysis then has been recreation occurs. A recreation opportunity spec- virtually ignored because of the complexity of trum is the combination of physical, biological, the parameters, and although tourism operators social and managerial conditions that give value can be conscious that too many visitors will to a place (Clark and Stankey, 1979). ROS has degrade the environment and diminish the been described as a framework for presenting experience of their clients in both recreation and carrying capacities and managing recreational tourism, there are very few examples of it being impacts. The ROS provides a systematic frame- used by agencies to successfully limit tourism (cf. work for looking at the actual distribution of Stankey et al., 1990). opportunities and a procedure for assessing Solutions to the problems of overuse and possible management actions. crowding differ depending on the policies of Clark and Stankey (1979) initially proposed a agencies managing wilderness (Watson, 1989: series of four levels of development, or manage- 394). A study conducted in 1987, for example, ment classes under the ROS, i.e.: found that only 6 out of 38 wilderness managers had estimated recreational carrying capacity, ᭹ semi-modern even though most were concerned about overuse ᭹ modern of parks (Watson, 1989). ᭹ semi-primitive Canada recognized the concept’s deficiencies, ᭹ primitive. such as ignoring the social aspects, and went on Factors used to describe management classes to develop more broad-based concepts. Recrea- were: tion Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) is based on assumptions and tenets borrowed from other ᭹ access lines of research (Driver et al., 1987: 210). ᭹ other non-recreational resource uses ᭹ on-site management The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum ᭹ social interaction ᭹ acceptability of visitor impacts ROS is a framework for prescribing carrying ᭹ acceptable level of regimentation. capacities and managing recreational impacts. The process is largely a judgemental one, but Limitations of the ROS are related to its basis in establishes explicit standards regarding appro- recreational carrying capacity, which is seen as priate conditions for each opportunity class. the product of technical assessments, as opposed Determining carrying capacities for recreational to value judgements that weigh resource and areas establishes conditions of use which are social impacts, along with human needs and considered appropriate for each opportunity values (McCool, 1990). type, and provides a means of assessing the relative numbers of persons as a result of Limits of Acceptable Change changing opportunity types (cf. Stankey, 1991). The ROS approach shifted attention from the The Limits of Acceptable Change methodology type and amount of use an area receives to the is an extension of the ROS concept and 50 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES recognizes both the social and environmental (Stankey, 1991: 14). The LAC framework mit- dimensions of recreational impacts. It involves igates the conflict between recreation, tourism both resource managers and stakeholders in: and conservation. It defines the impacts associated with different levels of environmental ᭹ identifying accptable and achievable social protection. It also helps set the basis for allowing and resource standards; environmental change consistent with, and ᭹ documenting gaps between desirable and appropriate and acceptable to, different types of existing circumstances; recreational opportunities (Stankey, 1991: 13). ᭹ identifying management actions to close these By establishing specific indicators and gaps; and standards related to conservation values, cou- ᭹ monitoring and evaluating management effec- pled with monitoring, it is possible to define tiveness (Payne and Graham, 1993). what impact levels can be permitted before management intervention becomes necessary The LAC planning system consists of nine (Stankey, 1991: 12). steps. Significantly, the LAC system does more than develop and extend the ROS framework. It also ᭹ Identifying concerns and issues. represents an important reformulation of key ᭹ Defining and describing opportunity classes. elements of the carrying capacity concept ᭹ Selecting indicators of resource and social (Prosser, 1986: 8). By directing attention away conditions. from the question ‘how much recreation use is ᭹ Carrying out an inventory of resource and too much?’ towards desired conditions, the LAC social conditions. approach skirts around the use/impact conun- ᭹ Specifying standards for the resource and drum. Because the resource and social conditions social indicators. of an area are most important, the LAC emphasis ᭹ Identifying alternative opportunity class is on management of the impacts of use (Lucas allocations. and Stankey, 1988). ᭹ Identifying management actions for each alternative. ᭹ Evaluating and selecting an alternative. Visitor Impact Management ᭹ Implementing actions and monitoring condition (Stankey et al., 1985). The Visitor Impact Management process involves a combination of legislation/policy Relative to the ROS, the LAC framework offers review, scientific problem identification (both more opportunity for public participation which social and natural) and analysis and professional results in a consensus planning approach to judgement (Payne and Graham, 1993). The prin- natural area management. However, few LAC ciples of VIM are as follows. systems have been implemented with any great success and this is thought to be due to a lack of ᭹ Identifying unacceptable changes occurring as political and economic support from stake- a result of visitor use and developing manage- holders (McArthur, 1997c). LAC systems also ment strategies to keep visitor impacts within require considerable resources to establish inven- acceptable levels. tories of resource and social conditions. ᭹ Integrating visitor impact management into The LAC system is a technical planning existing agency planning, design and manage- system. It provides a ‘systematic decision-mak- ment processes. ing framework which helps determine what ᭹ Basing visitor impact management on the best resource and social conditions are acceptable and scientific understanding and situational infor- prescribes appropriate management actions’ mation available. ECOTOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS: VISITOR MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY 51

᭹ Determining management objectives that framework involves the development of activity identify the resource condition to be achieved profiles which connect activities with: and the type of recreation experience to be provided. ᭹ the social and demographic characteristics of ᭹ Identifying visitor impact problems by com- the participants; paring standards for acceptable conditions ᭹ the activity setting requirements; and with key indicators of impact at designated ᭹ trends affecting the activity. times and locations. ᭹ Basing management decisions, to reduce The VAMP framework is designed to operate in impacts or maintain acceptable conditions, on parallel with the natural resource management knowledge of the probable sources of, and process. interrelationships between unacceptable VAMP is a proactive, flexible, decision build- impacts. ing framework which can contribute to a more ᭹ Addressing visitor impacts using a wide range integrated approach to management of protected of alternative management techniques. areas. It has the potential to develop better ᭹ Formulating visitor management objectives, information about customary users, stakehold- which incorporate a range of acceptable ers, visitors and non-visitors (Graham, 1990: impact levels, to accommodate the diversity of 280). Information on both natural and social environments and experience opportunities sciences is used to ‘build’ decisions about access present within any natural setting (Graefe et and use of protected areas. It also incorporates a al., 1990). format for evaluating the effectiveness in meeting public needs (Graham, 1990: 281). Both LAC and VIM frameworks rely on VAMP is not a process to justify random indicators and standards as a means of defining development at a site; rather, it is an aid to impacts deemed unacceptable and place carry- understanding visitor behaviour and, where ing capacities into a broader managerial context. necessary, to modifying it. The questions that However, VIM makes reference to planning and guide the process include needs and expecta- policy and includes identifying the probable tions, what interpretive services and educational causes of impacts, whereas LAC places more opportunities should be offered at a site, level of emphasis on defining opportunity classes service for current and projected use, and visitor (Graefe et al., 1990; Payne and Graham, 1993). satisfaction (Graham, 1990: 283). VAMP provides a framework to ensure that visitor understanding, appreciation and enjoyment of the resources is just as carefully and Visitor Activity Management Process systematically considered as protection of natu- Whereas Recreation Opportunity Spectrum and ral resources. VAMP does not stand alone, but Limits of Acceptable Change relied on manage- operates within a strong planning and management of the resource, the emphasis with Visitor ment context as it represents how social science Activity Management Process (VAMP) shifted data are integrated within a park’s management back to the user of the resource. VAMP built on planning process. the previously developed Visitor Impact man- The application of the basic VAMP concept to agement (VIM). It has received relatively little management of visitor programmes follows the attention in recreation management journals, traditional approach to planning used by most whereas VAMP has been written about exten- resource management agencies. However, a sively in the USA and Canada. major emphasis throughout each stage is on The Visitor Activity Management Process understanding park visitors (Taylor, 1990). The relates to interpretation and visitor services. This task is to determine the current situation when 52 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES comparing the park’s expectations to the visi- natural ecosystems. Once identified, these limits tor’s, and then to assess the actual activity on must be strictly monitored in order to ensure that offer in terms of services, their use and visitor baseline sustainability limits are maintained. satisfaction (Taylor, 1990). VAMP’s proactive Protected area authorities must then implement approach to profiling visitor activity groups, strategies to ensure that these limits are suggesting target messages and evaluation maintained. before the development of interpretive programmes, may lead to more effective interpretation and environmental education pro- Use limitation grammes (Graham, 1990: 291). One fairly common and direct regulatory type of visitor management is that of use limitation. For Tourism Optimization Management instance, in Grand Canyon National Park, pri- Model vate and commercial rafting parties have been The Tourism Optimization Management Model limited to approximately 2000 per year (Todd, was developed by Manidis Roberts Consultants. 1989). Also, Skomer Island, Wales, is a bird It builds on the LAC system to incorporate a sanctuary with access controlled by a daily ferry, stronger political dimension and seeks to mon- limiting the quota of visitors to 100 per day itor and manage tourism in a way that seeks (Valentine, 1991a). While the small size of eco- optimum sustainable performance, rather than tour operators serves to limit tourist numbers maximum levels or carrying capacities. TOMM somewhat, there may also be a need for man- involves the following. agers to implement built-in limits to control the size and number of tour operations acting within ᭹ Identifying strategic imperatives (such as poli- natural areas (Bunting, 1991). Private operators cies and emerging issues). may be restricted by permit or other such ᭹ Identifying community values, product char- regulations to guard against excessive or acteristics, growth patterns, market trends and destructive impacts (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1990). opportunities, positioning and branding, and As well as controlling the negative impacts on alternative scenarios for tourism in a region. the natural environment, this would also serve to ᭹ Identifying optimum conditions, indicators, increase the quality of the visitors’ experience, as acceptable ranges, monitoring techniques, most ecotourists perceive crowding to be a benchmarks, annual performance and pre- problem. Research indicates that by reducing dicted performance. crowding, particularly in camping areas, the ᭹ Identifying poor performance, exploring quality of visitor experience tends to increase, cause/effect relationships, identifying results although fewer people are able to experience the requiring a tourism response or other sector benefits of this. response, and developing management Therefore, intensity of use (how many people options to address poor performance (McAr- are engaged in particular activities?) is an impor- thur, 1997a). tant consideration for managers of natural areas. Regulations can be used to control the numbers of visitors entering a particular area in any given time period, their access points and the types of Managing visitor use activities they may undertake. As well as implementing these controls, managers may find it The frameworks we have discussed above are necessary to employ some form of deterrent to effective means to assess and project the sustain- the breaching of regulations. These deterrents are able and desired limits of human impact on usually in the form of fines and other penalties ECOTOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS: VISITOR MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY 53 which may be difficult to enforce due to limita- the ecotourism experience as impact levels tions in surveillance. spread, making it more difficult to experience a In order to limit the number of visitors to an truly unspoilt wilderness tract. area, management must first establish a visitor Managers may wish to shift use in site-specific carrying capacity – an estimate of the capacity of ways, to reduce use in particularly fragile or an area to absorb visitors so that such use is overused areas and shift some of it to specific sustainable (McNeely and Thorsell, 1989). Envi- places better able to sustain it. This can be ronmental, social and managerial resources must achieved through zoning measures and the be evaluated as all of these factors represent restriction of access points to control the move- constraints on the carrying capacity of a given ments of ecotourists and other visitors within area. One problem associated with the establish- wilderness ares. ment of carrying capacities is that it is subjective issue, each interest tolerating various levels of Zoning environmental degradation. Thus management must determine the level of visitor use that an Zoning may also be used to control different uses area can accommodate, ‘maintaining high levels in different parts of the region. It is a multi- of visitor satisfaction and few negative impacts dimensional technique that is driven by eco- on the environment’ (McNeely and Thorsell, logical data to balance the demands of protection 1989: 33). and use in determining the most appropriate Use redistribution as a visitor management levels of use for specific areas within the park. technique may be either direct or indirect in One of the most important outcomes is to ensure nature. Such techniques are most commonly that ‘activities in one zone do not impinge on the used by managers to reduce the concentration of planned functions of another’ (Buckley and use in general, by shifting some visitors from Pannell, 1990: 29). Where tourism is concerned, heavily to lightly used ares (Lucas, 1984). It is zoning should include areas that are not open for believed that tourists tend to confine themselves visitation in order to minimize the impact of to small segments of wilderness in accordance infrastructure on wildlife. For example, ‘tourism with the ease of access and viewing attractions and recreation in the upstream part of a catch- (Todd, 1989). Although this may not be desired ment may adversely affect water quality in the by the ecotourist, they are often restricted in their downstream region; so if the latter has been experiences by the operators or guides of such zoned purely for conservation, it may suffer tours who, whilst seeking to provide their client water quality deterioration even though there with the best view of wildlife, produce a highly are no recreational activities in the conservation commercial activity. An example of this includes zone itself’ (Buckley and Pannell, 1990: 29). operators in the Serengeti National Park in As ecotourism involves low impact travel Tanzania, where tour bus drivers ‘concentrate on requiring few facilities and minimal disturbance the “Big 5” – lion, leopard, elephant, buffalo and to the environment and other wilderness users, it rhino’ (Todd, 1989: 78). is not so prevalent to zone ecotouristic activity Use redistribution has been implemented in from other users as it is to zone more commercial East Africa’s Amboseli Game Park where, in the activities from them. For example, it is necessary late 1970s, it was estimated that 80% of visitors for managers to limit or prohibit areas in which used only 10% of the total area of the park. This mechanized recreation, horse riding and other technique was used to disperse visitor move- such activities are not permissible in order to ment throughout the park, allowing carrying minimize the negative impact on the wilderness capacity to rise from 80 000 to 250 000 visitors area, as well as to protect other visitor experi- annually, for the same level of impact (Todd, ences. Visitor facilities act as a powerful manage- 1989: 78). However, this may not be conducive to ment tool. They allow managing authorities to 54 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES attract tourists to areas of significance/interest, study, as well as strongly committed to wilder- control activities within these areas and divert ness’. Ecotourists possess these same character- visitors from more sensitive areas. Thus more istics and it is thought that these allow education traditional forms of tourism may be restricted programmes to be successful in informing tour- from areas important to ecotourism by simply a ists of how to minimize the negative impacts of lack of facilities that adequately satisfy their their visit on the surrounding environment. It is needs. This indirect management technique of important, however, that the information pro- restraint in providing facilities in natural areas vided to visitors be interpretative in nature, seems to be ‘consistent with what is known explaining possible interactions between visitors about wilderness visitor preferences; visitors are and the environment as well as methods to not clamouring for facilities that managers refuse reduce any impacts that might occur from these to provide’ (Lucas 1984: 135). interactions. This information may be provided in such forms as brochures, maps and pamphlets and is preferred by visitors to be distributed Trail system design prior to entering the resource area. The majority Trail system design is also an indirect manage- of information aimed at changing visitor behav- ment action that may not only be effective in the iour deals with the reduction of environmental redistribution of use, but also for improving the impacts through minimal impact camping and quality of visitor experiences, by setting the level hiking information. These education pro- of challenge, the scenic quality and the oppor- grammes commonly address issues such as tunities to observe and learn about natural littering, campfire use and vegetation impacts communities and processes (Lucas, 1984). The (Lucas, 1984). design of trail systems may be an important factor in improving the quality of the ecotourist’s Education experience as they rely on trails to provide an experience in themselves, rather than just a route No natural resource can be effectively managed to attractions. Much of the negative impact that without the support and backing of its users. It occurs in natural areas can be specifically related follows that no system of natural area reserves to visitor behaviour and actions, rather than to can adequately fulfil its roles without the guid- sheer numbers of users. It is the minority ‘few ance of appropriate management objectives. Fail- unskilled, uninformed, careless groups rather ure to fulfil such roles and provide appropriate than the many typical parties’ that cause most of information is likely to alienate some recrea- the damage (Lucas, 1984: 133). Perceptions of tional users and decrease the level of public natural areas may be altered through various support for the reserve system as a whole. This means of providing visitors with information. would be a very serious situation, for without This indirect management technique can act to public support it is unlikely that we would have increase the visitors’ enjoyment of the area and such a diverse and extensive range of environ- also to stimulate ‘modes of behaviour which ments protected. The fate of reserve systems is enhance the environmental quality of the site’ determined largely by social and political pres- (McNeely and Thorsell, 1989: 37). It is recognized sures (Hall and McArthur, 1996). Even the best by Buckley and Pannell (1990) that education as planned management procedures will fail with- a management option may be the most effective out public support. A strong base of public of all management techniques, particularly in support for the aims and objectives of protected natural areas where it may well be the only areas is one of the first prerequisites for their option. Lucas (1984: 133) notes that wilderness management. From this comes the political will, visitors ‘tend to be highly educated, most with financial support and staffing necessary to ach- university educations and often with graduate ieve the aims and objectives of management. For ECOTOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS: VISITOR MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY 55 this reason it is essential that natural area include ‘slide shows, lectures and discussions to management provides information that seeks to further familiarize guests with the wildlife, change behaviour, not just awareness (Forestell, history and culture of the remote area in which 1990). As we shall see in the following chapter, they find themselves’ (Choegyal, 1991: 95). How- interpretation and education are key compo- ever, with tour operations it is also necessary to nents of ecotourism and protected areas provide educate and inform tour leaders of the most one of the essential ingredients for successful appropriate behaviours for environmentally sen- interpretation. They provide the opportunity for sitive regions. The Tiger Mountain group of natural processes to be observed, for the inter- companies operating in Nepal believes ‘in edu- relationship of natural ecological systems to be cating trek clients before leaving Kathmandu appreciated and for the consequences of human with detailed briefings of ecological issues and change and ultimate degradation to be under- how to behave. Our sherpa guide groups which stood (Kenchington, 1990). Outdoor recreation seldom exceed a dozen people, leave campsites has been the major function of all parks and as they find them and carry out all non- reserve areas, even though conservation may be biodegradable rubbish’ (Cheogyal, 1991: 101). the more vital and immediately necessary role of A more direct benefit of interpretation is as a these areas (Cameron-Smith, 1977). Recreation in visitor management tool to manage visitors and this context is generally limited to those activities reduce visitor impacts. One of the chief criticisms that are ‘consistent with preserving the natural of ecotourism is that it threatens to destroy the state’ of these areas, although this definition in environment which it is trying to protect. Inter- itself can cause problems. Activities such as bush pretation is an effective way management can walking, picnicking, camping and nature pho- encourage appropriate behaviour, thus alleviat- tography for example, are generally considered ing any potentially damaging behaviours of acceptable within national park and reserve ecotourists. For example, the ecotourist trekking areas; however, even such restricted recreational through the Himalayas in Nepal in search of an use can cause problems, including physical understanding of subalpine environments can damage to ecological and cultural resources. leave trails strewn with toilet paper, empty cans User/user or user/manager conflicts in the and bottles, and ashes from fires used for perception of what constitutes acceptable recrea- cooking. However, they can be educated through tional behaviour at any given site can and do still interpretive means so that they are aware of the arise (Beckmann, 1991). devastation that their impact is causing. Priorities in outdoor recreation management While other strategies for reducing environ- should therefore include a balancing of supply mental impacts from visitor pressure have been and demand, ‘a matching of resource adequacy developed and implemented in protected areas with human recreational needs and desires’ and national parks, interpretation is a key (Kenchington, 1990). Management strategies approach due to its long-term effects (Cameron- which reconcile recreation with other priorities Smith, 1977). For example, interpretation can such as conservation have become essential with help visitors to understand and appreciate the increasing visitor demand. Visitor, rather than differences in permitted activities, management resource management, is now regarded as the practices and conservation values among most important component of recreation man- national parks, state forests, reserves and pri- agement (Wearing and Gardiner, 1994). vately owned bushland, as such interpretation is Ecotour operators in wilderness and other an important part of any strategic management protected areas must also assume responsibility plan. for minimizing the impacts of their operations in Although interpretation is believed by many the destination region. Examples of education to be the most powerful tool for visitor manage- techniques that may be applied by tour operators ment it has rarely been incorporated fully into 56 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES major planning mechanisms (Roggenbuck, ᭹ Donations: are often sought from tourists 1987). None the less, the relationship between which may be used to contribute to maintain- interpretation and management is now recog- ing a facility (cf. Hedstram, 1992; Marriott, nized as a fundamental one and the two are often 1993). linked directly in management policies (Wearing and Gardiner, 1994). For example, interpretation Fees can provide an important source of revenue significantly influences the carrying capacity of for managers, particularly in developing coun- an area. By limiting the number of unwanted tries where protected areas are traditionally encounters or experiences in a recreational envi- underfunded (Swanson, 1992). The rationale ronment and restricting unsuitable behaviour in supporting user fees is that most foreign visitors the area and reducing conflicts between users, travel to remote protected areas to experience the current acceptable field carrying capacity their very isolation and unspoilt natural features. limits can be increased. The visitors should be willing to contribute to the costs of maintaining such conditions (Bun- ting, 1991). Ecotourists travelling in tour groups User fees and charges pay a fee which is usually incorporated into the User fees and charges have been gaining price of the tour. increased consideration as natural areas have This chapter has presented the issues relating become more popular for recreational use. There to ecotourism and protected area management are a range of each and they are methods of (national parks). It has reflected upon the com- capturing revenue from visitation that is essen- promise between current views on management tial to channel back into conservation of our natural resources, and allows for evolu- objectives: tion towards future management based on ecocentric management using ecotourism as a cata- ᭹ User fees: charges on ‘users’ of an area or lyst. Given the dominance of economic facility such as park admission, trekking fees rationalism and increasing competition for etc. scarce resources, protected areas are going to ᭹ Concession: groups or individuals that provide come under more and more use pressure. Park certain services to visitors are often levied a supporters need to join the political debate and fee for the permission to operate within a look at ecotourism as a means of achieving the location – food, accommodation and retail economic justification that will ensure the short- stores for example. term survival of protected areas while develop- ᭹ Sales and royalties: fees levied on a percentage ing a political constituency enabling a longer- of earnings that have been derived from term perspective. Conservation and preservation activities or products at a site – photographs of natural resources and cultural heritage are or postcards for example. global as well as local concerns. For tourism to be ᭹ Taxation: an extra cost imposed upon goods sustainable, the type and extent of tourism and services that are used by ecotourists– activity must be balanced against the capacity of airport taxes for example. the natural and man-made resources available. 5

The role of interpretation in achieving a sustainable future

It has been suggested that there is limited value with feeling and realizing some of its value. In this in science (which provides the data upon which way, interpretation is oriented towards a visitor’s conservation is based) and management (which cognitive and emotional state in order to raise provides the tools) without communication to awareness, enhance understanding and, hope- share their respective insights and directions fully, clarify or enlarge each participant’s per- (McCurdy, 1985). Past experience has shown us spective and attitude. In this way, interpretation is that many of the answers to today’s environmen- essential to conservation goals. tal problems are far from clear, based as they are Regulations and restrictions do not necessarily on scientific prediction only after the accumula- change people’s activities or attitude towards tion of evidence and therefore after significant our environment (Cameron-Smith, 1977). Few impacts have already occurred. This is com- people are satisfied in the knowledge that small pounded by scientists being notoriously poor at pockets of natural wilderness exist if they cannot imparting information that is readily under- gain access to the areas. We can focus on standable to the lay person, and as such the regulation, but as we have seen in previous message is often lost to the community at large. chapters, there could never be enough resources As science increasingly informs ecology it is – rangers, firearms or patrol vehicles – to protect essential for it not only to communicate the facts parks from visitors who do not care about them and current theories, but to promote under- (Cameron-Smith, 1977; McCurdy, 1985). Visitors standing of resource management as a dynamic to sensitive protected area sites who lack aware- process with a continuing need for monitoring, ness of the value of the place can become bored, assessment and research. and then directly or indirectly cause impacts As we have seen in Chapter 1 it is this which could have been avoided if they had been recognition of interpretation and education’s offered a more enriching experience pitched at centrality to ecotourism that helps to differentiate their interests. ecotourism from other forms of nature-based Interpretation is effective because rather than tourism. A focus on the dimensions of visitor regulating and enforcing behaviours and prac- experience reveals that the visitor is concerned tices, it works with, rather than against the not with simply looking at a setting or object, but visitor. 58 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

Defining interpretation experience because most sights become that little bit more interesting when you know a little more Before exploring some of the interpretive tech- about them. Ecotourism operators have recog- niques utilized by ecotourism, we need to clearly nized this value-adding and incorporated it into define what interpretation is and understand their product. For the operator interpretation how attitudinal and behavioural outcomes are and education are important because they pro- generated by interpretation. vide an opportunity to offer something extra that Many definitions of interpretation limit it to a may lead to market advantage. kind of ‘dressing-up’ exercise for facts and However, interpretation and education need figures, usually the translation of the technical not necessarily focus on natural and cultural language associated with natural science into heritage and the raising of appreciation. Ecotour- terms and concepts that people can easily under- ists are, after all, on holiday, and are therefore stand and enjoy (Ham, 1992). While this may be resistant to the imposition of ‘too much informa- a part of what interpretation is, it is not limited to tion’ and particularly of having it ‘shoved down this aspect alone. Indeed, Freeman Tilden (1977), their throats’, meaning that they are sensitive to in providing one of interpretation’s most recog- the continual presentation of one perspective nized definitions, states that it is ‘an educational and position. As a result, interpreters and educa- activity which aims to reveal meaning and tors have widened their definition and use of relationships through the use of original objec- interpretation to present a range of values, tives, by first-hand experience, and by illus- perspectives and positions. This approach, trative media, rather than simply to commu- known as a multicentric approach, places the nicate factual information’ (Tilden, 1977: 8). responsibility back with the visitor to arrive at Tilden stressed that interpretation was not their own understanding based on their col- simply ‘jazzed up information’; it had a larger lective experiences. purpose – that of revelation. Although an envi- The definition provided by the Interpretation ronmental interpreter may use factual informa- Australia Association is worth noting because it tion to illustrate points and clarify meanings, it is was generated after extensive consultation with concepts and ideals that they are first trying to its 400 or more members from various inter- communicate, not simply facts. This is what pretation professions. The definition endorsed distinguishes interpretation from conventional by the association was that interpretation ‘is a education and instruction and it is in these terms means of communicating ideas and feelings that effective interpretation can be used as a which helps people enrich their understanding basis for developing a conservation ethic within and appreciation of their world, and their role the community. within it’ (Interpretation Australia Association, The Queensland National Parks and Wildlife 1995). This definition builds on the multicentric Service (Carter, 1984) defined interpretation as: ‘a view and Tilden’s stress on revelation, then adds special process of stimulating and encouraging the concept of empowerment, so that the end an appreciation of the natural and cultural benefit rests with the audience of the inter- heritage of a region, as well as a means of pretation – the visitor, or the ecotourist. communicating nature conservation ideals and It is worth contrasting interpretation from practices.’ This definition suggests that the serv- education, particularly since in the field of ice uses interpretation to get visitors to appre- ecotourism the two are so often used inter- ciate the heritage it is responsible for managing. changeably. Education is a more formalized This single perspective or value base is com- version of interpretation. Whereas interpretation monly known as a unicentric approach (Machlis tries to capture the attention of visitors, educa- and Field, 1992). From the visitor’s perspective, tion typically has a ‘captive audience’ and can interpretation is a means of value-adding to their therefore develop facilities and programmes THE ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN ACHIEVING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE 59 specifically designated for education. Environ- tion and propaganda when they do visit. Recent mental education mirrors the basic philosophy research by Beaumont (1997) suggests that inter- and characteristics of interpretation in that it also pretation can induce a change in understanding takes place in the natural environment and its and a positive shift in attitude amongst individ- subject matter concerns the environment. uals who already have some form of conservation ethic. However, the same research suggests that visitors with a limited understanding and narrow attitude are less likely to be influenced Case study New Zealand by interpretation provided by an ecotourism operator. Thus, interpretation may not neces- Customized educational resources for tour sarily lead to a conservation ethic and flow-on operators and their customers have been behaviour, nor even retention of a positive designed for a series of themed heritage attitude (Carter, 1979). However, this may be due trails in New Zealand which aim to enhance to the standard of interpretation being delivered the tourist experience. The production of not reaching a level that induces visitors to shift something tangible or physical, through the their position. Fundamentally, they require an provision of interpretive materials and cer- experience that will change their fundamental tificates as a result of participation on the thinking about the environment and its preserva- trails, has been clearly identified as value- tion (Forestell, 1990). adding and building on the natural com- Clearly, the ability of interpretation to enact petitive advantage of New Zealand’s eco- attitudinal change is in large part dependent tourism industry (Hall et al., 1991). upon the availability and effectiveness of resources to provide material that can be understood by the general public and is able to maintain their interest both on-site and post experience. Given the relative lack of research on inter- Changing understanding, pretation finding its way back to interpreters, attitudes and behaviour this situation seems to be intractable for the short to medium term. The effects of limited research In order to understand how interpretation and subsequent poor planning in the past were works, it is important to understand how inter- largely responsible for a culture of interpreters pretation relates to attitudinal and behavioural that was overtly focused on technique delivery, change in contributing to environmental aware- at the expense of a sound rationale (McArthur, ness. This in turn requires an understanding of 1996). It therefore seems pertinent briefly to what attitudes are and what kinds of cognitive examine some of these techniques that inter- processes are involved in their change. If we preters typically concentrate on providing. argue for greater use of interpretation as a means of generating attitudes and behavioural choice that will assist in conserving our environment, we must have some idea of how the process of Interpretation techniques gaining an environmental consciousness occurs. In order for natural areas to stimulate environ- There are more ways to interpret than one could mental awareness, people presently uncommit- hope to cover, because each technique is like a ted to conservation must be encouraged to visit piece of artwork, crafted from the creativity of both national parks and reserves. In order to the interpreter. In this sense, some of the most achieve a change in attitude, they must be creative interpretation is barely recognized as provided with much more than simple informa- such. 60 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

For example, within the lobby of an ecolodge or to deliver educational activities and house facili- museum the materials used in construction, the ties and supporting material. Education centres pattern of pavers on the floor, and the choice of usually feature low key classrooms to hold music, all suggest ideas and feelings of which the activities and discussion sessions, though the visitor may or may not consciously be aware. surrounding environment outside the environ- Another example is the presence of staff within a ment centre is critical to delivering many of the site and the way in which they present themselves activities. The most effective education centres to visitors (McIntyre et al., 1993; WTO, 1990). As are those containing one or more full-time staff move about their normal duties they can education officers who have developed their casually engage visitors in conversation, provide programmes to dovetail with school curricula. relevant information and obtain some feedback. In order for the contact to be effective, however, Displays and exhibits the staff must be knowledgeable, which may require training in visitor communication and Displays and exhibits are typically developed as hospitality. The most widely recognized inter- permanent features within a museum or visitor/ pretive techniques therefore tend to be the more education centre, or as a mobile ‘mini-centre’, or tangible ones, such as visitor centres, publica- mobile display. They typically feature objects tions, guided tours and educational activities, and specimens, dioramas, scale models, live displays and exhibits and signs. exhibits, panels of text, diagrams and photographs. Displays and exhibits are useful because they are relatively cost effective, and are portable Visitor centres enough to be located indoors or outdoors. The Visitor centres are special buildings or rooms in most effective exhibits are designed with a which exhibits and displays can be presented in specific audience in mind, and the most effective relative comfort and controlled surroundings. mobile displays are those that are staffed to add Exhibits may include photographs arranged in a more personal touch to the interpretation. wall or panel displays, map models, mounted specimens, or diagrams. Visitor centres are very useful for showing ‘the big picture’ – such as processes, histories and other features that cannot be easily depicted on-site. Visitor centres Case study ‘The Environment often house permanent and continuous audio- Express’: Trinidad and Tobago visual presentations in an auditorium. The visitor experience within a visitor centre typically ‘The Environment Express’, is a mobile finishes with a gift shop selling extension mate- interpretation centre which continuously rial such as detailed guidebooks and maps. travels through Trinidad and Tobago. The Where necessary, visitor centres can be enlarged interpretation centre is a converted pas- or combined with education centres. The most senger bus and was introduced as part of an effective visitor centres are designed from the integrated environmental awareness pro- inside out, meaning that their interpretive theme gramme on the two Caribbean Islands. The and purpose drives the design and construction audience was clearly identified as the local of the building, rather than vice versa. community and the most obvious advantage of the programme was the dedicated staff who adapted the design of the bus and Education centres the programmes to better serve the users Education centres are designated buildings, or (Meganck, 1992). separate spaces within a visitor centre, designed THE ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN ACHIEVING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE 61

Publications area. Thirdly, the editor’s notes have often Publications are a cost-effective way of reaching addressed ecotourism-specific issues, partic- a lot of people. Publications can come in the form ularly when they relate to articles. of brochures, leaflets, note-sheets, maps, books, Busch used an example article on the posters, postcards, calenders and stickers. Pub- Amazon to illustrate the type of article lications tend to be based around information produced. The piece centred around an rather than interpretation. For example, the Amazon ecotour that took the photographer standard brochure promoting a region or site from Belem, near the mouth of the river, tends to be more information-oriented. None the westward to Iquitos, Peru, 2300 miles less, there have been some highly interpretive upriver. The article illustrated the forest posters that use layered presentations of images flooding during the rainy season and the and ideas to progressively reveal underlying role of fish in seed dispersal as they swam ideas. Some of the disadvantages of publications among trees. The article also depicted tree- are that they have limited capacity to respond to top lodges at the the Explornapo Camp, a different visitor needs, they are expensive to low-impact ecolodge facility near Iquitos, distribute and manage, and they can quickly and most importantly, the native guide who date and need upgrading. interprets the rainforest. Thus, there was a balance between environmental and cultural presentation. Case study The National Busch’s presentation ended in a reitera- Geographic Traveller tion that the needs of the environment and reader are not mutually exclusive, and that The National Geographic Traveller is an Amer- if other publications took care to inform ican-based magazine publication, whose readers on the fragility of ecosystems, and mission is to ‘increase and diffuse’ geo- ways to minimize impacts, such advertising graphic knowledge. The editor, Richard could benefit both the environment and the Busch, stated in his address to the 1994 consuming public. World Congress on Adventure Travel and Source: R Busch, ‘Ecotourism: responsibilities of the Ecotourism that publications such as the media, World Congress on Adventure Travel and National Geographic Traveller had two respon- Ecotourism, Hobart, Tasmania, 7–10 November 1994 sibilities – one to their readers and the other to the environment. The readers need to be provided information on worthwhile places to visit, and simultaneously informed on the importance of protecting the environment. Self-guided trails The publication ‘communicates with a conscience’ by following several important Self-guided trails involve a series of prescribed steps. Firstly, the editor insists that writers stops along a route that visitors travel. The route discuss relevant ecological issues in the may be a road, a walking track, a river or a stories themselves. This is often supple- railway line. Each stop provides a feature that is mented by side stories and sidebars on the interpreted via a brochure, a sign or an audio subject. Secondly, an ‘Econotes’ component facility such as radio or cassette. Each stop is of the trip-planning section details the envir- usually marked by a numbered post, label or onmentally friendly do’s and don’ts, and sign. A self-guided trail allows the visitor free- often covers policy governing the subject dom to move at their own pace, stopping for as long as they want. Self-guided tours have similar 62 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES problems to publications but are similarly cost- recognized that people retain approximately effective per visitor contact. A study in Sweden 10% of what they hear, 30% of what they read, of self-guided tours for campers found that it 50% of what they see and 90% of what they was much easier to attract the independent do. travellers to self-guided tours for exactly those ᭹ Insights that people discover for themselves reasons (Hultman, 1992). are the most memorable as they stimulate a sense of excitement and growth. Guided tours ᭹ Learning requires activity on the part of the learner. Face-to-face interpretation is considered to be ᭹ Being aware of the usefulness of the knowl- one of the most powerful and worthwhile edge being acquired makes the learning proc- interpretive techniques available because it can ess more effective. be continually tuned to the type of visitor(s) ᭹ People learn best from first hand experience participating. In terms of commercially run (Lewis, 1980). ecotourism, guided tours are perhaps the most widely used technique. The method is especially With these factors in mind, it should be possible useful with school children and formal tour to develop an effective communication network groups, or as a means of controlling where that promotes ecotourism and subsequently a visitors go and what they do. A trained guide conservation ethic. Interpretation should leave accompanying a group discusses features along the ecotourist with a sense of enjoyment and a predetermined route, adding additional detail satisfaction, and a perception that environmental or perspectives according to the interests and conservation and the principles of sustainability responses of the group. One of the strengths of are worthwhile, thus satisfying conservation guided tours is that the guide can adapt what is objectives (Forestell, 1990). said to the particular interest of each group. Protected areas provide one of the essential Guides working for ecotourism operators must ingredients for successful interpretation. They be knowledgeable about many aspects of the provide the opportunity for natural processes to attractions and be fluent in the major languages be observed, for the inter-relationship of natural of visitors. One of the limitations of guided tours ecological systems to be appreciated and for the is their high cost per visitor, and their continual consequences of human change and ultimate reliance on the personality and commitment of degradation to be understood (Kenchington, the guide to deliver a high quality experience. In 1990). If these opportunities are realized, then addition, large proportions of visitors may find people can look forward to a more informed guides an interference that impinges upon their society, capable of weighing up the implications desired sense of freedom. of local, national and international decisions which may affect the environment, fostering a willingness to participate actively in the deci- Principles for successful sion-making process (Ham, 1992). interpretation

Successful interpretation typically reflects a number of key principles: The benefits of interpretation

᭹ People learn better when they are actively Along with interpretation’s role in value-adding involved in the learning process. to the visitor experience through enhancing and ᭹ People learn better when they are using as facilitating the setting being explored, there are many senses as appropriate. It is generally four key areas of potential benefits: THE ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN ACHIEVING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE 63

᭹ promotional benefits; appraisal of an organization based on the ‘image’ ᭹ recreational benefits; presented and since most conservation author- ᭹ educational benefits; ities communicate their message and ideas with ᭹ management/conservation benefits (Beck- the use of visual media, the relevance of an mann, 1991). interesting and easily recognizable design or logo is central. In practical terms these benefits may overlap An easily recognizable graphic design will significantly, but for clarity we will discuss them improve communication of the conservation individually. message by allowing the public to identify the management agency and the management practices associated with that agency. It will also promote a favourable corporate image for the Promotional benefits organization and thus promote support within Because interpretation generally requires contact the local community. Although a prominent between the public and the agency staff, it often visual identity as such is hardly a prime objective crosses into the public relations role of effective of a conservation agency, it necessarily plays a management. The interpretation services of the leading role in creating an independent, compe- Canadian National Parks for example have been tent and forcefully competitive impact. described as a ‘propaganda service’ due to The political leverage which can be exerted by promotion not only of the need to manage the interpretation is a promotional benefit that natural resources, but of an understanding of the should also be identified and utilized. Inter- management agency itself (Sharpe, 1982). pretation is often used to achieve political objec- The potential promotional benefits of inter- tives and to control volatile conflicts between pretation are summarized in Table 5.1. advocacy groups. For example, the United States Effective interpretive services can be of use in National Park Service was able to promote promoting the ‘image’ or ‘visual identity’ of the valuable community support for its management agency. This is particularly beneficial for pro- policies by presenting interpretive seminars on tected area and conservation agencies, as a local natural history and by placing qualified favourable image and prominent visual identity interpreters into uniform to capitalize on the is fundamental for conveying the objectives of an well-accepted ranger image of the management organization. Many people make a rapid authority (Beckmann, 1991).

Table 5.1 The promotional benefits of interpretation

Promotional benefits Explanation of benefits

Diversity of subjects that can be Interpretation can promote values, sites, land tenures, management promoted objectives and practices, and the corporate mission of the managing authority A subtle and sophisticated form Interpretation can weave promotion into a story without making it sound of promotion too promotional and self-centred Added dimensions for follow-on Interpretation can provide on-going advisory services to reinforce and promotion expand initial ideas 64 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

Recreational benefits vides benefits for managers through a reduction in depreciative behaviour and increased commu- One expectation common to most people in an nity support for the protection of the site. Pre- outdoor leisure setting is a relaxed atmosphere visit interpretation may be as important as on- and activities which enhance the feeling of site interpretation in maximizing visitor relaxation (Wearing and Gardiner, 1994). Many satisfaction, and establishing visitor expectations park visitors seek some level of recreational prior to visiting the area (Sharpe, 1982). involvement with the landscape, flora, fauna Outdoor recreation has been the major func- and/or cultural sites, although social interaction tion of all parks and reserve areas, even though with other visiting groups may be either actively conservation may be the more vital and imme- sought or actively rejected. To be effective, diately necessary role of these areas (Cameron- therefore, any educational activity offered within Smith, 1977). Recreation in this context is gen- such a setting must retain this informal, relaxed erally limited to those activities that are atmosphere (Ham, 1992) and cater for the level of ‘consistent with preserving the natural state’ of friendly interaction required by the visitor. Com- these areas, although this definition in itself can pulsory activities will be rejected, while the cause problems. Activities such as bush walking, diversity of visitors can be satisfied by an equally picnicking, camping and nature photography for diverse range of educational experiences example, are generally considered acceptable (Sharpe, 1982). Interpretation, by focusing on the within national park and reserve areas; however, visitor’s desire to be involved in their surround- even such restricted recreational use can cause ings, provides educational opportunities while at problems, including physical damage to eco- the same time enhancing recreational experi- logical and cultural resources. User/user or ences (Lewis, 1980). user/manager conflicts in the perception of what By helping visitors to match their recreational constitutes acceptable recreational behaviour at needs and expectations with the available any given site can and do still arise (Beckmann, resources, and by influencing visitor behaviour, 1991). interpretation may aid recreation management Priorities in outdoor recreation management directly. Satisfied visitors may be encouraged to should therefore include a balancing of supply make return visits, with a more realistic idea of and demand, ‘a matching of resource adequacy what to expect from the site and of the most with human recreational needs and desires’ appropriate behaviour for the area. This pro- (Kenchington, 1990). Management strategies

Table 5.2 The recreational benefits of interpretation

Recreational benefits Explanation of benefits

Value added to the visitor Interpretation is an added activity to those typically expected. For experience example, interpretation signs enhance a walking track just as interpretive guides are preferred over one that merely points out significant attractions as they come into view Making the experience more Interpretation that is stimulating and connects with emotions tends to enjoyable make the experience more enjoyable Enhance a sense of meaning to Interpretation provides a greater sense of meaning to activities such as recreational activity sightseeing THE ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN ACHIEVING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE 65 which reconcile recreation with other priorities with changing attitudes comes an instinctive such as conservation have become essential with change in behaviour (Lewis, 1980). However, it increasing visitor demand. Visitor, rather than must be stated that knowledge is not sufficient resource management, is now regarded as the alone to change attitudes. With knowledge must most important component of recreation man- come understanding (Cockrell et al., 1984). It is agement (Wearing and Gardiner, 1994). Table 5.2 not enough for an individual to know that a illustrates some of the recreational benefits of plant is the main food source of a given species interpretation. of bird. What must be taught is that without this plant being present in the area the bird life of the area will change. This gives the individual a Educational benefits reason to ensure that their activities do not affect Tilden’s (1957) original definition of interpreta- the potential survival of the plant or bird species tion refers to an educational activity. However, found in the area. This change in attitude also educating simply to improve the satisfaction has some value for interpretive planners in the gained from recreational experiences has ceased evaluation process. If attitude changes can be to be the only or even the dominant role of identified then interpretive programmes can be interpretation in protected areas and equivalent evaluated accordingly. Popular outdoor recrea- reserves. Although these areas are recognized as tion sites obviously attract large numbers of important resources for environmental change, visitors and on-site interpretation can expand management agencies now recognize that it is latent interests in nature and scenery of an area not enough simply to interpret the site itself into a more active concern for conservation (Cameron-Smith, 1977). As the United States (Carter, 1979). National Park Service emphasizes in all its The fundamental differences between inter- interpretive programmes, interpretation should pretation and environmental education lie not in communicate an environmental consciousness the basic philosophy but in the procedures and both within and beyond the park (McCurdy, methodologies used to present the message. 1985). As a result, environmental interpretation is rapidly becoming an adjunct to formal envi- Interpretation as a conservation ronmental education programmes. Table 5.3 pre- management tool sents some of the educational benefits of interpretation. A more direct benefit of interpretation is as a Many environmental educators and inter- visitor management tool to manage visitors and preters alike identify that the knowledge base of reduce visitor impacts. One of the chief criticisms the individual is the key to attitudes, and that of ecotourism is that it threatens to destroy the

Table 5.3 The educational benefits of interpretation

Educational benefits Explanation of benefits

Opportunity for learning Interpretation generates learning experiences for visitors that increase their knowledge and understanding of the environment Opportunity for self-discovery Interpretation generates experiences for visitors to gain a clearer understanding of their role within their environment, and this aids in self-discovery and self-actualization 66 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

Table 5.4 Conservation and protected area management benefits of interpretation

Conservation benefits Explanation of benefits

Stimulation of an environmental Interpretation stimulates thoughts of personal responsibility for using consciousness and broad-based resources and contributes to improvements in quality of life conservation ethic Raise awareness of regulations Interpretation programmes such as minimal impact campaigns can subtly and codes designed to minimize present requirements for changed visitor behaviour in a way that is impacts non-confrontational Stimulation of behavioural Interpretation presents ideas for people to adopt change to minimize personal impacts upon the environment Support for protected areas Interpretation presents the value of protected areas from a range of perspectives Support for protected area Interpretation presents the challenges for management in a candid way management organizations that exposes the constraints facing protected area management agencies

environment which it is trying to protect. Inter- interpretation and management is now recog- pretation is an effective way management can nized as a fundamental one and the two are often encourage appropriate behaviour, thus alleviat- linked directly in management policies (Wearing ing any potentially damaging behaviours of and Gardiner, 1994). For example, interpretation ecotourists. significantly influences the carrying capacity of Table 5.4 presents some of the conservation an area. By limiting the number of unwanted and protected area management benefits of encounters or experiences in a recreational envi- interpretation. ronment and restricting unsuitable behaviour in While other strategies for reducing environ- the area and reducing conflicts between users, mental impacts from visitor pressure have been the current acceptable field carrying capacity developed and implemented in protected areas limits can be increased. and national parks, interpretation is a key approach due to its long-term effects (Cameron- Economic benefits Smith, 1977). For example, interpretation can help visitors to understand and appreciate the differ- Tourism that utilizes interpretation as a key part ences in permitted activities, management prac- of its product generates economic benefits. tices and conservation values among national Whether the tourism is ecotourism, cultural parks, state forests, reserves and privately owned tourism or some other form, the delivery of bushland. As such, interpretation is an important interpretation can give the product additional part of any strategic management plan. value that attracts higher yield markets. Although interpretation is believed by many Similarly, by encouraging conservation and to be the most powerful tool for visitor manage- modifying visitor behaviours that affect damage ment, it has rarely been incorporated fully into to natural resources, effective interpretation pro- major planning mechanisms (Roggenbuck, grammes can reduce the costs of managing 1987). None the less, the relationship between recreational resources (Sharpe, 1982). THE ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN ACHIEVING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE 67

Table 5.5 The economic benefits of interpretation

Economic benefits Explanation of benefits

Business activity Tourism operations utilizing interpretation contribute significantly to wealth. For example, the turnover for Australia’s ecotourism industry in 1995 was estimated to be $250 million (Econsult, 1995) Direct employment There are many people employed as interpreters. For example, the Interpretation Australia Association has a membership of 450 members, most of whom are interpreters for heritage managers (Interpretation Australia Association, 1995). In 1995 some 6500 people or 4500 full-time equivalent staff were employed in the Australian ecotourism industry (Econsult, 1995). The payroll from ecotourism employment in 1995 was estimated at $115 million (Econsult, 1995) Indirect employment The business activity generated by organizations employing interpreters itself generates additional indirect jobs and wealth. For example, interpreters need training providers, graphic artists, sign and display manufacturers and visitor centre builders Investment Investment in tourism businesses to deliver interpretation via facilities (e.g. visitor centres, signs, displays etc.) and services, e.g. guides and counter staff. Total expenditure in North Queensland by visitors to the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (WHA) equated to $443 million in 1994. At the time this equated to 3.6% of Australia’s total export earnings from tourism

While Table 5.5 illustrates that effective inter- Problems limiting interpretation pretation has important economic benefits, these benefits are not always easy, or indeed possible, Interpretation has suffered from the perception to prove to management agencies (Hill, 1993). that it is simply ‘the icing on the cake’ instead of Economists have spent vast amounts of time in being an integral part of the ecotourism product recent years attempting to place a dollar value to base. Indeed, Australia’s National Ecotourism natural resources. Techniques such as measuring Accreditation Program in its first year of opera- the actual costs incurred in attaining a recreation found the quality and commitment to tional experience or in identifying people’s will- interpretation to be one of the weaker elements ingness to pay for an interpretive experience of the operators seeking accreditation have all been attempted but all, it seems, (McArthur, 1997a). underestimate the value of our natural resources. No natural resource can be effectively man- However, measuring benefits in monetary terms aged without the support and backing of its is particularly important when cost–benefit ana- users. It follows that no system of natural area lyses are required as management is interested in reserves can adequately fulfil its roles without the cost-effectiveness of different interpretive the guidance of appropriate management objec- methods in order to rationalize its continued use tives. Failure to fulfill such roles and provide given budgetary constraints. appropriate information is likely to alienate 68 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES some recreational users and decrease the level of public support for the reserve system as a whole. established across Northern Australia, and This would be a very serious situation, for these were the founders of Savannah without public support it is unlikely that we Guides. would have such a diverse and extensive range The mission of Savannah Guides is: of environments protected. The fate of reserve systems is determined largely by social and ‘To be economically sound, community political pressures (Hall and McArthur, 1996). based, identifiable professional body Even the best-planned management procedures maintaining high standards of: will fail without public support. A strong base of Interpretation public support for the aims and objectives of Public education protected areas is one of the first prerequisites for Tourism and resource management their management. From this comes the political Leadership, and will, financial support and staffing necessary to Staffing achieve the aims and objectives of management. For this reason it is essential that the natural And through ecologically sustainable areas management provide information that tourism principles to enhance and main- seeks to change behaviour, not just raise aware- tain the regional lifestyle and encourage ness (Forestell, 1990). the protection and conservation of the environment and cultural resources of the Gulf Savannah region.’

Case Study Savannah Guides, From its inception, founding members Australia: interpretation with a agreed to fund the setting up of the Savan- difference nah Guide system. This included an agreement collectively to fund a biannual five- The Gulf Savannah of Northern Australia, day training school at a Guide Station, along the Gulf of Carpentaria, is a remote where professionals such as behavioural 200 000 square kilometre wilderness, which scientists, geologists and aboriginal elders up until the early 1980s was virtually unas- etc. would lecture. Additionally, a grant of sessed. The new breed of ‘recreational US $10 000 was secured from the PATA explorers’ which emerged about this time Foundation to produce educational material began to accelerate negative environmental for use in interpretation, and the develop- impacts in the region. The local response ment of Guide Station signage. was the development of a Wilderness Man- All Savannah Guides are long-term resi- agement Plan by GLADA (Gulf Local dents, whose role covers both education and Authorities Development Association). training of visitors and the community to GLADA is a grouping of four remote local protect natural and cultural assets. Each authorities specifically responding to the Guide Station is administered by one Savan- emergence of tourism. nah Guide. Any other employees are classi- One major recommendation was the fied following their completion of on-site establishment of a ranger/guide organiza- training and Joongai (local indigenous com- tion that was professional, and moved munity) assessment as site interpreters. In beyond interpreting the environment to the event that a guide leaves the service, it is being empowered to protect it. A commu- from this pool of employees that a new nity/ranger guide system was subsequently guide would be selected. THE ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN ACHIEVING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE 69

effective interpretation is not without its prob- The Savannah Guides use education as lems and it is for this reason that any inter- their tool for managing impacts and visita- pretation should included monitoring and peri- tion. The guides are able to access stations odic evaluation. and National Parks often closed to individ- Interpretive services have a role in developing ual visitors. Each National Park or grazing visitor expectations for their recreational experi- lease has an associated management regime, ence of an area and thus inappropriate inter- with which the local guide is extremely pretation may result in disappointment being familiar, eliminating conflicts that may arise experienced. Even something as simple as the with a tour party, and generating additional photograph chosen for use in a promotional income for landholders, charged at a per poster can convey an inappropriate message to head basis. visitors. Inaccurate promotion has proved to lead The key words which have been used to to unsatisfied visitors and inappropriate behav- describe the interpretation skills of Savan- ior (Jenkins and McArthur, 1996). nah Guides are ‘accurate’ and ‘authentic’. Inappropriate interpretive facilities and ser- Each guide is encouraged to have a refer- vices can in fact diminish the natural resources of ence library, which is utilized in the event an area. No one who visits a wilderness area or that they and the client do not know the marine reserve known for its natural beauty answer to a query. Communication skills are wishes to be confronted with a series of unat- considered a critical aspect to continued tractive and overpowering concrete signs con- training within the ranks of Savannah veying information about the area. Similarly, a Guides. Each guide utilizes these verbal visitor centre that dominates the landscape and communication skills in conjunction with a reduces the aesthetic appeal of an area is not an more traditional marketing effort to distrib- effective management tool. For this reason, many ute information on other stations across the sound interpretation plans actually prescribe Savannah. ‘Interpretation Free Zones’ for, in some cases, the The concept of Savannah Guides has most effective interpretation is no obvious inter- facilitated the development of positive bene- pretation at all, just the right setting for individ- fits from tourism, introduced ecotourism to ual inspiration and imagination. numerous cattle properties, and provided an opportunity for small businesses in creating environmentally sensitive tourism products. Currently this system is one of the few Case study Dolphin Discovery private organisations that mans a National Park. It demonstrates the potential success Tours, Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, of a proactive and managed wilderness Australia: The importance of scheme. interpretation in ecotourism tour operation Source: John Courtenay, Savannah Guides, Australia: British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow Awards 1996, Pacific Region Dolphin Discovery Tours operates a luxury charter yacht which ferries tourists to Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, to learn about and interact with the mammals. The tour was Although the premise underlying interpreta- designed to educate and develop awareness tion and interpretive services is that it is worth- about the environment in Port Phillip Bay while and valuable, it would be naive to consider and the need to protect the area and its it as a field without flaws. The implementation of 70 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

wildlife populations. At present, 12% of with the opportunity to seek information in revenue is redirected to support of the a relaxed and informal way without the Dolphin Research Institute, and the yacht necessity of approaching the principal com- itself is made available to media and spon- mentator. Minimization of environmental sorship special events. impacts, interpretive quality and the man- The educative component of the tour is agement of visitor expectations are critical to what sets it apart from other such ventures. the owner–operators of this product. The The delivery of information to passengers is emphasis of commentary is on the diversity achieved through comprehensive commen- and value of Port Phillip Bay’s ecosystems, tary and access to guides, all of whom are the need to protect it, threats currently actively involved in the Dolphin Research posed and, most critically, what individuals Institute or its research and education pro- can do to help preserve the area. grammes. In addition, a booklet, The Dol- The dolphins themselves are not inter- phins of Port Phillip Bay, is made available for fered with in any way. Dolphin Discovery purchase at a significantly reduced price. Tours is the only tourism experience in the The tour itself commences with a familiar- Bay that operates within the whale-watch- ization and safety demonstration, during ing guidelines of not approaching the mam- which participants are invited to ask ques- mals within 100 metres. tions during the course of the tour. On route The quality of interpretive strategy is to dolphin-prone waters, the vessel sails to summarized by Bill Fox, Tourism Manager Chinaman’s Hat, the site of a colony of for Parks Victoria: Australian fur seals. The passengers are provided with information on the biology ‘The high quality interpretation of the and behaviours of the animals, and natural environment of Port Phillip Bay informed about the detrimental effects of offered to tourists by this operator plays a sealing during the last century. Other significant role in enhancing awareness unique islands and channels en route pro- and understanding of the need to protect vide the commentator with a multitude of and sustain our natural asset. Dolphin topics to which all passengers are encour- Discovery Tours offers an excellent exam- aged to listen. Unique ecosystems and wild- ple of a partnership between conservation life species such as gannet rookeries and and tourism interests, and the value defence forts bearing testimony to the devel- of an ecologically sustainable tourism opment of early Australia provide a histor- industry.’ ical and biological context to the area. Dolphin Discovery Tours operate with a Source: Philip Tubb, Victoria: British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow Awards 1997, Pacific Region definite community focus, with the aim to ‘give participants a direct experience which is properly and thoughtfully interpreted’. Interpretation itself is channelled primarily Interpretation is not just the communication of through crew members and professional information, regardless of how jazzed up and and volunteer guides. A comprehensive enjoyable it becomes. Interpretation seeks to training programme educates guides to the reveal meaning and stimulate a cognitive and standard required by management, and the emotional response. This response should impel inclusion of volunteer guides provides all people into reconsidering their value base and passengers behaviour. The way in which interpretation is delivered can be as varied as the individual THE ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN ACHIEVING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE 71 imagination, and, generally speaking, the more and conservation ethics, and at a more practical imaginative the approach, the more successful level, provides the opportunity to minimize the interpretation. Interpretation is a core part of visitor impact. Within both these sectors, inter- any ecotourism experience. As such, interpreta- pretation is yet to realize anything like its full tion adds real value for the operator, distinguish- potential. When it does, it will become quite an ing the product from nature-based tourism. awe-inspiring player in the world of ecotourism, Interpretation is also critical to the protected area conservation, and personal commitment to a manager, as it offers a chance to present values sustainable future. 6

Linking conservation and communities: community benefits and social costs

A significant contribution to ecotourism’s global controlled by developed nations with a high following has been its potential to deliver bene- return to these nations – conventional package fits to communities remote from centres of tours in many cases, for example, utilize local commerce, benefits that do not involve wide- people through the use of their resources and spread social or environmental destruction. Too labour at a minimum (or often zero) cost to the often in the past the only opportunities for many operator. Employment is often seasonal and communities remote from urban centres, partic- lowly paid in contrast to the profits accruing to ularly in the developing world, were provided investors and operators. Such practices are by extractive industries – mining, logging, or defended on the pretext that if these operators fishing – which had massive impacts on local did not initiate tourism then there would be no communities and often left an unacceptable money injected into the community at all. How- legacy of long-term environmental damage. ever, tourism can no longer be justified on its Tourism is often advocated as a way of solving supposedly low impact–high return. some of the problems that have arisen in It is this dominant economic focus that serves developing nations through inappropriate eco- to obscure significant dimensions of tourism nomic growth. Tourism is a diverse and decen- impact. Tourism produces a diverse range of tralized industry, which affects other sectors of both social and environmental impacts that are local economies; it is a 24-hours a day, 7-days a often complex and mutually related. Some indig- week industry, labour-intensive, creating enous communities often put it in simple terms: employment opportunities across all sectors and a frequently used phrase is ‘Tourism is like fire. It skill levels. However, conventional tourism can cook your food or burn down your house.’ brings with it many of the problems we have The tourism industry makes extensive use of found in the exploitation of developing nations natural assets – forests, reefs, beaches and parks in the past.1 It is often driven, owned and – but what does it contribute to management of these assets? The provision of tourism infrastructure, and the costs of managing the impact 1 cf. Butler, 1991; Lea, 1993, 1995; Mieczkowski, 1995. of tourism on host communities, is often borne LINKING CONSERVATION AND COMMUNITIES: COMMUNITY BENEFITS AND SOCIAL COSTS 73 by the environment, the community itself and are virtually stealing its assets (Jenner and Smith, the government. A significant body of research 1991). In the late 1980s the development boom has challenged the claims of industry and gov- initiated the emergence of many so-called ‘tour- ernment agencies that the aggregate benefits of ism developments’ which were nothing more tourism far outweigh the costs: benefits are than land speculation, or a means of making rarely uniform, accruing to those actively otherwise conventional residential develop- involved in the tourist industry, while costs are ments acceptable to planning authorities. It led often borne by those who derive no compensa- to bankruptcies, inflated profits, overloaded tory benefits from tourism (cf. Butler, 1991). infrastructure, residential sprawl and unwanted Local communities are significantly vulnerable social and environmental impacts which led to the deleterious impacts of tourism develop- many local communities to be suspicious about ment – particularly indigenous cultures – as they the benefits of the tourism industry. The eco- directly experience the sociocultural impacts of logical and cultural impacts and social impacts tourism. The subsequent impact of tourism’s of tourism often lead to diminished community dynamic growth on communities has in some and political support for the industry, partic- cases precipitated strong protests by community ularly at local levels. groups, which, being sensitive to the impacts of The interdependence of tourism and the social tourism, have actively opposed large-scale tour- and physical environment is fundamental to the ism developments for their locality. Other com- future of each, and seeking a way to accom- munity groups have been more accepting of a modate the needs of all parties, without control gradual growth in tourism to their region over being external to those who experience its effects many years, only to become aware of the most directly, is essential. Features of the natural negative impacts at a later date when these and cultural environment and supportive host impacts cannot easily be ignored. communities are the foundations of a successful Disruption to established activity patterns, industry. Neglect of conservation and quality of anti-social behaviour, crime and over-crowding life issues threatens the very basis of local caused by tourism development can also have a populations and a viable and sustainable tour- negative impact on local lifestyles and the ism industry. quality of life of both indigenous and non- As we have discussed in Chapter 1, ecotour- indigenous communities. ism involves travel to relatively undisturbed or In many cases indigenous cultures are used protected natural areas, fostering understanding, extensively to promote destinations to overseas appreciation and conservation of the flora, fauna, markets yet opportunities for visitors to interact geology and ecosystems of an area as well as with and experience their cultures and lifestyles local community culture and its relationship to are limited, while the opportunities that are the land. The flora, fauna, geology and ecosys- provided for tourists often trivialize or exploit tems of an area highlight the nature-base aspect. those involved and the communities they repre- There is thus a significant overlap between sent. Many indigenous people rightly feel that conservation and sustainability between the nat- the tourism industry has a poor track record, in ural and social environment. As we have seen in disregarding their legitimate interests and rights, Chapter 2, sustainability is at the forefront of and profiting from their cultural knowledge and policy-oriented literature about conservation heritage. and development. Unfortunately, however, little The tourism potential of local areas is also or no discussion has yet taken place about the compromised by the environmental impact of sustainability or otherwise of communities adja- other industries. According to the Economist cent to, or surrounding, ecotourism ventures. Intelligence Unit, the entire tourism industry is Ecotourism has the potential to create support under attack from other business interests which for conservation objectives in both the host 74 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES community and in the visitor alike, through establishing and sustaining links between the tourism industry, local communities, and protected areas. As social and environmental benefits are essentially interdependent, social benefits accruing to host communities as a result of ecotourism may have the result of increasing overall standards of living due to the localized economic stimulus provided for in increased visitation to the site. Similarly, environmental benefits accrue as host communities are persuaded to protect natural environments in order to sustain economically viable tourism (Ceballos- Lascurain, 1990). Many tourists, and especially ecotourists, are sensitive to decreases in water quality and air quality, loss of vegetation, loss of wildlife, soil erosion and a change in the character and visual Figure 6.1 Stakeholders and their needs appeal of an area due to development. Degrada- tion of the natural environment will severely reduce visitor demand in the long term because the natural attributes on which ecotourists depend will be perceived as less attractive, less Those interested in the natural environment and legitimate and less able to provide satisfying cultural heritage issues seek: ecologically based experiences. ᭹ protection of the environment through prevention, improvement, correction of damage, and restoration; ᭹ to motivate people to be more aware – and therefore ‘care for’ rather than ‘use up’ Ecotourism and local resources. communities: conflict, compromise or cooperation? Community members seek a healthy place in which to live with: Local communities comprise groups with different, and potentially conflicting interests (see ᭹ food, adequate and clean water, health care, Figure 6.1). That is, not all groups want the same rewarding work for equitable pay, education things. and recreation; The tourist industry seeks a healthy business ᭹ respect for cultural traditions; environment with: ᭹ opportunities to make decisions about the future. ᭹ financial security; ᭹ a trained and responsible workforce; Some concerns that each may hold in common ᭹ attractions of sufficient quality to ensure a include: steady flow of visitors – who stay longer and visit more often; ᭹ issues of access, such as when, where and how ᭹ a significant return on investment. tourists visit and move from place to place; LINKING CONSERVATION AND COMMUNITIES: COMMUNITY BENEFITS AND SOCIAL COSTS 75

᭹ host and guest issues, such as cultural impact ᭹ source of funding for the protection and or common use of infrastructure; enhancement/maintenance of natural attrac- ᭹ land use issues, such as hunting/wildlife tions and symbols of cultural heritage; habitat, agriculture/recreation, preservation/ ᭹ funding and/or volunteers for field work development, etc. associated with wildlife research and archaeological studies; ᭹ heightened community awareness of the value of local/indigenous culture and the natural environment. Ecotourism and local communities As these benefits suggest, ecotourism is about attracting visitors for the ‘right’ reasons, and not There are a number of reasons why local com- simply the promotion of tourism for the sake of munities may consider ecotourism: the ‘tourist dollar’ at the expense of a community’s natural and cultural attributes. However, ᭹ a desire to be part of strong growth in tourism local communities are not immune from ecotour- generally and see the potential of catering for ism impacts. special-interest tourism (niche markets); ᭹ an awareness of the high value of natural attractions in the locale; ᭹ empathy for conservation ideals and the need for sustainable tourism; The issues and problems ᭹ a desire to responsibly rejuvenate the local tourist industry. The conflictual issues expressed by representatives of host communities to tourism develop- As we have seen in Chapter 1, one of the main ment generally fall into a number of interrelated principles or elements of ecotourism is its ability categories: to maximize the benefits of tourism, not only as regards income to a region but also the preserva- ᭹ the lack of opportunities for involvement in tion of social infrastructure and biosphere con- decision-making relating to ecotourism; servation. Specifically, these benefits include: ᭹ inadequate responses from governments when administrative or legislative mecha- ᭹ increased demand for accommodation houses nisms have been established to involve them and food and beverage outlets, and therefore in such decision-making; improved viability for new and established ᭹ the lack of financial, social and vocational hotels, motels, guest houses, farm stays, etc.; benefits flowing to these communities from ᭹ additional revenue to local retail businesses projects that commercially exploit what they and other services (e.g. medical, banking, car regard as their resources; hire, cottage industries, souvenir shops, tour- ᭹ the need to establish better tools for evaluat- ist attractions); ing socio-cultural impacts and ensuring this is ᭹ increased market for local products (e.g. completed over the more emphasized envi- locally grown produce, artefacts, value-added ronmental impacts on the natural environ- goods), thereby sustaining traditional customs ments which are usually of more interest to and practices; the outside investors and conservation ᭹ employment of local labour and expertise (e.g. groups; ecotour guides, retail sales assistants, restau- ᭹ impacts on community cohesion and rant table waiting staff); structure; 76 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

᭹ the rapidity of tourism development that in for tourists that can be experienced in comfort many cases significantly accelerates social and safety and which is aesthetically pleasing. change. These cultural performances often become detached from their actual cultural meaning These concerns embrace a wide range of issues and begin to be performed purely for the relating to the management of natural resour- viewing public. Too often cultural attractions ces adjacent to these communities. The central become overtly commercialized in nature, sat- issue is the inadequate levels of participation isfying the visitors’ needs but losing all mean- perceived by these communities in the manage- ing and significance for the indigenous popula- ment of what they regard as their traditional tion. Similarly, indigenous communities often domains. Control is exerted over local commu- have little or no say over whether they want nities both economically and culturally. Tour- tourism and they derive few real benefits from ism involves an interactive process between their ‘performance’. Sustaining the well-being host (both human and environment) and guest and the cultural traditions of the local commu- and therefore ‘the culture of the host society is nity where ecotourism takes place becomes as much at risk from various forms of tourism fundamental to definitions of ecotourism. as physical environments’ (Sofield, 1991: 56). In many cases tourists view indigenous cultures and local communities as ‘products’ of the tourism experience that exist to be ‘consumed’ Case study along with all the other elements of their trip. As tourists are often paying to watch and The commodification of culture: photograph indigenous people, the tourists feel the Arctic that it is their ‘right’ to treat them accordingly – as providing a service, and as a product Over the past 20 years, much of the pre- being purchased as a component of their travel sentation of indigenous Sami culture has cost. Significantly, however, many local cultures been by those who have lost their tradi- may actively ‘construct’ what appears (to the tional Sami heritage or by non-Samis. This tourist’s camera) to be an ‘authentic’ cultural has led to the overt commercialization of display but which in reality is a staged event Sami culture with an often manufactured specifically for tourists’ consumption. This phe- culture being promoted with the economic nomenon, known as ‘staged authenticity’ (cf. benefits being diverted away from the tra- MacCannell, 1976), in many cases serves a ditional Sami groups to those involved in strategic purpose in satisfying the tourist’s curi- the provision of unauthentic services. ‘The osity while allowing the maintanence of actual danger is that the people of the north will cultural rituals to escape the hungry tourist’s become human animals in a cultural zoo, lens. This is the positive side (from the indige- mere objects of curiosity for adventurous nous culture’s perspective) of the commodifica- southerners wealthy enough to enjoy the tion of tourism, as in many cases it is the temptations of glossy travel magazines, interest in local cultures that in many ways luxury cruises through the icebergs, rein- helps to sustain and even revive traditional deer round-ups or photographic safaris cultural practices. amongst the walrus and polar bears’ (Hall, However, the commmodification of culture 1987; 217). often has significant impacts on local commu- Source: P. Mason, (1997) ‘Tourism codes of conduct in nities. ‘Staged authenticity’ is often actively the Arctic and Sub-Arctic region’, Journal of Sustainable encouraged by operators whose chief concern Development, 5 (2), 1997, 151–164 is often with providing a ‘cultural experience’ LINKING CONSERVATION AND COMMUNITIES: COMMUNITY BENEFITS AND SOCIAL COSTS 77

As we have seen in Chapter 3 ecotourism is in large part a sustainable development strategy: undertaken by three different groups who ‘whereby natural resource amenities, the local maintain control of their dance routines community and the visitor benefit from tourism (Burchett, 1992). Similarly, specialized small activity’ (Pearce et al., 1996). group tours are undertaken by the Tiwi The following definition of ecotourism incor- community of Melville Island who saw ‘the porates the above points: development of an isolated, comfortable safari camp as being an ideal way for them travel, often to developing countries, to rela- to combine their needs for employment, tively undisturbed protected natural areas for cash flow and cultural underpinning’ study, enjoyment or volunteer assistance that (Burchett, 1992: 7). Produce from tradi- concerns itself with the flora, fauna, geology tional hunting and fishing activities under- and ecosystems of an area – as well as the taken by tourists is returned to the local people (caretakers) who live nearby, their community with only sufficient amounts needs, their culture and their relationship with for tasting for the tourists left at the safari the land. (Wallace, 1992: 7) camp (Burchett, 1992). Tourists experience the traditional and authentic activity and Similarly, many organizations are now begin- can taste the ‘catch’ but these vital resour- ning to recognize the integral part that local ces, necessary food stocks for the aborigi- indigenous people play in tourism by including nes, are not depleted just for the sake of the cultural understanding and appreciation in their tourist. definitions of ecotourism. In this way ecologically sustainable tourism is increasingly becoming aligned to conservation, environmental and cultural understanding and appreciation While it is important for the traditional values (EAA, 1996). of local and indigenous communities be main- Thus ecotourism aims to promote and foster a tained, indigenous people must not be asked to respect and an increase in awareness of other maintain their traditional practices simply for cultures, in fostering mutually beneficial rela- the sake of tourist entertainment. However, it tionships between hosts and tourists. must also be recognized that cultures undergo a constant process of change and it is this process of genuine culture change and exchange that is a fundamental component of ecotourism. ‘Genu- Case study The Anangu and ine’ in this sense may be read as synonymous Tiwi Island response with sovereignty. Local communities must be in an empowered rather than a subordinate posi- For the indigenous Australians of the North- tion from which they have autonomy over their ern Territory, tourism was perceived as culture, its artefacts and rituals, its very direc- being able to ‘offer some employment in tion, while engaging in and with cultures that remote parts of the Territory where alter- interact with them but do not exploit them. native economic opportunities were few’ In this way, both the visitors and the hosts (Burchett, 1992: 6). Guided walks, demon- benefit from the tourism experience while at the strations of tracking skills and food process- same time avoiding negative cultural impacts on ing techniques and other aspects of aborigi- the indigenous population. Participation of local nal life are carried out at Uluru. communities in the activity of tourism, therefore, Performances of traditional dance are is an essential element to sustaining the well- being of local people. 78 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

Through the interactive process between the The primary employment opportunities visitor and the host population both can benefit through ecotourism are in the areas of hotels, experientially from ecotourism. By developing craft makers, shop owners, tour operators, gov- an appreciation of local communities and their ernment agency staff, park wardens/rangers and customs and traditions, ‘a process of mutual the like. Kusler (n.d: 2) sounds a particular respect and understanding between societies can warning to those who may hail ecotourism as be greatly enhanced’ (Burchett, 1992: 10) and the invariably solving endemic unemployment as he achievement of successful interaction between notes that in some circumstances little (if any) hosts and guests will only benefit and sustain the employment benefits have accrued to local com- well-being of local communities. Local commu- munities because infrastructure, such as accom- nities can benefit from ecotourism economically modation establishments, have already been if they play a greater participatory role in the developed (and staffed) in the area. tourism process. The greater the control over tourism in their region, the more culturally sustainable they will become.

Employment Case study Papua New Guinea One of the most obvious and immediate benefits Papua New Guinea is the most rapidly of tourism associated with local communities is westernizing nation on earth, and as a the increase in employment opportunities and consequence there are growing social prob- income generation for the host region: lems, unemployment and a rapidly dimin- ᭹ direct employment (associated service indus- ishing culture (Bates, 1991: 4). The Ambua tries such as hotels, restaurants, concessions); Lodge in the Highlands of Papua New ᭹ indirect employment (generated as a result of Guinea is an example of an ecotourism increasing industry inputs such as employ- establishment providing employment ment at a retail souvenir outlet); opportunities to local people which, in part, ᭹ induced employment (generated as a result assists in halting the urban drift towards the of increased spending capacity of local resi- crime ridden major cities, and thus provid- dents due to increased receipts from tourism; ing the incentive not only to preserve the consumption of goods for example) (Healy, natural environment, but the unique fea- 1989: 21). tures of the local culture. The construction and operation of Ambua Lodge provides a Unfortunately, however, employment opportun- diverse range of long- and short-term ities for local communities are extremely employment to locals, in the positions of restricted. Tourism is often extolled as a major construction workers, art and crafts makers, employer in local communities due to the performers, waiters, cooks, guides, garden- assumption that high levels of capital investment ers, room cleaners, laundry operators, main- equate with a corresponding increase in employ- tenance personnel, vegetable growers and ment. Conversely, tourism is often advocated as the like (Bates, 1991: 4). a major employment generator due to its labour- intensive nature. However, these assumptions are often misleading as tourism often does not essentially generate significant amounts of employment and is less labour-intensive than Currently, the general lack of skills and resour- sometimes espoused by operators seeking com- ces has meant that many ecotourism ventures are munity support. owned and operated by expatriates (Weiler and LINKING CONSERVATION AND COMMUNITIES: COMMUNITY BENEFITS AND SOCIAL COSTS 79

Hall, 1992). Often it is unfeasible to expect the local population automatically to assume Case study Belize, Central employment positions within ecotourism: ‘The America hard truth is that a local farmer, fisherman or plantation worker cannot always be changed Belize is attempting to counter this problem overnight into a tourist guide or hotel manager’ by developing policies that provide feasible (Clark and Banford, 1991: 9). It is often common financial avenues and ‘competitive advan- that the planning, staff and management of tages’ for locals to invest in small to medium parks is done by developed country personnel or scale private tourism enterprises, such as expatriates in developing countries and this can food and beverage outlets, accommodation have negative effects on the affected local com- establishments, sport and activity opera- munities, often leading to ‘homogenization’ of tions and so on. Government enforcement of cultures, and in many cases the trivialization of the policies is through the restriction of local and traditional methods of managing the trade licences, concessions or duty exemp- natural resources, as well as hostility and tions, and vetting procedures (Maguire, bitterness. 1991: 6). Training and education should not solely be concerned with utilitarian skills that may enhance employment opportunities. Partner- ships between the tourism industry, government Extensive training and education is needed agencies and the local population are needed in before local communities can gain meaningful which local populations are able to articulate benefits from ecotourism, particularly language, their initial concerns, wants and needs in relation environmental and natural history skills (Weiler to any development, and which allow them to and Hall, 1992: 117). While the skills for running evaluate in their own terms whether they wish to private business enterprises may not be available benefit from tourism (even before they gain within the local community, local expertise and employment). knowledge can be a powerful tool for tourist However, participation by local communities guides and park wardens in protected areas: in tourism must not be limited simply to employment opportunities. Local communities proper management of protected areas must be involved in the complete tourism requires employment of park rangers and development process, from the planning stage guards, as well as workers to maintain park to the implementation and management of buildings, roads and trails. Ecotourism in tourism projects, through avenues of consulta- protected areas creates demand for guide tion and partnership. In conjunction, tourism services . . . providing employment for . . . ventures need to be driven by the local com- local people familiar with the flora and fauna munities themselves in all aspects, particularly of the area. (Bunting, 1991: 3) through locally owned operations or vested interests in local operations which would see According to Ceballos-Lascurain (1992: 5), local greater economic benefits accruing to local people not only possess the ‘practical and ances- communities. Joy and Motzney (1992: 457) sug- tral knowledge of the natural features’ of the gest locals should buy and manage small area, they also have the incentive to become accommodation establishments. However, dedicated to ecotourism in positions such as despite the lack of capital intensity of ecotour- park rangers since ‘their subsistence would ism, it may not be a viable economic possibility depend in a major degree on the sustained for many local populations to enter the preservation of the natural qualities of their market. environment’. Similarly, instead of promoting a 80 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES colonialist model of development which would seek to bring locals ‘up to speed’ through capacity, local boats are hired for use in training in ‘necessary’ skills, a recognition of the ferrying and guiding guests. particular range of skills already possessed by Staff slide shows are the primary tool local communities matched with their own used to upgrade current local interpretive expectations and outcomes for tourism projects skills, understand the conservation policies proposed for their locale would be more bene- of the company and government, and of ficial in any real sense. Local communities must course, the needs of the tourists. be involved in the complete tourism develop- The lodge is sited 100 feet from the river ment process, from planning, through to the and separated by a buffer zone of trees to implementation of tourism projects, through prevent soil erosion and minimize the avenues of consultation. Consultation is ‘a proc- effects of noise on proximal areas. SRL is ess which aims to reconcile economic develop- built on stilts 5 feet above the ground with a ment with the broader interests of local people 10-foot ceiling to optimize air circulation and the potential impact of development on their and cooling. To maximize the benefits of the natural, social and cultural environment’ (World location, solar lighting and a supplementary Wide Fund for Nature, 1992: 25). generator are used wherever possible. Rain- water and river water are collected for showering, toilet and household usage, with no waste discharged to the river. In order to minimize the effects of lodge- Case study Sakau Rainforest controlled tours along the river, all boats are Lodge: an ecotourism model painted green and powered by the smallest possible engine size of 15 h.p. When the tour Sakau Rainforest Lodge (SRL) was devel- group stops to observe wildlife, power is oped with an intention to blend with the derived from a solar-charged battery, con- sociocultural and physical environment of nected to an electric engine. the region, and to create an alternative Management of SRL set aside 1000 room source of employment for the local popula- nights in 1996 for volunteers to clear weeds tion, particularly those being retrenched in the nearby Kelenanap ox-bow lake. Wild- from the logging industry. The lodge is life, birdlife and local fishing have been located 130 km from Sandakan, with a fur- affected as a result of weed infestation. ther 15 minute boat trip up the Kinaba- Working in cooperation with the University tangan River from Sakau itself. A 7-acre land of Malaysia and overseas students, the site was purchased in the remote location on problems of weed infestation and waterway the Kinabatangan River bank, but in order eutriphication are being addressed. to minimize disturbance of natural vegeta- Finally, SRL has begun to raise funds tion, the built-up area is limited to 10 000 from overseas tour operators – the money square feet. being channelled to a local NGO, Sabah The management recruit local people as Environmental Protection Association and boatmen, gardeners, general workers and used for research purposes. In the near kitchen hands. All boats used to ferry future, an area of the lower Kinabatangan passengers are built by local fishermen, with River will be gazetted as a wildlife sanc- other jetty and furniture requirements sub- tuary. Management is using this sustain- contracted to local tradespeople. In the able lodge as a catalyst and incentive event that the lodge operates at maximum in preserving the natural and cultural LINKING CONSERVATION AND COMMUNITIES: COMMUNITY BENEFITS AND SOCIAL COSTS 81

they are willing to accept and set limits to the environment, encouraging a move from amount of change they are prepared to put up illegal logging and bribery of local enforce- with. This applies to ecotourism. (1991: 7) ment officers to sustainable ecotourism, where locals receive long-term benefits. Such a process would involve goal setting at the national, regional and local level. Clark and Source: Albert Teo, Managing Director, Sakau Rain- forest Lodge, Malaysia: British Airways Tourism for Banford (1991: 7) suggest the development of a Tomorrow Awards 1996, Pacific Region tourism masterplan to document the desirability and limits of acceptable tourism for the area. Ideally, communities could develop their own Even small-scale development may have sig- masterplan, but presently it is dependent on the nificant negative impacts. As a result of tourism priorities of those in positions of power to to various areas, local people have lost access to determine (such as the above-mentioned policies land and resources they had previously enjoyed. for ecotourism in Belize). According to Johnson (1993: 2) ecotourism often Several examples exist where local people leads to a change in resource ownership and have taken moves to ensure they both personally, management, beneficial to the tourism industry and as a community, benefit directly from eco- but detrimental to the local people. tourism. In many small communities such as that Similarly, ‘flourishing employment, living living on Easter Island accommodation becomes standards and consumption levels for some, a key factor. On Easter Island over 300 beds added to the unequal distribution of benefits to a within local houses are open to tourists, provid- portion of the population, can contribute to ing the major source of accommodation on the social tensions and hostility’ (WWF, 1992: 19). island. The additional income gained has been This has significant import for protected area spent beautifying homes and providing for local agencies for local resentment towards desig- infrastructure. In Papua New Guinea’s high- nated conservation areas often arises when the lands, villagers have a source of income from the park is viewed as principally of benefit to accommodation huts they have built on their tourists with no reciprocal benefit for the local land (Bates, 1991: 4) which, with the cooperation population. This is often due to the fact that local of the local tour operators, provide accommoda- people no longer have the right to use land they tion to groups of tourists. consider was theirs, but at the same time see it Similarly the Pax World Friendship Tours and frequently visited by foreign people; the reaction Co-op America’s Travel Link programmes are all to this is often negative. designed specifically so that the local community Extreme cases can lead to the destruction of can benefit from ecotourism to that area. The natural areas as ‘malicious destruction may programmes involve local people opening their occur if landowners believe that their lands are homes to tourists, who in turn use this time in being singled out for protection . . . and they are the local community to work on ‘community not receiving the benefits’ (Kusler, n.d.: 2). development projects’ (Johnson, 1993: 3) However, it is often the power struggle at national, state or local levels which is the Local planning and development determining factor of where tourism occurs, what is seen and done, and who, among the local The ideal for planning ecotourism development community, receives the economic benefits. In is cited by Clark and Banford (1991): practice, the planning system itself is often set up in a way that gives indigenous people little or no There is no reason why countries or commu- opportunities for input. According to Johnson nities should not decide what type of tourism (1993: 4), ‘development projects are often 82 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

Case study South Pentecost, Case study Costa Rica Vanuatu Costa Rica’s joint UNESCO–MAB and Costa The Pentecost Land Dive is a traditional Rica National Park project intentionally pre- ceremony of the villages in this area that fers residents to foreign involvement. The occurs annually in April/May. In response restoration of denigrated forest (known as to increasing negative cultural impacts as a the Guanacaste project) emphasizes Costa result of tourism, the local chiefs of the Rican residents, employing and training villages established the ‘South Pentecost locals in the areas of park maintenance, Tourism Council’ to manage the event, its management and habitat restoration. This ‘primary responsibility [being] to safeguard programme has the long-term benefit of the the cultural integrity of the event’ (Sofield, gradual transfer of control over the research, 1991: 59). This involves maintaining cus- management, and public education sectors toms with tourist visits, preventing filming from the currently dominant North Amer- of the event and limiting numbers of tourists icans to Costa Rican industry (Johnson, attending the performance. This not only 1993: 3). provides the tourist with an ‘authentic’ cultural experience but also maintains the cultural significance of the ritual to the villagers themselves and allows them some Consideration for local cultures can be incor- degree of control over the activity of porated into the planning and marketing of tourism. ecotourism destinations and products in many ways. Blangy and Epler Wood (1992: 4) recom- mend that government agencies, tourism boards, the tourism industry and local inhabitants could designed and implemented in a political context all play a role in the education of tourists about in which indigenous people have minimal voice cultural issues by the implementation of social in policy and management’. In contrast, Nepal guidelines. They suggest government should be has developed a system (through a resource responsible for developing guidelines but recom- management plan) specifically benefiting local mend significant input from the local commu- people by giving them increased power and a nity. The local community can be incorporated greater role in decision-making. into the development of these guidelines by Increasing access to information for indige- using government funding (if available) to get nous people provides them with greater scope assistance with the preparation and editing of for involvement in planning and decision mak- brochures for distribution. Alternatively, the ing. Education plays a powerful role in increas- local community could collaborate with inter- ing local involvement. national and local non-governmental organiza- Programmes such as these will eventually lead tions and become involved with environmental to greater local control over protected areas and education projects. the tourism industry. Therefore, when local Social guidelines could incorporate desirable people are involved in studying, discussing and and acceptable behaviour in the following devising strategies to control or capture control areas: over the development decision making process they are taking a critical step towards increasing 1 Local customs and traditions their role in ecotourism and development deci- 2 Permission for photographs sion making (Johnson, 1993: 4). 3 Dress LINKING CONSERVATION AND COMMUNITIES: COMMUNITY BENEFITS AND SOCIAL COSTS 83

4 Language chance of carefully designed tourism pro- 5 Invasion of privacy grammes. These would take protected areas as a 6 Response to begging focus for fostering host communities’ values 7 Use and abuse of technological gadgetry while providing education for visitors in relation 8 Bartering and bargaining to both conservation issues and the local com- 9 Indigenous rights munity itself (Kutay, 1990: 38). 10 Local officials Crocker (cited in Encel and Encel, 1991: 150) 11 Off-limits areas (Blangy and Epler Wood, maintains that participatory ecodevelopment is a 1992: 4). means of confronting the deleterious effects of tourism. Participatory ecodevelopment encom- Another source of potential assistance is tourist passes cooperative, self-management (autoges- boards. Blangy and Epler Wood (1992: 4) suggest tion), co-management (cogestion) and solidarity boards should allocate funds for all stages of the (solidarism) elements. While it is recognized by education process, through the generation, print- most in developing nations that the old eco- ing and distribution of local guidelines. Distribu- nomic models do not work and benefit only the tion of brochures and printed matter at tourist developed nations who end up controlling the centres and on-site is an effective means of economy, there are alternate models currently in reaching the tourist. Tour guides could play an operation in varying forms. important role by briefing tourists on what is acceptable and unacceptable in the region being Sometimes the imperatives to respect nature, visited. satisfy basic needs, and participate in self- However, despite the often good intentions of government point in the same direction. Estab- tourists and some tour operators, it is apparent lishing a more just system of land tenure, that ‘ecotourism can damage the natural assets pricing, credit, and technical assistance for on which it rests. The outcome depends on how small and poor farmers could reduce deforest- it is managed’ (Lindberg, 1991: ix). Thus the ation and environmentally unsound farming implications for management are enormous. practices, as well as be a source of basic-needs Managers must find a way to ‘capitalize on its satisfaction and communal self-determination. potential without jeopardizing the special fea- Santa Rosa National Park rightly prides itself tures of natural areas’ (Boo, 1990: xiv). on integrating the restoration of its dry trop- In order for ecotourism organizations to ical forest with the education and employment become aware of their place and role in ecotour- of local residents as ‘eco-tour’ guides, fores- ism, it is important for each to be made aware of ters, educators, and researchers. A proposed the differing needs of local communities while Peace Park on the Costa Rican–Nicaraguan also aligning both these groups with national border can protect the fragile regional peace as conservation/development strategies: ‘designed well as an endangered tropical ecosystem. to demonstrate to sectoral interests how they (cited in Encel and Encel, 1991: 159) inter-relate with other sectors, thereby revealing new opportunities for conservation and develop- Originally, in both ecotourism and biodiversity ment to work together’ (McNeely and Thorsell, debates, conservation issues were foremost and 1989). These different sectors include govern- the local community element was neglected. ments, private enterprise, local communities and However, it has become increasingly obvious organizations, non-governmental conservation that biodiversity cannot be conserved without organizations, and international institutions. If the involvement of local resident communities. each sector has an understanding of where it fits While it is necessary to recognize national parks within the broader framework of the tourism and protected areas as integral to biodiversity and conservation sectors then there is a better and ecotourism, ecotourism must also stress the 84 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES importance of local human populations and tourist experiences. the 83 840 acres. Except for walking the trail to White House Ruin, and following the north and south rim drives, no visitor enters Case Study Partnerships: Canyon de Chelly without a Navajo guide. national parks and native peoples One young guide (Hunter) began his employment in the park in construction The Sitka National Historical Park com- before moving into interpretation, the prises 106 acres of spectacular scenery bor- switch a natural progression for him. Hun- dered by the mouth of the Indian River, ter states: Alaska. The park is said to embody one of the most successful partnerships between ‘My grandmother said.’ ‘It’s not your the native population and national park mouth you learn with, but your other authorities. In the park, Native American senses. That’s why we have two of every- cultures are central to the interpretive thing else – ears, eyes, nostrils, hands. experience of visitors and the Tlingit Indians Your mouth is for sharing, everything else operate the Southeast Alaska Indian Cul- you learn with. She never used the word tural Centre in association with the National ‘teach’. It’s sharing.’ Park Service (NPS). Native artists practise their skills, with a focus on ‘elders’ and the The Navajo guides are living history cultural traditions they represent: ‘Bringing themselves, from families that continue to them [the elders] together is insurance for pasture sheep and goats in the canyon after where we Tlingit are going in the future.’ 500 years. The canyons provided Hunter Such partnerships are evident in Glacier with this metaphor to describe the interplay National Park, where native programmes of visiting and native cultures: include Slaish, Kootenai and Blackfeet (Indian) lecturers, drummers and dancers. People talk about bridging. But with a Glacier’s programmes began in 1980, fun- bridge, two cultures come half way and ded by the Glacier Natural History Associa- then pull. A river [however] comes from tion and other private sources. Although it all directions, comes together and slows was initially difficult to find native inter- together. No pulling, but weaving. Natu- preters there are enough natives participat- rally. We people come in all different ing in the programme to run a programme colours. Look at a finished rug, how almost each day in July and August, and beautiful it is. We just have to weave our employ Blackfeet natives as summer rang- threads.’ ers. Glacier’s chief of interpretation stated. Source: S. Bowman ‘Parks in partnership’, National Parks. January/February 1998, pp. 30–33 ‘This needed to be native Americans interpreting their own culture when we romanticize about a native culture, we lose sight that it’s a growing, living Tourism and tourism based on natural areas culture, not an artefact.’ does not take place in isolation from local people. Tourism requires infrastructure and access, all An appreciation for living culture is evi- which impact on local communities. In many dent in Canyon de Chelly National Monu- cases the natural environment is used by local ment in Arizona, where the Navajo still own people for sustaining their livelihood. With the introduction of ecotourism it is found there is a LINKING CONSERVATION AND COMMUNITIES: COMMUNITY BENEFITS AND SOCIAL COSTS 85 better basis for conservation of the natural must be brought to the attention of these resource as there are direct benefits to be gained people and the operators. from an intact environment. These benefits can ᭹ Ecotourism views the natural resource as be seen by local communities thereby encourag- home in a broad sense to all humans, but more ing an awareness of the need to conserve within so to the local inhabitants. Ecotourism itself is an economic framework. However, if develop- concerned with low impact tourism experiment is dictated by forces outside these commu- ences that are purposely designed to have the nities it is common to see overdevelopment and least impact possible on both the physical excessive economic leakage followed by high environment and the local inhabitants. social impact. Resentment can also build, caus- ᭹ Ecotourists and ecotourism operators should ing blatant harvesting or destruction of so-called be involved with the management of the protected natural resources. natural resource, as well as positive devotees to the relationship between its management and the local inhabitants. This would incorporate supplying locals with some of the positive Travel essentials financial and other advantages of the tourism activity, and providing an avenue for local ᭹ Local communities need to be involved in all people to participate in the planning and levels of ecotourism development from plan- tourism development decision making. ning through to management. The planning ᭹ Ecotourism raises the consciousness of hosts process must take into account community about wilderness protection and sustainable involvement with an understanding of how development. It provides both the locals and local communities can be best approached, visitors with genuine non-forced interaction, understood and integrated. Only then can which does not intrude thoughtlessly on the ecotourism provide a sustainable economic local lifestyle. base for rural development, but where local ᭹ Ecotourism provides the local community people have traditional means of sustainable opportunity to expand its economic resource self-sufficiency, tourism should only act as a base as a replacement or complement to supplementary source of income. traditional economic bases such as agriculture ᭹ The appropriateness of foreign ownership and and forestry. operation of facilities should be carefully ᭹ Ecotourism does not restrict the benefits of investigated in order to reduce conflict and education and access of the natural resource to resentment between local people and foreign the local community, in providing avenues for operators. If there are likely to be limited long- employment, education and enjoyment within term benefits to the local people, then this the natural environment. 7

Case studies: the local and the national

Case study 1: the local – Costa ing a stimulus for conserving natural resources. This case study illustrates ecotourism’s potential Rica, the Santa Elena as an alternative strategy for development, par- Ecotourism Rainforest Reserve ticularly through the development process being and Monteverde Cloud Forest actually led and controlled largely by the local Preserve

Costa Rica Introduction Costa Rica is a Central American country, The Santa Elena Rainforest Reserve (SERR) approximately 52 000 square kilometres in project is an ongoing community-based project area, located on the isthmus of Latin Amer- that seeks to addresses the critical problematic ica. It is bordered to the north by Nicaragua, between development and conservation in to the east by the Caribbean Sea, to the south attempting to foster economic self-sufficiency by Panama and to the west by the Pacific and natural resource conservation among a low- Ocean. It is an extremely varied country in income community. The project served to pro- terms of landscape and flora and fauna due vide a diversification of the Santa Elena commu- in large part to its geography as it lies as a nity’s economic basis in providing an alternative bridge between two continents, with species to traditional industry bases like agriculture and transition occurring between North and forestry which had significant negative impacts South America. on natural areas and the communities associated A series of volcanic mountain chains run with these areas. This project was established from the Nicaraguan border in the north– with the objective of enabling the Santa Elena west to the Panamanian border in the south- community, who are living in a marginal or east, effectively dividing the country in two. environmentally threatened area, to take an In the centre of Costa Rica’s mountainous active interest in the preservation of their natural highlands lies the Meseta Central. This resources by providing local incentives through central plain, generally between about 1000 direct and perceivable benefits. metres and 1500 metres above sea level, Ecotourism has become a key component of forms the foundation for four of Costa Rica’s Costa Rica’s growing tourism industry, partic- five largest cities – including San Jos´e, the ularly for its potential as a much needed alter- capital. native means of economic return while provid- CASE STUDIES: THE LOCAL AND THE NATIONAL 87

History and development steep countryside and heavy rainfall con- strain agricultural and industry develop- When the Spanish1 arrived in Costa Rica a ment – 60% of Costa Rica’s territory is large proportion of the country was covered suitable only for forestry. Its agriculturally with a dense cloak of deciduous forest, based economy precipitated an exponen- lowland tropical rainforest and cloudforest, tially increasing rate of deforestation and broken only by dispersed Indian settlements soil erosion, with deforestation rates averag- where corn, beans, cacao, cassava and cotton ing more than 48 000 hectares per year were cultivated in shifting plots in the forest between 1963 and 1973. Government incen- (Solorzano et al. 1991). tives for cattle ranching buoyed the demand Colonization attempts by the Spanish in for land in Costa Rica by providing incen- the sixteenth century were hampered by tives for professional squatters to clear one indigenous resistance, diseases and the rug- parcel of land after another merely to on-sell ged tropical terrain. Settlements were estab- their ‘improvements’ (Cruz et al., 1992). The lished throughout Latin America in the result of systematically clearing and selling seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, con- land in this manner resulted in 10% of the cerned primarily with trade within the ill- farmers owning three-quarters of the agri- defined and disputed regions. Smuggling cultural land. and piracy was rampant along the Car- Until the late 1940s Costa Rica still had ibbean coast of Costa Rica and Nicaragua extensive tropical forests ranging from low- throughout this period. land rainforest to cloudforest. Within 30 The indigenous population of Costa Rica years however, many of these forests had suffered great losses during this time of been lost (Boo, 1990) and forestry experts social and cultural reformation. The Indians estimate that in less than 10 years the only who survived the wars, slavery and diseases exploitable forests remaining will be within brought from Europe were incorporated parks and private reserves (Whelan, 1991). into a form of Spanish culture. Continued deforestation has not only exa- Costa Rica obtained independence from cerbated soil erosion and increased siltation Spain in 1822 at which time the intensive use in rivers but has also had adverse impacts, of its natural resources commenced. Coffee both direct and indirect, on marine and coral growing came to dominate many land- communities off the coast, particularly scapes – a mass export trade had been well along the Caribbean. Due to the increasing under way by 1825 which in the following rate of natural resource degradation, biolo- decades quickly grew to become a central gists and conservationists began to lobby for factor in the local economy. The location and the creation of a system of protected areas, expansion of the coffee industry was con- culminating in the creation of the National centrated within the fertile central valley. In Parks Service (NPS) in 1970. the early 1900s banana companies began creating an additional major export com- 2 modity, which to this day provides valuable Since 1988, the Ministry of Natural Resources has provided concessionary credit to small farmers foreign income for Costa Rica. However, the throughout Costa Rica for reforestation (Donavan in Western and Wright, 1994: 2) and some attempts have been made to commence plantation forestry. However, 1 The first recorded European contact with Costa Rica existing forests are likely to be exhausted before was by the Spanish explorer Christopher Columbus plantation forests are ready for harvest (Whelan, who first landed near present-day Puerto Limon on 18 1991). September 1502. 88 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES community in partnership with government Tourism and protected areas in sectors and international NGOs. In order to Costa Rica understand the ‘local’ position of ecotourism development this case study provides a context Costa Rica’s diverse climate and topography, for an analysis of the sociopolitical realities of particularly within or adjacent to protected ecotourism at the community level. Tourism areas, support a wide range of plant and animal development is a prime consumer of valuable life, all of which are significant attractions for land resources and changes in land use often visitors. involve a transfer of power relationships. The In 1992, tourism became Costa Rica’s largest reactions to these shifts within communities can industry, with over 500000 international visitors vary greatly but the impacts on them and their (Bowermater, 1994: 136). Because developing often delicately balanced sociocultural relation- countries have low gross domestic product and ships present problems for all those involved in income per capita, high debt burdens and gen- the process of development alternatives. This erally low standards of living they require case study highlights the different understand- economic activity, foreign exchange, employ- ings that can emerge about what constitutes ment and development or industry which is less appropriate development for a community. The consumptive of primary resources (Marsh in high levels of demand for nature tourism in Britten and Clarke, 1987: 27). As a result of this, Costa Rica provide an initial base for tourism tourism is an attractive form of development and development and this case study illustrates one has become an important industry in the past particular way in which local communities, decade. through cooperative parnerships, have initiated Foreign tourism grew rapidly in the 1970s, a and controlled tourism through the creation of period when growth averaged 11.2% annually regional conservation area systems which (Boo, 1990), and this growth has continued at attempt to integrate the generation of economic about 5.7% into the 1990s (WTTC, 1993) – over benefits with protected areas. 500 000 international visitors (Bowermater, 1994: The concerns of local communities such as 136). Tourism in Costa Rica is now the third Santa Elena to tourism generally fall into a highest source of foreign income, growing from number of interrelated categories. The first is ($US) $89.9 in the late 1980s to ($US) 193.3 in the the lack of opportunities for involvement in late 1990s (Banco Central de Costa Rica, Princi- decision-making relating to protected area man- ples estadisticas sobre). Presently it is estimated agement and tourism. The second arises from at ($US) 331 million (CIDA, 1995: 15) and it has what these communities regard as inadequate an average annual growth rate of 25%. responses from governments, the tourism Foreign exchange from tourism is seen as an industry and NGOs to assist them in control- important element for the economic recuperation ling tourism and its benefits and impacts. The of the country. Historically, the country has third relates to the lack of financial, social and lacked the financial resources and infrastructure vocational benefits flowing to these commu- for tourism and the market has been limited nities from projects that commercially exploit because of the view of Latin America as unstable, what they regard as their resources. The fourth having limited capacity, poor quality accom- relates to the need to establish better tools for modation and localization. evaluating sociocultural impacts and ensuring As such, tourism development has predom- this is completed in conjunction with the more inantly been on a small scale; 93% of the emphasized environmental impacts on the nat- country’s hotels have less than 50 rooms (Racho- ural environments which are usually of more weicki, 1994: 12) and approximately three-quar- interest to outside investors and conservation ters of all licensed tour agencies are owned by groups. nationals and long-term foreign residents. CASE STUDIES: THE LOCAL AND THE NATIONAL 89

Costa Rican protected areas without adequate funding for infrastructure and management. Spending for parks Due to the increasing rate of natural (excluding acquisition) has remained at the resource degradation, biologists and con- same level for ten years despite inflation servationists began to lobby for the creation and costs associated with managing new of a system of protected areas, culminating parks (Whelan, 1991). This indicates just in the creation of the National Parks Service how inadequate funding has been. The (NPS) in 1970. Planning for the parks system government has, however, been supportive took place at a national level with the main of the establishment of privately owned priority being to preserve habitat. This reserves for tourism and research. Unfortu- approach, however, alienated many of the nately deforestation in the rest of Costa Rica Costa Rican farmers, ranchers and loggers, continues at a non-sustainable rate, and along with ‘park dwellers who were relo- forestry experts estimate that in less than ten cated and who previously had used the years, the only exploitable forests remaining forests as hunting grounds or agricultural will be within the parks and private reserves land’ (Whelan, 1991). People forced to move (Whelan, 1991). off their land were offered compensation for their losses – many of which have not yet been paid. Many local residents have few alternative sources of income so that encroachment into the protected areas in However, this tendency is changing as increasing some cases is essential to lifestyle with slash- foreign investment is focused on the country. and-burn agriculture, gold mining, poach- One development project proposed for the Gulf ing and other activities occurring within of Papagayo includes plans for an accommoda- park boundaries (Rovinski, 1991). Failure to tion capacity of 20 000 moderate to high priced include local residents in planning national hotel rooms. Comparing this to the existing stock parks in Costa Rica has resulted in conflict of 15 000 moderate to high priced hotel rooms in (Kutay in West and Brechin, 1991: 118) the some price range suggests parallels with the between community and national park unprecedented growth that has occurred in parts staff. of Mexico and the Caribbean. In 1986 the newly formed Ministry of Costa Rica’s national tourist board (Junta Natural Resources took responsibility for National de Turismo) was established in 1931, the NPS from the Ministry of Agriculture. later replaced by the Costa Rican Tourist Board Alvaro Umana, then Minister of Natural (ICT) in 1955. In 1986, the government continued Resources, began to promote a new concept the practice initiated in 1985 of increasing the to solve the conservation versus develop- tourism board’s budget from central funds and ment dilemma: sustainable development also increased the tax on airfares from 5% to 8% (Rovinski, 1991). The protected areas that to increase the board’s funding (Boo, 1990). support this idea consist of over 55 pro- Coupled with a 3% tax on hotel accommodation, tected units, such as national parks, national these taxes are intended to fund the board totally. forests, wildlife refuges and Indian reserves The government further demonstrated its com- and these areas cover about 18% (926 000 mitment to developing a tourism industry by hectares) of the national territory (Boo, passing the Tourism Investment Incentives Law 1990). in 1986. This piece of legislation encouraged Costa Rica’s parks and protected areas private sector tourism investment through vari- have been developed, to a large extent, ous concessionary measures and has provided 90 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES for numerous tax exemptions for tourist-related enterprises (Harrison, 1992). The Monteverde Cloud Forest The challenge of creating a viable tourism Preserve (MCFP) industry in the midst of Costa Rica’s current rate of natural resource depreciation has become an In 1973, private donations were used to set imperative due to the urgent need to address the up the private Monteverde Cloud Forest problems of poverty and unemployment, sus- Preserve, now operated by the Tropical tainable rural development and natural resource Science Center in San Jose. The reserve preservation. The interconnectedness of these straddles the continental divide in the issues has important policy implications for Tilaran mountains, spans six life zones, Costa Rica’s government and people. and the quetzal, bell-bird and umbrella Ecotourism had caught the imagination of the birds are some of the more unique inhab- local Santa Elena community because of the itants . . . jaguars, ocelots; macaws, ag’outis, revenue returns to the adjacent Monteverde and kinkajous roam among immense oak Cloudforest Preserve (MCFP) and the commu- trees. In all, the area has about 600 tree nity generating interest from the government species, 300 orchids and 200 ferns, 100 and international organizations operating in the mammals, and more than 2 000 flowering country. It was seen as a way to sustain the plants and over 500 different types of natural environment while still earning valuable butterflies. income for the community. However, a focus on The 10 500 hectare reserve is one of the the high return potential generated by foreign most popular destinations in Costa Rica for tourists and an over-emphasis on scientific value ecotourists because of its cloud forest pre- has contributed to a perception of exclusion in serve. The number of tourists increased the Santa Elena community. from about 300 in 1973 to nearly 13 000 in 1987, and by 1994 Monteverde was drawing 15 000 tourists per year. The reserve has had to limit numbers and became support- The Santa Elena Ecotourism ive of the establishment of the Santa Elena Rainforest Reserve (SERR) Rainforest Reserve in order to decrease pressure on itself. With tourism to the adjacent MCFP increasing Tourism earnings are now the second from 300 in 1973 40 000 in 1989, a significant largest source of income for local residents amount of income has been generated within the after dairy production. The increase in area. However, limited real benefits have tourism has increased pressure on the area, accrued to the Santa Elena community. The Santa especially new tourist developments such Elena Rainforest Reserve (SERR) was a direct as restaurants and hotels. The area is community-based response to this situation in an threatened by subsistence agriculture, log- attempt to provide stability for the community ging and land speculation. through an ecotourism project which would Scientists, tourists and ecotourists con- provide sustainable economic land use alter- tinued to come in growing numbers to the natives for the community, and which, it was Monteverde area. However, this increased hoped, would see real benefits being delivered to tourism to the Monteverde area left very the community from tourism. few benefits being retained within the adja- The Santa Elena community established the cent Santa Elena community, who saw a SERR on a parcel of land that had been presented limited return from the developing eco- to their high school by the Costa Rican govern- tourism industry in their region. ment in 1983 on a 10-year lease, for students to CASE STUDIES: THE LOCAL AND THE NATIONAL 91 conduct agricultural projects. The project grew out of a response to the issues that have The Santa Elena Rainforest confronted many Costa Rican communities as a Reserve result of deforestation due to systematic land clearing, chiefly for agriculture, and the endemic Over 310 hectares in size and with 50% of unemployment level which has necessitated a the reserve located within the Arenal gradual exodus of people from rural areas to National Reserve, the Santa Elena Rainforest larger cities in search of work. The project was Reserve is of unique conservation value. seen as a sound initiative but later, due to the While it is a habitat for most of the flora and difficulties of clearing the forest and because of fauna also found in the MCFP, it also has severe climate, infertile soils and lack of resour- some unique characteristics of its own. It is ces, it was abandoned. The high school’s board the home of the non-migrating quetzals and of directors acted as a lobby group, overcoming has views of volcano Arenal, Lake Arenal existing local laws and government legislation and the Gulf of Nicaragua. The majority of and the failure of the nearby Monteverde Cloud the reserve is comprised of primary (pris- Forest Preserve (MCFP) effectively to contribute tine) cloud forest. This makes up 256 ha or to their area. (There are numerous examples of 83.1% of the 310 ha reserve. ways in which the MCFP could have used their networks effectively to create scholarships for students to attend universities or work with visiting scientists; however, the focus was on ᭹ provision of a further tourist attraction in the conservation and research mainly for developed area that would directly benefit the countries’ scientists and interests.) community; In 1990 the community and the high school ᭹ fostering a conservation ethic in the children made the decision to develop the school’s land of the high school and subsequently the for ecotourism purposes. The major objectives community of Santa Elena. included: Funds for the project were raised from the ᭹ addressing the school’s problem of lack of local community, Canadian high schools, private financial resources; and public sector sponsors, and international ᭹ addressing deforestation, which historically development organizations such as the Cana- has seen local forests depleted through rural dian International Development Agency (CIDA) families’ need to clear land in order to derive and Youth Challenge International (YCI). CIDA income from dairy farming; and YCI initially provided the material, equip- ᭹ providing Costa Rican and international stu- ment and staff necessary to develop and con- dents with a centre for practical rainforest struct an interpretation centre and trails. The study; local and regional government authorities coop- ᭹ providing job opportunities and economic erated by directing national government funds benefits for the community through an eco- into the building of a road to the reserve (access tourism project that would enhance their to which was previously restricted due to high lifestyle and demonstrate the socioeconomic rainfall, clay soils, and severe erosion in some potential of conserving the natural environ- sections). ment in their area; Local tour operators were involved in the ᭹ construction of an interpretation centre and establishment of the SERR from an early stage. nature trail to provide Costa Ricans and The larger operators were approached for dona- tourists alike with educational information on tions to assist in the establishment of the reserve rainforest conservation; and the smaller operators were allowed to bring 92 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES visitors to the site to encourage their support. problems Boo (1990: 32) identified in Costa Rica, Many of these operators volunteered to work on where revenues generated by parks are often site and also encouraged their clients to make diverted to other sources such as hospitals, or as donations to the reserve. McNeely and Thorsell (1989: 31) found where User charges are levied on visitors in order to development is often inappropriate. The reve- raise revenue for further protection and manage- nue from this reserve can be directed into ment. Access rights to specific individuals or creating urban infrastructure as well as manage- operators have not yet been addressed. To ment operations and interpretation facilities, restrict the level of access to an area the numbers and with the ongoing support from the commu- of visitors must be controlled and this may be nity the appropriate infrastructure can be devel- achieved in the future through the issuing of oped. The local and regional government permits to operators. authorities have been cooperative here in sup- The community is coordinating a regional plan plying funds directed from the national govern- and have initiated land zoning controls, which is ment to build a road to the reserve, allowing essential to the future management of the area. vehicle access. The joint cooperation of the The school board established the Santa Elena different levels of government represented a High School Rainforest Foundation to assist in major step towards the successful operation of advising the management of the reserve. It is the reserve. Tourism can provide economic justi- made up of a range of organizations, the Tropical fication (Boo, 1990: xiv) to conserve areas and is Science Centre, Youth Challenge International, therefore an attractive proposition for the gov- the Municipality of Puntarenas, the Fathers’ ernment, as Cater (1987: 202–8) maintains it can Association of the Santa Elena High School, the stimulate employment, investment, modified Administration Board of the High School, the land use and make a positive contribution to Integral Development Association of Monte- the balance of payments. verde, the Volunteers, Investigation, and Envi- ronmental Development Association (VIDA). The Foundation’s goals are to: Conclusion ᭹ conserve the rainforest; ᭹ manage the reserve and allocate profits to the The SERR project raises the potential for change high school; and answers some of the political and economic ᭹ provide employment and income to the questions which are now being raised about community; sustainable development, particularly in devel- ᭹ acquire more land to be protected in the oping nations such as Costa Rica. Originally, in reserve. both ecotourism and biodiversity debates, conservation issues were foremost and the local Employment in the Costa Rican tourism sector in community element was neglected. However, it 1989 represented only 5.3% of the national has become increasingly obvious that biodi- available labour but this figure has increased, versity cannot be conserved without the involve- along with ecotourism-based activities. The ment of local resident communities. While it is Santa Elena project focuses on employment for necessary to recognize national parks and pro- graduates from the school. A guide training tected areas as integral to biodiversity and programme was developed and implemented ecotourism, ecotourism must also stress the along with biology, English and hospitality importance of concerns raised by local commu- added to the school curriculum. nities about protected area management, lack of As it is not directly controlled by the govern- opportunities for involvement, benefits and ment, the reserve does not experience the sociocultural impacts. CASE STUDIES: THE LOCAL AND THE NATIONAL 93

It is hoped the reserve can become a ‘living community can achieve: its formula is home- classroom’, with programmes for grade school, grown and has required only an initial input high school and university students, civic groups from Youth Challenge International to assist the and tourists from Costs Rica and elsewhere. The community in starting, although it is hoped the start of this will be the local high school, where relationship is on-going. It has been devised to the reserve will become an integral arm of the match the particular biological, political, eco- traditional school system by teaching ecology nomic and social circumstances of the Santa and natural history in the park itself. The Elena community, it provides no formulas for research programme’s findings can be incorpo- others’ success but possibly an example to rated directly into the teaching effort, thus observe. The reserve evolved in a practical and making education as important as the inter- pragmatic way, partly as the community’s reac- pretation centre, trails and rainforest. Although tion to look for strategies to counter the problems oriented toward local residents, the park’s edu- experienced by the local community. It is a cational system is also a rich resource for other practical solution that essentially relies on the Costa Ricans as well as international tourists. local community of Santa Elena. The interpretation programmes will aim to Today, the Santa Elena Rainforest Reserve inspire biology-related activities at the Santa hosts 7000 visitors and generates (US) $40 000 Elena High School and visiting schools as well as annually for the community. Two residents have a deeper interaction with tropical nature by been hired in permanent paid management students, teachers and parents. Although the positions. The curriculum of the high school has primary aim of the education programme will be been expanded to include English, biology and to expose the local community to natural history hospitality courses, boosting opportunities for and thus enhance biological understanding, it is graduates to work as guides within the reserve. also crucial to the continued survival of the The Rainforest Reserve also contributes to the reserve that the programme generate an on- protection of the large Arenal Freshwater Catch- going populace that understands biology. Stu- ment by acting as a ‘buffer zone’ of protected dents will be running the reserve, the town and land adjacent to core catchment areas. political systems in the future and when a In order to understand the role ecotourism decision is to be made about conservation, played, it is important to examine the Santa resource management or anything else, they will Elena project as it demonstrates how it focused have an understanding of the biological process the community and allowed them to find ways that is behind that decision. of creating infrastructure for tourism; to under- Tourists will also benefit from the park’s stand sectoral interests and how they inter-relate education programme. It offers a high level of with other sectors, thereby enabling them to interpretation of its many attractions and intel- discover an opportunity for conservation and lectual stimulation as a result of its research. In development to work together for them. With association with the Santa Elena township the the local community as the focus, different reserve is able to offer living facilities and other sectors – government, private enterprise, con- tourist services in a coordinated manner through servation and non-governmental organizations, its planning commissions. and international institutions – could then reor- The Santa Elena Ecotourism Rainforest ientate their approach to conservation through Reserve offers a unique insight into what a tourism. 94 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

Case study 2: for title and management of parks. While supporting cooperation with indigenous people, the the national – ‘Issues in reassertion of the primacy of the concept of protected area policy in protected areas as refuges of nature conservation Australia’ is argued for here, lest they become severely compromised by human demands and commer- Penelope J. Figgis cial motives. AM Vice President, Australian Conservation Foundation3 Introduction

The national estate of protected areas are areas of In a few centuries humans have transformed, to immense ecological, cultural and aesthetic some degree, virtually every corner of the earth. importance; they are also the core ‘resource’ of Natural lands are now isolates in a sea of the ecotourism industry. The expansion, protec- humanity. Historically some of these areas were tion and management of these lands should set aside as refuges from expanding human therefore be a core concern of the industry. development as protected areas. Nature preser- Indeed, the major motivation for conservation- vation, more recently called biodiversity con- ists in becoming stakeholders in the industry servation, scenic and cultural conservation and was the hope that the industry would be a non-damaging forms of recreation were seen as partner in pursuing these aims. Some current the primary goals. policies, for example the National Forest Policy However, in the late twentieth century we are and National Reserve System, should increase facing a major dilemma regarding protected the areas under conservation management in the natural areas. The pressures of our massive near future. However, will these areas remain global population, combined with ever-expand- outstanding refuges of the natural world? Philo- ing material consumption or, in contrast, ever- sophical and political shifts both internationally expanding survival desperation, encroach relent- and within Australia may place protected areas lessly on the natural world. This crisis makes under increasing strain. One of the major strains conservation of nature both a global moral is likely to be the combined impact of protected imperative – our species does not have the right areas being seen as primarily resources for to obliterate the rights of other living things – tourism and recreation and the retreat of govern- and a pragmatic policy necessary for the survival ment from core funding. This case study briefly and well-being of humanity. While all lands scopes other pressures on protected areas such as must be managed to retain their biodiversity, the demands for ‘multiple use’ parks allowing protected areas, national parks and reserves extractive industries, the demands of the ‘access’ remain essential refuges of nature and are ‘the lobby and the aspirations of traditional people most cost effective solution to the problem of biodiversity maintenance’ (Thackway, 1996). Yet at the very time when the need for such areas to 3 This case study reproduces a paper presented at the exist, and indeed expand, seems imperative, the Conference of the Ecotourism Association of Australia, same forces which created the need for these Kangaroo Island 14–17 November 1996. Penelope Figgis refuges are now claiming them as legitimate thanks the Conservation Councils and Trusts of NSW, WA, areas for commerce or ‘consumption’ in various SA, Tasmania, Queensland and the National Parks Associa- tion of NSW and Victoria for their responses to a ques- forms. tionnaire on directions in protected area policy. The respon- Australia, is no exception. Despite its vast ses were a major source. spaces, 200 years of European settlement have CASE STUDIES: THE LOCAL AND THE NATIONAL 95 had a well documented devastating impact on modity or service, to a more ‘ecocentric’ view. the rich biodiversity of the continent. The 7.8% The ‘ecocentric’ or ‘deep green’ environmental currently in protected areas plays a vital role in philosophy, which has a strong affinity with the maintaining communities; however, it falls far world-views of many indigenous people, short of representing all the biogeographic ascribes important, non-quantifiable intrinsic, regions or ecosystems (Thackway, 1996). In the scientific, aesthetic and spiritual values to nature scientific community there is consensus that the conservation. It has not replaced the dominant real need is for a very substantial increase in paradigm. This philosophical ‘way of seeing’ protected areas. Yet nationally, and in virtually leads, in its mildest form, to a strong emphasis every state, there are major shifts to undermining on human needs being met in parks, and in its the primary nature conservation purpose of strongest form to opposition to the preservation national parks and protected areas in favour of of natural land in protected areas as valueless tourism and car-based recreation and even ‘locking up’ of land. extractive industries. At the same time, core When nature conservation is accepted it is funding from government is, in general, declin- from a ‘utilitarian’ viewpoint; that is, as a means ing, which compounds the pressures to generate to ensure future supplies for human industry or income by encouraging commercial supply a service to humans in the form of development. recreation or a tourism product. This attitude This study endeavours to give a brief over- underlies the rejection of ‘wilderness’ or exclu- view of the major forces shaping protected area sion zones in protected areas – they are of limited policy and the arising issues which are likely to human use, ipso facto of no value. The dominance impact on protected areas over the coming of the attitude that nature exists to serve human decades. The salience of this topic to ecotourism material needs underlies most of the issues of is clear. Currently protected areas are the major maintaining nature in a highly populous and resource of the nature tourism industry; the consumption-driven world. future of both is closely interwoven. Anti-‘preservation’ The prevailing model of protected areas in Current philosophical and Australia has been the non-inhabited, minimal political influences on protected interference park. Two very different streams in area policy global thinking may affect the viability of this model in the future. In much of the world sheer The following section explores some of the numbers and pressing social needs are dictating current broad philosophical and political influ- that a human exclusion, ‘fences and fines’ ences which are shaping attitudes and policy approach to maintaining nature is simply not directions in protected areas both in Australia feasible (Wells and Brandon, 1992). This has led and internationally. to a gradual shift to integrate the development needs of local communities into protected area management. The ‘preservationist approach’ is Anthropocentrism condemned in this context as requiring ‘an Globally, protected area policy is strongly influ- essentially militaristic defence strategy and will enced by what is essentially a philosophical almost always heighten conflict’ (Machlis and failure. Despite several decades of effort envir- Tichnell, 1985). In the Caracas Action Plan, the onmentalists have failed substantially to shift the major strategy document to come out of the IVth anthropocentic notion that nature has value if it World Congress on National Parks and Protected meets human needs, either producing a com- Areas in Venezuela in 1992, the human-needs 96 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES orientation is unambiguous: ‘Protected areas and mining industries, and the many forces – must be managed so that local communities, the hunters, off-road vehicle enthusiasts – who are nations involved, and the world community all hostile to nature-centred management, who benefit (IUCN, Caracas Action Plan, 1992). A believe that parks should be pleasure grounds related aspect of this debate is the increasing for unconstrained human recreation. This think- emphasis on off-park conservation initiatives in ing, which has long had its equivalents in the the clear recognition that isolated ‘islands’ of UK, appears to be strengthening the hand of this biodiversity are extremely vulnerable and possi- access lobby in Australia through informal ties bly non-viable in the long term. While the and networks (see below) (Bob Burton personal profound imperatives behind such changes are communication). unquestionable the movement has strengthened the human centred orientation of conservation Economic rationalism/the retreat of and, in the case of ‘off-park’ categories such as government multiple use biosphere reserves, could under- mine the concept of a protected area. The 1990s have seen the ideological victory of While Australian conditions are, in the main, capitalism over socialism and with it a victory of a very different from the developing world, the conservative form of capitalism that argues move away from the ‘nature’s refuge’ model is powerfully for market-based allocation of resour- having its impact. One impetus arises from the ces, competitiveness, small government and a efforts to address the rights of Aboriginal people powerful private sector. As a result, the legitimate to their lands and the perceived inappropriate- role of government is shrinking; banking, insur- ness of the current model (see discussion of ance, health, education, energy, water, transport – indigenous issues below). Generally the effect of all are being progressively removed from public the debate has been a move for land managers to ownership and control. Government agencies are be more accommodating to neighbouring com- being asked increasingly to run on a business munities, largely as a response to the hostility rather than public interest model. The breadth of which putting ecological need before human this shift has meant that no sphere of government needs seems to engender. There is also far more is seen as immune from scrutiny in terms of a role reference to the need to consult and cooperate for private sector, market-based management. with various ‘stakeholders’ (Thackway, 1996). Protected Area Agencies have found themselves While such moves seem little more than common pressured to be more ‘commercial’, ‘customer sense, they can also be seen as leading to a focused’ and to produce more of their revenue watering down of pure nature protection as each from the services provided by parks. stakeholder is, at least partly, accommodated. A basic tenet of this philosophy is the super- A quote from Ron Arnold, leader of the ‘wise iority of the private sector and a belief that use movement’ in the USA, encapsulates the because it is subject to market forces, it will views of a virulent anti-preservation lobby. ‘Let deliver outcomes more efficiently. Protected the private sector build attractive resorts in parks areas have recently come under pressure from . . . restore wise resource use – prudent mining, this force with arguments being mounted for a salvage logging . . . hunting, fishing, snowmobile much greater role for the private sector in adventures in winter.’ This very different move- national parks. The ability of the profit-driven ment is also part of the big picture for the future private sector adequately to protect non-quanti- of protected areas – its concept of the purpose of fiable values and long-term public interest issues protected areas is certainly a far cry from the such as environmental protection and social concept of a refuge. ‘Wise use’ adherents range equity has been central to the debate over from the industries who would like access to economic rationalism and remains a major resources on parks, such as the logging, grazing concern for environmentalists. CASE STUDIES: THE LOCAL AND THE NATIONAL 97

Unemployment pressures of all states and territories and a major framework for the identification of priority areas has While the need to conserve biodiversity has been developed called the Interim Biogeographic become increasingly urgent, the political setting Regionalization for Australia (IBRA). A sub- for convincing governments to allocate land to stantial $80 million over four years has been nature conservation has become increasingly allocated by the Federal government. The Com- difficult. As Australia entered the prolonged prehensive Regional Assessment of Forests proc- recession of the early 1990s and unemployment ess, which is part of the implementation of the dominated the political agenda, the ‘jobs versus National Forests Policy also, aims to bring 15% of environment’ dichotomy worked against alloca- forest types into the reserve system. There are tion of lands to nature. Despite some improve- also processes under way such as the Indigenous ment in the economy in the mid-1990s, rural Protected Areas (IPA) programme that may unemployment remains an intransigent problem significantly add to the conservation estate and the political issue remains that governments through the voluntary self-declaration of Aborig- are reluctant to take any decision which might inal land as a protected area (Szabo, 1996). cause unemployment. It has become increasingly While these processes seem to augur well, they necessary for conservationists to add economic are still subject to the political realities of the day, benefit and employment opportunities to their which, as sketched below, suggest a far more arguments for nature conservation. Tourism, as a ambiguous attitude to protected areas. There are non-extractive industry, is the obvious choice. also concerns that the national concentration on However, placing a strong emphasis on the scientifically representative areas may lead to an tourism importance of protected areas strength- overemphasis on the strict biodiversity ‘sample’ ens the trend to see them as an economic value, whereas many areas have wilderness, resource, rather than an ecological refuge, and aesthetic and cultural values quite apart from weakens the case of environmentalists against their ‘representativeness’. inappropriate development.

Influence of conservative governments The political setting in Australia shifted con- Issues in Australian protected siderably to the right during the 1980s. Labour areas policy governments moved away from public interest policies and closer to the market-driven ‘eco- This section explores the impacts of some of the nomic rationalist’ philosophy identified above. ‘big picture’ trends identified above and identi- The acceptance of economic growth as the fies other protected area issues specific to overriding fundamental goal of government was Australia. unquestioned. The ‘new’ federalism of the Inter- governmental Agreement on the Environment embodied the Commonwealth government’s Positive trends retreat from the major pro-environment inter- Theoretically, Australia’s protected areas should ventions of the 1980s to the more ‘cooperative’ expand considerably in the near future. In the state’s rights approach. This trend is deepening lead-up to the 1996 Federal election, the Coali- as the conservative parties have won govern- tion endorsed the National Reserve System goals ment nationally and in every state except New of a ‘comprehensive, adequate and representa- South Wales (NSW). tive’ reserve system of 15% for all Australian All conservative governments have central ecosystems. The National Reserve System Coop- philosophical planks which are hostile to pro- erative Program (NRSCP) now has the support tected areas. The conservative parties in 98 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

Australia have traditionally been strongly pro- ᭹ Opposition to ‘single use’ land tenure which development and generally very favourably translates to a belief that parks should be disposed to the mining, tourism and rural either ‘multiple use’ or used first and pro- lobbies. They have a strong commitment to tected later. state’s rights which will mean increased devo- ᭹ Attempted downgrading of Commonwealth lution of responsibility to the states who are, in powers by removal of export controls on the main, less inclined to strong protective mineral exports (which protected Fraser measures for the environment. Conservative Island, Shoalwater and Shelburne Bays). governments are strongly influenced by their ᭹ Giving an effective veto to states over World Coalition partners, the National Party, who Heritage nominations. reflect the anti-protected area views of much of their rural constituency. Funding issues There are also general biases in the conservative ranks against those groups who are The entire public sector in Australia is in a state associated with non-mainstream thinking, so- of massive change reflecting the philosophical called ‘politically correct’ ideologies like femi- and political trends described above. National nism, environmentalism and Aboriginal rights parks and reserves, perceived largely as an are out of favour with conservatives who still unproductive sector, have always been sub- represent vested interests, rather than public stantially poorly funded and staffed. However, interest. This will strongly affect access and in line with the general trend to cut government influence in the event of protected area disputes spending, core funding to land management with the advocates for nature likely to be agencies is generally being even further reduced defeated. at both national and state levels. This inevitably The current Federal Coalition government has sets up a pressure to generate funds. Conserving already shown every sign of pursuing policies biodiversity does not directly generate funds; deeply hostile to nature conservation. Among providing for people frequently does. Hence them: tourism fees; entry, licences, concessionaires – governments and agencies increasingly see lev- ᭹ Removal of the ‘three mines’ uranium policy ies as the answer to budget cuts. However, this in with a current proposal for new mines in turn generates pressures for more concessions to Rudall River National Park (Kintyre) and tourism interests in park management. Kakadu (Jabiluka). Some examples: ᭹ The approval of the biggest tourist development in Queensland’s history at Oyster Point ᭹ In NSW the National Parks and Wildlife near Cardwell with no environmental impact Service (NPWS) has supported a major expan- study (EIS) undertaken. The development will sion in Kosciusko National Parks. Part of the have adverse impacts on the magnificent development involves private apartments Hinchinbrook Island National Park, the safe which can be on-sold for profit. NPWS takes a haven of the Hinchinbrook Passage and the substantial premium for approval, covering nearby islands of the World Heritage Great infrastructure, plus a return to the service. Barrier Reef Marine Park ᭹ In Victoria a levy on four-wheel drive vehicle ᭹ The Wet Tropics World Heritage Area of North registrations helps to provide funds for track Queensland is under threat from severe fund- maintenance but it is claimed this leads to ing cuts. major pressures for the Parks Authority to ᭹ Expansion of the woodchipping industry in accommodate the lobby’s demands for tracks the face of majority community support for its to stay open. (Colong Foundation Bulletin, phase out. January 1996). CASE STUDIES: THE LOCAL AND THE NATIONAL 99

Private sector involvement simultaneously grown to value them more highly. Nature tourism is a growing sector of a The ideological commitment to small govern- huge global industry. Most of Australia’s $26.7 ment and the lack of adequate resources for billion tourism industry is based on protected management, is also fuelling a substantial push areas. This creates the ultimate two-edged in some states for a greater role for the private sword. On the one hand, it creates a powerful sector in managing national parks. In answer to economic argument for the dedication and questionnaires sent out by the author (P.J.F.), proper management of protected areas for their Queensland, and Victoria responded most value as a ‘tourism product’. On the other, it strongly that privatization was an issue. The creates substantial pressures for tourism-centred privatization debate ranges over a wide field, management of protected areas where the inter- from the privatization of services within national ests of tourism prevail over nature conservation parks, such as the delivery of parks maintenance, (Figgis, 1994). accommodation, food transport and tour ser- The approach of this industry will be a central vices, to a far more radical approach where the determinant of protected area policy. From a government’s role would retreat to setting stan- conservationist’s viewpoint there are some wor- dards and monitoring outcomes while the pri- rying trends. A recent publication of the Ecotour- vate sector provided all services. The need for ism Association of Australia, the Australian Eco- private commercial accommodation in parks is tourism Guide, cites some case studies of especially stressed (Charters et al., 1996). The ‘ecotourism’. Two of the studies are of Kingfisher prevailing philosophy of such proponents is Bay Resort on Fraser Island and the Kuranda deeply anthropocentric; a human demand, tour- Skyrail nears Cairns. The first is a major resort, ism growth, exists, therefore it must be met. catering for over 1000 staff and guests in a world However, their arguments for commercialization heritage area built on a previously pristine site. of parks is couched in terms of ‘protecting’ the The Skyrail is a major engineering work, a 7.5 km parks through better management of the ‘inevi- cableway necessitating some 70 towers through table’ demands. a World Heritage rainforest and the Barron In response to this push in Queensland, the Gorge National Park. The publication states, Environment Minister, Brain Littleproud, has ‘Skyrail is ecotourism at its model best.’ issued guidelines for commercial developments This trend for tourism developments in pro- in national parks, which most observers see as tected areas is one of the major threats identified preceding a major wave of proposals. ‘Everyone by environmental groups around Australia in should have the right to experience the wonders responses to the author. That such developments of Queensland’s National Parks, but not every- are aggressively promoted by their supporters as one is able to “rough it” (Press Release, 30 June ‘models’ of good ecotourism and in the interests 1996). The Department of Environment is being of good management ignores the fact that com- encouraged to solicit commercial development mercial development and the assumption that inside national parks as a means of generating demand must be met will inevitably compromise revenue to pay for improved management. ecological integrity. It completely distorts the Proposals have been received for developments idea of ecotourism as tourism that supports on Fraser Island and inside Carnarvon National nature conservation. Proponents ignore the inev- Park with Wallaman Falls, the highest falls in itable strengthening of the idea of parks as Australia, being suggested as an ideal site. ‘human playgrounds’ which will follow the penetration of human commerce. Nature tourism The momentum is directly related to the poor It is ironic that while humanity has relentlessly funding of many protected area agencies. Tour- decimated wildlife and wildlands we have ism facilities can generate funds and many land 100 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES agencies are actively encouraging further use. ᭹ The Tasmanian Parks Service has been pro- Some examples: moting a ‘wilderness development’ site at Pumphouse Point in Lake St Clair National ᭹ The Victoria Parks Service proposed major Park. commercial development in Wilson’s Promon- ᭹ In Victoria 285 ha of the Alpine National Park tory National Park, including a lodge for 150 at Falls Creek has been excised from the park people, a backpacker hostel and commercial for a downhill ski run and tourist develop- lodges along walking tracks. While the hotel ment. The land includes important areas of was dropped after massive public protest, the habitat for the endangered Mountain Pygmy other developments are going ahead. possum (burramys). The decision was taken ᭹ A fanciful tunnel with a train to a viewing without any consultation with environment tower above a seal colony was seriously interests. proposed as a 60 million dollar ‘ecotourism’ development for the Nobbies area of Phillip A second issue arises from the increasing Island, Victoria. A 13 million dollar first stage dependence of parks authorities on tourism has been approved. charges to meet budget shortfalls. There remains ᭹ In Queensland in 1996 the Environment Min- widespread concern in the environment move- ister issued guidelines for commercial devel- ment that this creates an inexorable dynamic opments in national parks which most obser- towards tourism-centred management (Figgis, vers see as preceding a major wave of 1994). Some current examples: proposals. The Department of Environment is being encouraged to solicit commercial devel- ᭹ The dramatic decision of the Commonwealth opment inside national parks as a means of government in 1996 to raise the Great Barrier generating revenue to pay for ‘improved Reef tourism tax, the Environment Manage- management’. Proposals have been received ment Charge, from $1 to $6 immediately for developments on Fraser Island and inside brought calls for greater representation of Carnarvon National Park with Wallaman tourism interests in management. Falls, the highest falls in Australia being ᭹ In mid-1996, work commenced in the Otway suggested as an ideal site. (Queensland Con- National Park in Victoria on an extension to servation Council) the Great Ocean Walk which will involve ᭹ In NSW in the Warrumbungle National Park cutting of tracks through pristine coastal some nine development sites dispersed over 40 environments. No prior consultation was con- square kilometres are proposed to cater for ducted with conservation groups. overnight camping and cabins, despite a town, ᭹ In Western Australia the strict nature reserve Coonabarabran, existing nearby. The accom- status of Two Peoples Bay is being altered to modation will be run by private enterprise but allow for a tourism centre despite serious will still generate funds for the service. In NSW, scientific concerns over impacts on the rare the Parks Service has supported a major species found in the reserve. 1000-bed expansion in Kosciusko National Parks to expand the existing ski resort in the ‘Multiple use’ parks/extractive industry Perisher Valley. Part of the development push involves substantial commercial retail space and private apartments which can be on-sold In Australia’s federal system there are around for profit. Proposals also exist for Blue Cow sixty categories of protected areas (Pittock, 1996). Guthega and Smiggins Hole. NPWS will take a Many of these categories do allow for some substantial premium for approval, covering extractive use but the majority of Australia’s infrastructure, plus a return to the service. national parks are IUCN categories I–III, which CASE STUDIES: THE LOCAL AND THE NATIONAL 101 preclude mining, grazing and other extractive ᭹ In Western Australia, the government has uses. However, as identified above, the global legislated to excise 386 ha of D’Entrecasteaux trend towards ‘multiple use’ is strengthening. National Park to allow sand mining beside ‘Multiple use’ is a concept which has been Lake Jasper. The park, in WA’s southwest, pushed for many years by those opposed to contains magnificent coastal wetlands and is ‘preservation’. It contends that land can be of immense cultural significance to Aboriginal adequately conserved for ecological values while people. This sets an precedent for the 21 other supporting other land uses. The Australian WA parks where exploration leases have been mining lobby has been particularly concerned granted and the 100 conservation reserves that national parks ‘sterilize’ their resources and where mining can occur at the discretion of have argued hard for a regime which allows for the Minister. exploration and mining. The concept is also ᭹ Vital remnants of Box and Ironbark forests in supported by landowners who wish to use parks Victoria are being lost to gold mining. There for seasonal or drought grazing and by many are 470 active leases in these areas which interests who object to, or do not share an conservationists have argued are in urgent ecocentric viewpoint. The multiple use approach need of protection. has been explicitly endorsed by the Howard ᭹ Rutile mining is proposed for the last undis- government with the Minister for Resources and turbed high dune on North Stradbroke Island, Energy, Warwick Parer, telling a business con- part of Queensland’s Great Sandy Region. The ference ‘We will reverse the trend to single land island has already suffered immense damage use which has led to unbalanced and ill-con- from sand mining. This mining operation will sidered decisions which have unnecessarily con- clear over 50 ha of native vegetation and strained access to areas for exploration and threaten Ibis Lagoon, one of the last undam- development’ (AAP transcript, 3rd July 1996). aged perched freshwater lakes. Such an approach could have massive ramifications on both the ecological and aesthetic integ- Access lobby rity of our protected areas. Some current manifestations of this trend: Over the past twenty years Australia has seen an increasingly vociferous public access lobby ᭹ The most prominent example is the possibility develop. The lobby is a loose amalgam of four- that the uranium mine at Jabiluka, on a lease wheel drive enthusiasts, horse riders and hun- within Kakadu National Park, will go ahead ters; many are from rural communities. Their under the Coalition’s pro-uranium mining philosophy is an acute form of the anthro- policy. While not technically on park land it pocentricism outlined earlier. Their principal will clearly affect park values. aims appear to be the maintenance of public ᭹ There are current proposals to degazette a access by road and track to all public lands and 26 000 core area of Yumburrah National Park, the prevention of wilderness declarations, as an important remnant of the once extensive they claim a democratic ‘right’ to access every mallee in South Australia, to allow gold and part of public land. The lobby constantly argue uranium mining. The area is both remote and that existing parks are poorly managed. Accord- has high wilderness values. ing to this lobby national parks are refuges for ᭹ In Tasmania two separate acts have given the every enemy of rural Australia – feral animals, mining and logging interests virtual resource especially pasture-consuming kangaroos, and security. The industries must be compensated predators, foxes and dingoes, as well as weeds if the land is subsequently used for new and wild fires. The massive fires which con- reserves, making such moves highly sumed New South Wales in January of 1994 unlikely. concentrated this antipathy to parks and brought 102 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES great pressure on parks services to attend to has yet been granted. However, some states have management and accommodate such concerns voluntarily restored title to Aboriginal people (NPWS, 1995). and instituted joint management. There is con- While NSW has resisted their call for no new siderable potential for such initiatives to be parks or wilderness areas and in fact made extended, particularly in areas of Australia substantial new declarations, there has been where land claims are less likely to be granted. considerable accommodation of the access lobby However, complex issues arise from the envi- in return (National Parks Association, NSW): ronment movement’s commitment to nature conservation and their commitment to social ᭹ In NSW while honouring some wilderness justice and recognition of Aboriginal rights. promises the Carr government has seen fit to ‘Wilderness’ and ‘national parks’ are viewed appease this group with upgrades or new with some hostility as European concepts which tracks, including the Barraba Track through have either ignored Aboriginal rights or been Kaputar National Park which was condemned used to usurp them. As a result, new forms other as having ‘serious and detrimental effects on than traditional protected areas are being moo- the environment’ by Carr when Minister for ted as the way forward in reconciling the needs. the Environment in the 1980s. Cooperative land use agreements or Regional ᭹ The Public Land Users Alliance, a strongly Agreements are seen as a way for negotiating anti-wilderness four-wheel drive group, has conservation agreements on Aboriginal land. claimed that the effort to stop areas being fully Under the NRSCP, funds have been allocated to protected is ‘full on, this is war now’ (Public develop a Indigenous Protected Area Program to Land Users Alliance, 1996). promote cooperative agreements with indige- ᭹ In Tasmania the fragile Cental Plateau sub- nous owners. However, some tension exists over alpine areas, despite being in the World the aspirations of many Aboriginal people to Heritage area, are substantially degraded by reclaim existing protected areas and generate an horse riding and four-wheel drive access. economic base from their lands. In a statement prepared at an Australian Nature Conservation Agency (ANCA) workshop in Alice Springs in Indigenous issues 1994 indigenous delegates made quite clear that The simple reality that Europeans did not settle ‘in any conservation partnership . . . indigenous an empty land but one inhabited by the indige- cultural objectives . . . have priority over envi- nous people of Australia for tens of thousands of ronmental issues’. The delegates also asserted years, has been finally recognized in the Native their right to ‘develop economic benefit from all Title Act. The ramifications for protected areas Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander lands are likely to be one of the biggest issues to be (ANCA, 1995). worked out over the coming decades. An estimated 14% of Australia is currently owned by Widening conservation agenda Aboriginal people, significantly over twice the areas currently in protected areas (Boden and In the 1970s and 1980s while a few groups Breckwoldt, 1995). Much of this land is in areas campaigned on essentially urban issues, the less modified by European settlement and there- predominant issue of the Australian environ- fore retaining high conservation value. Any truly ment movement was nature conservation. The comprehensive reserve system would need to political demand was comparatively simple – include components of these lands. The lands conservationists campaigned against develop- under indigenous control could substantially ment and for the declaration of protected area increase under Native Title as many claims have status over the land. This was the essence of been lodged over national parks, though none most of the great battles – the Little Desert, the CASE STUDIES: THE LOCAL AND THE NATIONAL 103

Colong Caves, Bungonia Gorge, the Franklin, Conclusion the Great Barrier Reef, Fraser Island, the Daintree, Kakadu etc. However, in the 1990s the Having pushed nature to the wall globally, conservation agenda has exploded. Following hungry eyes are on what little remains. The the logic of the ecologically sustainable devel- fundamental problem of pervasive anthropocen- opment, environmentalists’ energies are now trism remains; there is little if any recognition cast over every aspect of the environment – that other species than our own have rights, that water, land use, contaminants, urban planning, they did not evolve purely to serve our needs. transport etc. While the issues have prolif- The emerging issues identified here make for a erated, so have the processes. To a very real gloomy prognosis despite the general commit- degree modern environmentalists are victims of ment to an enhanced National Reserve System. their own success. For twenty years we have The Australian ecotourism industry has a choice: argued for public participation in transparent it can either decide to be part of the forces who decision making processes – now we have are gathering to blur the integrity of the concept literally thousands of processes requiring public of a protected area, to increase commercialism in input at any one time. For a still financially the small percentage of Australia set aside, or limited movement this effort is debilitating and it can be part of the forces defending these stretches every individual, paid and unpaid, to precious areas. The industry can either regard the limit. The consequence for protected area protected areas as a resource for its use, to be policy is that there are less people within the shaped to the needs of the industry, or can regard movement focusing on policy shifts and threats its use of such areas as an immense privilege, than perhaps in the past and less resources to and it should be the industry which adapts itself mount a strong defence of the integrity of the to the constraints necessary to protect these areas system. in perpetuity. 8

Marketing ecotourism: meeting and shaping expectations and demands

This chapter seeks to explore the relationship ments of a more holistic marketing perspective. between ecotourism and marketing, both con- These perspectives significantly challenge the ceptually and practically. It examines the struc- somewhat archaic belief that all marketing must ture and nature of the tourism industry, and the be demand-led (cf. Middleton, 1998). implications of ecotourism’s world-wide growth. Fundamental to understanding and evaluating the connection between ecotourism and marketing is the issue of supply- versus demand-driven Ecotourism’s place in the tourism marketing which we will examine in depth in industry moving towards an analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to Any definition or range of definitions of ecotour- ecotourism. ism must have relevance to its practical imple- Pivotal to understanding the marketing rela- mentation, its working context – the tourism tionship to ecotourism are the implications for industry. What then is this thing called the protected areas, conservation and local commu- ‘tourism industry’ and what are its character- nities. Ecotourism marketing has been surroun- istics? Stear et al. provide us with an initial ded by much confusion and controversy as it definition: attempts to take into account the dual objectives of protected areas and local communities on the [a] collection of all collaborating firms and one hand and those of the tourism industry on the organizations which perform specific activities other. The marketing of tourism products is directed at satisfying leisure, pleasure and generally still associated by many people with a recreational needs. (1988: 1) commercial enterprise selling the maximum level of product for short-term profit. However, in the An industry can be considered a group of sellers 1990s social marketing and ecological marketing of close substitute outputs who supply to a are now being acknowledged as important ele- common group of buyers. MARKETING ECOTOURISM: MEETING AND SHAPING EXPECTATIONS AND DEMANDS 105

Case study Kruger National Case study Cradle Mountain Park, South Africa Huts, South-Western Tasmania National Park, Australia Kruger National Park is one of the top ten National Parks in the world and provides a Cradle Mountain Huts provides accom- destination site and services for tourists modation for hikers as they trek the Cradle interested in the park’s remarkable ecosys- Mountain Track. Individual hikers however tem, comprising more than 2000 different utilize products not only from the accom- forms of plant life, 146 different types of modation sector, but air and coach travel mammals, more than 490 species of birds, from the carrier sector, natural areas from the 114 species of reptiles and 49 types of fish, attractions sector, rangers and tour guides and innumerable other forms of life (Mid- from the tour operator sector and so on. But it dleton, 1998: 202). This park is of interest to is these different products that are packaged a specific type of tourist that is catered for together to form an ecotourism product. by a group of travel agents that will generally specialize in the area of nature-based tourism. organized planning’. It is primarily ‘concerned with production and pricing and promotion and not least profits’ (Jefferson and Lickorish, 1988: The tourism industry does not produce close 27). Marketing is a component in a system of substitute products, as does the manufacturing business activities: ‘Designed to plan, price, industry, but it is comprised of sectors, each of promote and distribute want – satisfying prod- which produces closely substitutable products. ucts, services and ideas for the benefit of the target The tourism industry sectors include: accom- market – present and potential household con- modation, attractions, carrier, coordination, pro- sumers or industrial users, to achieve the organi- motion and distribution, tour operators and zation’s objectives’ (Stanton et al., 1992: 6). wholesalers and miscellaneous groups (Stear et The term ‘organization’s objectives’ is critical al., 1988). Conceptualizing ecotourism as an here, as it leads us to the heart of the marketing amalgam of products incorporating a particular and ecotourism debate. What should the pri- style of tourism, allows its relationship with the mary objective of an ecotourism operator be – tourism industry to be understood. In this way sustaining the environment of profitability? Can ecotourism is not an industry per se but it does the two objectives be pursued successfully and draw from products produced by the many simultaneously? sectors of the tourism industry. The tourism industry has been swift to capitalize on new forms of tourism and in some cases the principles and philosophy of ecotourism we have discussed have been lost in the rush to Marketing ecotourism: supplying profit. Naturally, both private enterprise and demand or demanding supply? governments are supportive of the tourism industry because of its present and potential In order to gain an understanding of the market of economic benefits in the form of individual ecotourism, it is important to examine exactly profit for firms which accrue to nation states in what marketing is. Marketing is neither a precise the form of Gross National Product (GNP). science nor is it an art but is chiefly ‘concerned There are numerous striking examples of with research which is the foundation for opportunistic market responses to ecotourism. 106 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

The Environmental Management Industry Asso- quantities produced and this process hinges on ciation of Australia (EMIAA) 1994 International the amount of demand for a particular product. Conference on Environmental Management and Economists generally view demand as the desire Technology for a Sustainable Tourism Industry and ability to consume certain quantities of brochure, called on professionals, scientists and goods at various prices over a certain period of academics world-wide to submit and present time. The law of demand states that the quantity papers at its conference titled ‘Tourism Eco- of a good or service is negatively related to its dollars’. In an attempt to entice potential dele- price. In other words, if everything is held gates to attend, the EMIAA brochure states: constant consumers will purchase more of a ‘Tourism Ecodollars ‘94 will give you more good or service at a lower price than at a higher ground-breaking, money-making insights into price. Tourism is no different in this respect. tourism towards 2000 than you could obtain Tourism marketing is demand-led, that is to say from any other source.’ if there is a demand for a certain product or Another example includes Valentine’s (1991a) service by consumers, it will be supplied and account of his attendance at the ‘Ecotourism and marketed by profit-maximizing organizations. Small Business in the Pacific’ conference held in This demand orientation determines that the Pohnpei, in the Federated States of Micronesia ‘requirements of the tourists are given highest and staged by the United States Department of priority and the destination area seeks to provide Commerce, Economic Development Administra- services to meet those requirements’ (Ashworth tion (EDA): and Goodall, 1990: 227). Examples of this can be seen in sectors such as transport and accom- There were more bankers speaking than ecolo- modation where new services are provided as a gists: [as] there were more developers . . . result of increased tourism demand for a destina- architects . . . governors . . . administrators . . . tion. In Costa Rica a special bus service has been and . . . bureaucrats than ecologists. provided from San José to the now internationally renowned Monteverde Cloud Forest Pre- Despite the encouraging prospect of bankers serve (see Chapter 7). However, because of its speaking about ‘ecotourism’ in glowing terms, prohibitive price, it is used exclusively by tour- I came away with a distinct impression that ists. The local bus service is a somewhat poorer there is an urgent need to put the ecology back and longer service in comparison. into ecotourism. (1991a: 2) Supply on the other hand refers to what firms are actually willing and able to produce and offer for sale at various prices over a period of time. Marketing ecotourism The law of supply states that the quantity supplied of a good or service is usually a positive Traditionally marketing can be defined as ‘the function of price. With all else held constant, development of products/services which are suppliers usually will supply less of a good or consistent with client needs, pricing, promoting, service at a lower price. As we shall see, with the and distributing these products/services effec- limited number of ecotourism ‘destinations’ pri- tively’ (National Park Service, 1984: 3). As ces will play an important role in controlling indicated in the above definition, marketing is demand. based on the ‘four Ps’ of product, place, price Supply-driven tourism places considerations and promotion, with the emphasis on attracting, other than profit at the centre of tourism prod- maintaining and expanding a customer base. ucts. Considerations such as the social impact of Theoretically, markets are places where buyers the tourism product on destination sites, the and sellers meet to engage in exchange. In the needs and wants of destination communities and process of exchange prices are determined and the natural resource management of the supplier MARKETING ECOTOURISM: MEETING AND SHAPING EXPECTATIONS AND DEMANDS 107 country and destination sites becomes central. The supply side nature of ecotourism means that with key aspects of the operation illustrating the ‘impact on the local natural resource base is this fact. Management relies on home-grown more easily controlled than is the case with and home-made foods, produced with only demand side tourism . . . dangers of overload organic pesticides, rain water is collected on and cultural submersion and tourists exceeding the roof of the ‘home-stay’ facility, solar biological carrying capacities may be thus mini- heating panels supply hot water, all organic mized’ (Lillywhite and Lillywhite, 1990: 92). This matter is recycled and, when necessary, local is imperative for ecotourism. To establish the produce is used as much as possible. best methods for marketing an ecotourism desti- Visitors themselves are actively encour- nation it is important to stress the necessity of aged to collect litter seen during day excur- marketing to be a holistic enterprise, working sions, weed certain areas (under the direc- with community groups, indigenous and other tion of the guide), count bird numbers and private voluntary organization programmes. record sightings – small, but significant contributions to the improvement and sustainability of the natural environment. In 1991 visitation rates were relatively Case study Catlins Wildlife small, at 100 visitors. In 1994, this number Trackers, South Dunedin, New had increased to 274. Although this rise had Zealand: alternative response to no visible and discernible effects on the increasing visitor demand environment, management needed to consider an alternative strategy in order to Catlin’s Wildlife Trackers is a small-scale prevent increased demand from having det- tour operation, offering two to three day in- rimental effects on the physical environ- depth guided tours of the Catlins area. The ment. Since the quality of experience is not mission statement for the venture covers determined by rates of visitation, but by three areas for the operators: feedback from participants, the operators ᭹ Personal – ‘We see this venture as an chose to offer a three-day excursion. Origi- opportunity to provide us as a family, nally, all tours offered were on a two-day with an income in an environment and basis. The introduction of three-day tours doing activities that we enjoy, and allow- provided potential consumers with an alter- ing personal growth by mixing and shar- native, and has thus far been successful at ing with others’ limiting numbers based on supply. ᭹ For others – ‘We wish to offer a recrea- Source: Mary Sutherland, Catlins Wildlife Trackers, tional and educational service to people, South Dunedin, NZ: British Airways Tourism for particularly those interested in active Tomorrow Awards 1995 involvement with the natural, aesthetic, historic and human environment of the south-east coast and Catlins Area’; and ᭹ Conservation – ‘We wish to highlight and share environmental values and to make a positive contribution to the protection Ecological and social marketing of those values’. The quality of the experience is assessed by Ecological marketing differs from traditional the response from visitors who take up the marketing and relates very strongly to the tour. The experience itself is unique, marketing of ecotourism as it involves the marketing of products and services with positive 108 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES ecological outcomes to environmentally con- With these dimensions in mind, we would cerned consumers. It would be naive to suggest like to suggest a definition of ecotourism that those organizations practising ecological marketing: marketing are not motivated by making a profit, but this is not their sole measure of success. The development of ecologically sustainable Quantifiable and unquantifiable outcomes are tourism products and the pricing, promotion equally pursued, such as long-term environmen- and distribution of these products, so impact tal protection and customer satisfaction. Profit on the physical and cultural environments is determines the level of a product’s viability, but minimized, while maintaining some level of is not the only measure of success. profit commensurate with these objectives. It has been suggested that, for ecological marketing, ‘the relationship between demand and supply’ is the prime issue (Henion and Kinnear, 1976: 1). Ecological marketing questions The ‘greening’ market the role of demand stimulation: if the product is environmentally harmful, demand stimulation is There is no doubt that the tourism marketplace is strongly discouraged (Henion and Kinnear, becoming ‘greener’. Increasing concern for the 1976). This is of fundamental importance to environment and conservation issues is evi- ecotourism: as a result of ecotourism growing at denced by the growing number of environmen- a much faster rate than mass tourism, more and tal organizations such as Greenpeace and the more members of the travelling public are opting World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF). Indeed, out of the traditional ‘lie around the pool’ it has been estimated that 85% of the indus- holiday and are instead choosing a more experi- trialized world’s citizens believe that the envi- ential ecotourism product and ‘These people are ronment is the number one public issue (Wight, going to create a demand and this demand is 1993). going to be met as usual by supply’ (Richardson, With this in mind, it is becoming increasingly 1991: 245). The danger is that supply may be met, difficult to dismiss the ‘greening’ of the market- not by the small, environmentally concerned place as a fad. With the increasing range and operators, but by mass tourism operators with proliferation of new products in most markets, little understanding, or concern about the consumers are becoming more discerning about environment. what they want and they are far more independ- Related to ecotourism and ecological market- ent as well as curious about what is on offer to ing is social marketing. Social marketing is them. According to Jon Hutchinson, the Aus- defined generally as the design, implementation tralian Tourism Commission’s managing director, and control of programmes which are able to this is due to a backlash against the 1980s when influence the acceptability of social ideas and ‘people bought regardless of quality and regard- involving considerations of product planning, less of standards. People are more interested in pricing, communication and market research (cf. gaining value from what they do then in gather- Kotler and Andreasen, 1991). Put simply, it ing status symbols. There seems to be a psycho- involves the application of marketing ideas and logical change in tourists’ (Collins, 1993: 7). principles to promote a social cause, that is, to Ecotourism is very much in the growth stage activities and ideas that have outcomes beyond of its business cycle and its popularity will simply the satisfaction of individual desires. continue to increase as ‘issues associated with However, social marketing in its strictest sense urban congestion and crowding, atmospheric differs from ecotourism and ecological market- pollution, increased leisure time, more flexible ing in that it does not ordinarily have a monetary work options, work related stress and concern profit associated with it (Henion, 1975). for the environment continue to develop’ (Carter MARKETING ECOTOURISM: MEETING AND SHAPING EXPECTATIONS AND DEMANDS 109 and Moore, 1991: 141). Not only are people nication strategies. That is, success cannot be increasingly receiving messages through the measured by the number of people who visit the media about the fragility of our environment, operation, but consideration must be given as to but also about its beauty and uniqueness and the the customers’ levels of satisfaction and their importance of keeping areas as pristine and likelihood of returning. The total experience, unspoilt as possible for now and for generations including the emotional wants of the guests, to come. must be considered: not just their functional The incorporation of environmental principles requirements. Methods to do this often take the and responsible behaviour codes in developing form of feedback from clients through surveys sustainable ecotourism establishments and other and questionnaires or just by talking to them, ecotourism ventures is indicative of an increas- which can give some indication as to the emo- ing consumer challenge to traditional ethics, in a tional benefits they gained from the experience. search for new alternatives to traditional tourism Sustainability is a critical element of managing activity (Wight, 1993). As we have seen in all aspects of the ecotourism venture. It is Chapter 3, codes of practice have emerged to derived not only from repeat patronage, but integrate the concepts of sustainability and stew- preservation of the physical and social environ- ardship for appropriate behaviour relative to site ments of the region utilized on which education visitation. These, however, are most often in the and interpretation of the environment are form of ‘Codes of Ethics’ which concentrate on dependent. Just as feedback from ecotourists the activities of the consumer/ecotourist, rather themselves is essential in determining the suc- than the operators themselves (Wight, 1993). cess of the business (in terms other than mone- Marketing by ecotourism operators based on tary), impacts of the business venture itself must generating maximum demand for short-term be ascertained. This is frequently carried out as profitability is defeatist. By exceeding the an environmental impact assessment in the deemed carrying capacity of the venue, failing to initial phases of development which provides a reconcile facility management strategies with ‘snapshot’ of likely environmental effects and those of the adjacent natural environment, or thus the planning of management regimes cre- attracting a clientele with little regard for the ated to combat them. preservation and conservation of the environ- Best practice (as discussed in Chapter 3) goes ment, management risks degrading the resource beyond appreciation of the natural environment on which visitation is founded. For many eco- and its associated flora, fauna, geography and tourism operators, particularly those with a fixed ecology to encompass an understanding of social asset (such as accommodation establishments) activities, economic impacts on the facilities and there is incentive to plan, develop and operate region and spatial expression of community their business with ethical consideration for not values. This may be achieved through a market- only their venture, but for the surrounding areas ing audit and an associated statement of which are subject to impacts from ecotourists. strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats High capital investment in facilities and its (SWOT). A marketing audit of relevant internal associated risk is an incentive to provide a and external environments that potentially affect quality experience for prospective visitors, trans- business is the first step toward making market- lated into long-term cash flow and profitability ing efforts sustainable for ecotourism based on heightened satisfaction (Middleton, organizations. 1989). The SWOT is an effective way to analyse the Given the growth and changing nature of current status of ecotourism marketing and ecotourism, it would appear that in order to project the future threats and opportunities market successfully operators will have to refo- likely to impact the ecotourism suppliers and cus their approaches to planning and commu- managers and ecotourists themselves. We will 110 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES now discuss the product, pricing, promotion and base is a major factor in the tourist’s decision distribution issues and the role they play in making process. There are strong correlations shaping consumer expectations and demands. It between involvement and information sourcing, will be presented as a SWOT analysis and and receptivity to promotional stimuli. This develop into a discussion of marketing issues as means that careful market research into the form they relate to management and suggest ways to of advertising most likely to attract the consumer capitalize from existing trends and by heightened involvement is liable to have a opportunities. profound effect in achieving response, and therefore producing a decision based on the characteristics of the target market. Strengths in marketing ecotourism Threats in marketing ecotourism

Effective market segmentation is a key to defin- In the past few years, ecotourism has become a ing an appropriate user group for ecotourism. To marketing buzzword and has been used to sell market a genuine ecotourism venture, it is any number of products, the ‘eco’ tag no real important to ensure the validity and legitimacy indication of the quality of the product on offer. of the experience. Obtaining accurate statistics There has been a substantial increase in the and a demographic and psychographic profile quantity of products in this vein, a multitude of may go some way to doing this, by aligning references abound to the ‘ecotour’, ‘ecosafari’ perceived user wants with the product/service and ‘ecotravel’. One reason for the increasing produced (see Chapter 9). Thus, promotion of proliferation of the ‘ecotourism’ label is because the operation can utilize presently existing data of the general lack of understanding as to what on likely user groups and align this with the ecotourism is. Some of the products being orientation of the organization, removing some marketed are totally unrelated to ecotourism, yet uncertainty from the need to match consumer it is this label which is being used to sell them. As with producer. a result many of the problems or negative trends Ecotourism is based on visitation and appre- which make ecotourism unsustainable relate to ciation of the natural attributes of a region. the fact that ‘principles fundamental to ecotour- Although this dictates a degree of stewardship in ism are not being incorporated into the concep- order to preserve the resource, it provides a low tion, planning, design, development, operation cost attraction on which ecotourism products or marketing of the product’ (Wight, 1993). may be developed and moulded. As a marketeer Inappropriate developments are taking place in of a potential product/service, the natural attri- sensitive locations and many private operators butes of the area are important to consider, and sometimes even government agencies are including the geography, geology and the flora latching on to the short-term economic benefits and fauna. The unique and varied nature of of ecotourism ‘without giving due regard to the many protected natural areas provides an excel- underlying principles of ecotourism’ (Wight, lent basis for development of specialized ser- 1993: 55). The Ecotourism Society summed up vices focusing on a limited geographic zone, the problem by warning customers of dubious which can be translated to an appropriate adver- claims of eager travel marketeers who exploit the tising campaign and areas for sustainable com- trend towards integrating environmental values petitive advantage. into holiday choices, offering the general public a Ecotourists are very discerning and take time cafeteria style of holiday to an exotic location; to educate themselves about a destination prior you can choose from prepackaged holidays just to departure. Therefore an active knowledge like most other commercial products; they are MARKETING ECOTOURISM: MEETING AND SHAPING EXPECTATIONS AND DEMANDS 111 selling the experience the same way as most Opportunities in marketing commercial products. ecotourism Demand factors have been primarily focused on by ecotourism suppliers – either the govern- There are numerous opportunities available to ment or industry – and they seem to be partic- marketeers of ecotourism products/services that ularly interested in developing supply in allow the goals of sustainability and profitability response to the demand-driven market (Wight, to be met simultaneously. 1993). As with other tourism segments, ‘demand The proliferation of interest groups, partic- information is viewed as enabling greater num- ularly nature-based organizations, provides an bers of visitors to be attracted,’ as well as opportunity for direct marketing. Targeting spe- enabling more effective marketing (Wight, 1993: cific age groups and nature-based groups such as 56). However, this orientation is not compatible adventure seekers, educational institutions, with ecotourism and is largely due to general bushwalkers, canyoners and scientific groups is confusion about what ecotourism actually is, due an extremely effective method of attracting users in large part to ecotourism’s ‘varying mix of so with an ecocentric orientation. Advertising in many different activities and experiences’ publications accessed by these groups, directly (Wight, 1993: 57). mailing promotional material to such organiza- Rather than defining ecotourism in terms of tions and cause-related marketing are methods products, it is more valuable to recognize that of utilizing the communication channels of most within ecotourism there are a number of experi- benefit to the ecotourism operator. Remember, ences which may be supplied and demanded ‘ecotourism should not be geared towards the (Wight, 1993). These may vary according to the masses, but smaller groups of discerning visitors following supply and demand factors: who will pay more for an authentic value-for- money experience’ (Kerr, 1991: 250). Supply factors Developing an image of a destination, or an ᭹ the nature and resilience of the resource; image of the experience, is crucial in maximizing ᭹ the cultural or local community preferences; involvement and influencing the decision mak- ᭹ the types of accommodation, facilities and ing behaviour of the intended audience (Boele, programmes (Wight, 1993). 1993). The way in which people interact with a particular physical setting is predisposed by the Demand factors existence of images by which the environment is ᭹ the types of activities and experiences organized (Ittlesen et al., 1974). A study in 1994 encountered; examined the relationship between a traveller’s ᭹ degree of interest in natural or cultural motivation to visit a destination and the strength resources; of image assigned to that place, finding that high ᭹ the degree of physical effort (Wight, 1993). motivation with poor image ratings contributed to the most unsatisfactory experience. However, Negative consumer opinion may result from a high motivation and high image respondents product offering that does not satisfy their needs were most likely to repeat their visit. Therefore and expectations and simultaneously assumes the creation of a strong image that is a realistic the ‘cover’ of environmental responsibility. reflection of the product is extremely beneficial. Additionally, an unethical operator may exceed In order to ensure the sustainability of the carrying capacities to bolster revenue through venture, and the area on which ecotourism is attracting increasing numbers of consumers at a based, the managerial philosophy adopted reduced price. Accreditation within the industry should be holistic. Ecotourism operators align- may go some way towards reducing instances of ing their managerial plans with those existing this scenario. and carried out by reserve/protected area/ 112 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES wilderness area management is an example. experience by value-added attributes to the The recognition of the similarities that exist product. Limitations on supply can only be between the impacts that tourism generates and beneficial in assisting this aim, by emphasizing those produced through recreational use of quality over quantity: ‘All organizations in specific environments facilitates a transfer of nature tourism should emphasize quality prod- managerial strategies which mitigate the effects uct, rather than quantity, to keep the numbers of that visitors may have on any facility or sur- visitors at a manageable level to protect the rounding region (Mercer, 1995). This can only environment’ (Kerr, 1991: 252). result in an improvement in the product itself, In a supply-led industry, carrying capacities possible cost advantages, and the opportunity must first be determined and then marketing to promote the nature of this strategy to entice strategies decided on, so these levels are reached, ‘hard core’ ecotourists. but not exceeded. This level must be developed The utilization of an Ecotourism Opportunity in conjunction with local communities, as the Spectrum (similar to the Recreation Opportunity socially responsible and environmentally viable Spectrum discussed in Chapter 4) presents a goals of ecotourism ‘cannot be fostered without a long-term opportunity to further segment the dialogue constructed and controlled along indig- ecotourism market based on the degree of enous needs and in indigenous terms’ (Craik, authenticity of the ecotourism experience 1991: 80). desired by the potential client. As we have seen in Chapter 5, education and The pattern of growth in ecotourism markets interpretive material is a critical element of the is both a challenge and an opportunity. The ecotourism product. Ecotourists express a strong opportunity involves ‘understanding and res- desire to learn about nature on ecotours. An ponding to market needs, preferences and expec- effective way to satisfy this desire to learn is tations: the challenge is in keeping foremost the through the use of interpretation. Unfortunately, supply-oriented management perspective’ a satisfactory level of interpretive material is (Wight, 1993: 62). Therefore matching the mar- rarely provided for participants. As a result, kets to products (supply), ‘both with respect to marketeers miss out on being able to emphasize type and location is imperative . . . otherwise one of the key factors differentiating ecotourism resource capability can become secondary to from mass tourism – the educative component – actual or perceived market demand’ (Wight, and their marketing activities lose much of their 1993: 63). appeal. A high quality educative experience in limited supply does, by marketing standards, imply a high price. Price in marketing can be defined as the cost that the buyer must accept in order to Weaknesses in marketing obtain the product and includes money costs, ecotourism opportunity costs, energy costs and psychic costs (cf. Kotler and Armstrong, 1993). The main issue, Ecotourism marketing, as a relatively new form then, is to formulate a price so that ecotourism of promoting nature-based activity, displays a remains supply-rather than demand-driven. range of developmental weaknesses. There are three primary ways for ecotourism Ecotourism product marketing can be sig- to grow and remain profitable: nificantly improved through increasing analysis and study of carrying capacities and host com- ᭹ increasing the size of groups on an ecotour; munities prior to operation establishment; ᭹ the establishment of more ecotourism improved education and interpretive material; destinations; and a greater focus on providing a quality ᭹ charging higher prices (Merschen, 1992). MARKETING ECOTOURISM: MEETING AND SHAPING EXPECTATIONS AND DEMANDS 113

The first two options impact negatively on the ᭹ effective selection of promotional methods environment and host communities, as well as such as direct mail and special interest being demand-rather than supply-driven. How- magazines. ever, price manipulation is an effective means of decreasing demand to a level that does not Many marketing theorists have emphasized the exceed the carrying capacity of a region. Increas- importance of a highly targeted marketing cam- ing prices is not necessarily negative as ‘con- paign as opposed to a strategy that attempts to sumers may impute high quality to a high-priced appeal to a broad sweep of consumers. This product and low quality to a low priced product’ involves obtaining data, such as demographic (Henion, 1975: 233), and the fact that ecotourism and psychograph profiles of the potential market is a prestigious product can be emphasized in segments (see Chapter 9) and aligning opera- marketing activities. tions with the identified consumer group that If demand is still greater than supply after corresponds best with the ideals of the specific prices have been increased, other non-price venture. measures, such as requiring consumers to attend Ecotourists are known to utilize a wide range pre-trip lectures, would further limit demand. of media to gain accurate in-depth information Another system which could be used is ‘the on a destination or area of interest to them. ballot system’ whereby names are either drawn Information distributed in special interest maga- out of a hat or potential visitors placed on a zines and direct mail rather than newspapers waiting list. This system is currently working and radio advertising may be one method of effectively at a number of national parks in the reaching a target market. Direct mail offers a United States. particularly effective strategy to promote eco- If prices are to be increased, ecotour opera- tourism (Durst and Ingram, 1989; Ingram and tors should donate some of this additional Durst, 1989). Direct mail involves a selected revenue to environmental causes or social cau- person receiving promotional material about a ses, such as the improvement of host commu- product. Where ecotourism is concerned, direct nity living conditions. Drawing the consumer’s mail is particularly effective for keeping in touch attention to this strategy would also benefit the with previous customers and encouraging them operator as tourists travelling with ecotour to take another tour with the ecotourism oper- operators appear to be ‘especially satisfied that ator. Overall it ‘is probably the most effective a certain percentage of their tour cost is being medium out there’ (Merschen, 1992). donated to conservation’ (Boo, 1990: 41). This Joint marketing strategies by groups of two already occurs in Costa Rica, where money or more ecotourism operators also offer an donated by tour operators is put back into effective means to market an ecotourism prod- rainforest preservation programmes (Masson, uct due to the efficient use of resources that 1991). may already be strained by the small size of Ecotourism marketing can also be improved ecotourism ventures, as joint marketing is more significantly in the area of promotion. Promo- cost-efficient and enables greater numbers of a tion is the communication persuasion strategy target audience to be reached. Vertical joint and tactics that will make the product more marketing is particularly effective, for example, familiar, acceptable and even desirable to the where a tour operator, accommodation estab- audience (Kotler and Armstrong, 1993). Central lishment and carrier join promotional efforts promotional issues that need to be addressed and link their services. Additionally, if ecotour by ecotourism operators are: operators work together in marketing, chances are they will work together in other areas, ᭹ the selection of target markets or ‘niches’; such as carrying capacity determination, ᭹ joint marketing; which would produce beneficial effects for the 114 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES environment and local populations impacted development demands increasingly stringent upon by ecotourism. environmental assessment techniques and The final broad area where ecotourism mar- reports to be included in applications for keting can be improved is in distribution, or development, especially in countries where ‘place’ where the customer is able to purchase an economic imperatives may take precedence ecotour from. The poor results of many social over more qualitative aspects such as environ- campaigns can be attributed in part to their mental, social and cultural significance of failure to suggest clear action outlets for those development. motivated to acquire the product (cf. Kotler and ᭹ Ecotourism requires a supply-led tourism Andreasen, 1991). This is a regular occurrence industry. For this to become a reality the with ecotourism: consumers motivated enough industry must firstly define itself holistically to enquire about ecotours at retail travel agents and, secondly, agree to cooperate with and are often persuaded by these agents to choose a support a coordinating body or authority to conventional tourism product (Richardson, make decisions about: number of operators, 1991). (In a supply-led industry, however, this operating licences, ceiling numbers for tours, restriction in demand may not be entirely price structures and so forth. Structural con- negative.) siderations such as pricing, economies of Ecotourism operators should not distribute scale, price yield management, and all other their tours through general travel agents. The financial tools will have to be modified tours should only be sold at ecotourism special- accordingly. The very philosophy of ecotour- izing travel agents (Boo, 1990), or directly by the ism calls on low volume tourism with high operators themselves. This will thereby restrict ticket prices per head. This tactic also negates supply and also increase the efficiency of the the business philosophy of competitive pric- ecotourism operators’ marketing efforts, as they ing to win new customers either from the will no longer have to waste time in their mostly latent market or from competitors. futile bids to convince travel agents to market ᭹ The body responsible for making these deci- their tours. This will also enable the operators to sions and policing industry activities needs to exercise more control over the type of tourists be a third party to the tourism industry. that participate in a tour with the company However, care must be taken in appointing a ensuring, where possible, that tourists motivated government department or commission to by environmental concerns make up the majority adopt such a role, as even the government is of the group. not impartial to its interests in tourism From the above SWOT analysis of the growth, because of the short-term revenue strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that tourism can create for a region, state or to ecotourism, it is apparent that numerous country, especially where foreign currency is aspects of its development need to be ensured to concerned. produce sound marketing and sustainable ᭹ Ecotourism requires the establishment of car- resource management in order to shape demand rying capacities and strict monitoring of these. and expectations appropriately: It is a task that no profit-motivated organization in the industry sees as its responsibility. ᭹ Ecotourism requires sensitively developed The establishment of carrying capacities tourist infrastructure. The tourism industry requires a comprehensive knowledge and therefore must accept integrated planning and expertise in the field of environmental, social regulation. To date, tourism development has and cultural assessment. The latter two are occurred incidentally to the urban, rural and very difficult to measure, but a commendable foreshore development as in many countries starting point is with the host community, there is no specific tourism zoning. Economic by identifying, in partnership with each MARKETING ECOTOURISM: MEETING AND SHAPING EXPECTATIONS AND DEMANDS 115

community, what is of social and cultural and thereby the marketing of environmental importance. This task in itself requires a great quality should utilize the key components of deal of time to be invested in living with and traditional marketing, specifically the ‘four Ps’. learning from the community in order to The most productive and cost-effective promo- establish these social and cultural carrying tional method is word of mouth (Merschen, capacities. Monitoring is an essential compo- 1992). If an ecotourist is satisfied with their nent of carrying capacity management. It ecotourism experience they will effectively requires on-going financial and human become an ‘ambassador for the company’, resource commitment to monitor and evaluate spreading the good word very effectively. impacts and changing relationships. Asking tour participants to list the names and ᭹ Ecotourism relies on the environmentally sen- addresses of friends whom they think would be sitive behaviour and operations of ecotour interested in participating in an ecotour with the operators and tourists, but the proponents of company is a means of networking through ecotourism may have placed undue faith in word of mouth. Also, if a tourist is satisfied with the notion that the behaviour of tourists, their ecotourism experience, they are more likely developers and other industry operators can to go on a tour with the company again, thereby be modified through education and awareness ensuring an appropriate user group mentality programmes (cf. Butler, 1990; Pigram, 1989; and reducing the need for the company to Wheeller, 1992). In recent years there has been conduct additional promotion. a flood of ‘codes of ethics’ of ‘charters’ The primary marketing factors which may be released by a variety of tourism industry assessed and altered to fit with the environmen- groups and environmental organizations tal objectives in marketing for ecotourism orga- ranging from conservation groups (cf. World nizations are: Wide Fund for Nature, Australian Conserva- 1 The target markets – the group of people at tion Foundation) to industry groups (cf. Aus- whom an agency specifically aims its market- tralia Tourism Industry Association [ATIA], ing effort. Pacific Asia Travel Association [PATA]). The 2 Positioning statements – how you want your benefits of raising awareness in this fashion target markets to view your agency and its have been tentatively acknowledged (Jarvi- ‘product’. luoma, 1992), but it remains to be seen 3 Company objectives. whether this results in modified behaviour. 4 Marketing mix – product – place (distribution) The optimal method to market ecotourism – promotion involves taking components of traditional, social – price and ecological marketing. Ecotourism is certainly a product which fits under the aegis of Target marketing is an important procedure in ecological marketing, as it ‘serves to provide a marketing of ecotourism. Because ecotourism is remedy for environmental problems’ (Henion specific in its philosophies, it is important to and Kinnear, 1976); and also social marketing, as select target markets that are compatible with it attempts to further the social cause of environ- organizational goals and objectives. A small mental quality. It is believed that the ‘four Ps’ of group of potential customers may be targeted traditional marketing are still relevant to eco- who share one or more similar characteristics tourism marketing. This is, Kotler and Andrea- and who have certain similar ideas as to what sen (1991) suggest, because the more conditions they want from the ecotourism experience. Some of a social campaign resembled those of a of these preferences would be the desire to travel product campaign, the more successful the to relatively remote areas, for the purpose of cause. Therefore, the marketing of ecotourism studying a natural area and its culture, having 116 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES minimum impact on the environment and with the expectation of gaining educational gratifica- to tempt potential visitors, tourists and tion, with the knowledge that they will return ecotourists have equally diverse expecta- something to the local community. tions of the destination. When considering the target market a number It is therefore important for ecotourism of things need to be taken into account Firstly, policy planners to define what is meant by socio-demographic characteristics, which ecotourism from a visitor perspective. Pala- include such things as age/family life cycle cio and McCool (1997) attempted to achieve stage, sex, income, education and occupation. this aim by developing information about Secondly, it is necessary to consider behavioural the tourism market based on a benefit characteristics. This is a very important stage in segmentation assessment. The study found selecting target markets for ecotourism as it that within the category of nature-based enables marketeers to decide what character- visitors, there existed specific characteristics istics they will select people on. It includes that distinguished four types of tourists as considerations of: different from each other. These categories were ‘Nature Escapists’, ‘Ecotourists’, ‘Com- ᭹ The benefits sought. fortable Naturalists’ and ‘Passive Players’. ᭹ The consumer’s motivations; perceptions of Nature Escapists and Ecotourists reported the ecotourism ‘product’. the highest activity percentages, followed by ᭹ The level of skill – is it necessary for targets to Comfortable Naturalists, then Passive Play- have some basic levels of skill before embark- ers. Ecotourists recorded the highest interest ing on an ecotourism experience? in a desire to escape, learn about nature, ᭹ Psychographic profiles – a concept that health related activity participation and explains consumers’ attitudes, opinions and responded positively to the need for com- lifestyles. panionship and group cohesion. ᭹ Behavioural characteristics, which are espe- The study noted that each segment cially important in choosing target markets required different facilities due to different because they can later be used as criteria in rates of recreation participation and differ- selecting people for specific ‘ecotours’. As a ences in trip characteristics – perhaps with marketeer for an ecotourism destination it is the exception of Nature Escapists and Eco- important to be specific in selection as you tourists, whose characteristics were very want a certain type of person to participate similar. Furthermore, promotional and who is compatible with agency goals and product strategies for each segment would objectives. need to be altered slightly to align consumer preference with the product offering. The effective linking of environmental attributes Case study Belize, Central to specific benefits for different nature-based America tourists could be achieved through improved marketing efficiency. It may also Belize is a Central American country with a help organizations determine the social, tourism development policy focused on cultural and biophysical elements in great- ecotourism. Although the country is well est need of sustaining. known for its outstanding barrier reef with unique diving opportunities, the attraction Source: V. Palacio and S. McCool, Identifying ecotourists in Belize through benefit segmentation: a prelimi- of natural and cultural assets to ecotourists nary analysis, Journal of Sustainable Development, 5(3), is quite recent. With an array of attractions 1997, 234–244 MARKETING ECOTOURISM: MEETING AND SHAPING EXPECTATIONS AND DEMANDS 117

Positioning is an important consideration not a negative concept . . . a decrease in numbers when marketing an ecotourism destination. Pos- can lead to an increase in clientele satisfaction, itioning is what the marketeer ‘wants the target through preserving a higher quality experience’ market to think about the product, therefore (Crompton and Howard, 1980: 333). positioning of the product must be consumer Methods of demarketing may include: oriented’ (Tonge and Myott, 1989: 168). Ecotour- ism marketeers need to differentiate their ‘prod- ᭹ Increasing prices; so they increase dispropor- uct’ from mass tourism. Agency positioning tionately as time spent in the ecotourism objectives (for the area and product) would destination increases. encompass everything that ecotourism stands ᭹ Creating a queuing situation to increase the for: sustainable development, minimal impact, time and opportunity costs of the experience. local control, supply-driven, quality experiences ᭹ Limiting the main promotional strategy to and so on. select and specialized media. The marketing mix constitutes the core of an ᭹ Promoting the importance of the area through agency’s marketing system. The identification of education of the public and the need to client groups and the marketing mix represents conserve the area through minimal impact the combination of variables which the agency and sustainable development. can control and manipulate to achieve desired ᭹ Promoting a range of alternative opportunities outcomes. Once these decisions have been made, in surrounding areas which may satisfy needs the ‘service’ is offered in the dynamic environ- and wants. ment of the community: ‘The dynamic nature of ᭹ Stressing the environmental degradation that this external environment is comprised of a host could occur if too many people frequent the of variables such as political and legal forces, area. economic considerations, technology and com- ᭹ Stressing any restrictions or difficulties asso- petition’ (Crompton and Howard, 1980: 332). ciated with travel to the area. The agency cannot control these variables, therefore it must adapt to them. Product and distribution need to be looked at At this point in determining the marketing a little differently. In the case of ecotourism, the mix, it could be suggested that the agency adopt product is essentially an intangible which pro- a different strategy. Normally, the marketing mix vides a set of want-satisfying benefits to a activities are used to encourage potential cus- customer in an exchange. The ecotourism prod- tomers to take advantage of the services offered uct is the place, region or area. Because an area is or to increase their usage. Ecotourism, however, a non-renewable resource it is imperative that it is one of those areas that is faced by the need to be maintained in its original natural state. discourage demand for a service. For example, Ecotourism in its purest form aims to do this. exceeding carrying capacities in a remote wilder- Distribution is the ‘channel structure’ used to ness area may provide short-term satisfaction for transfer products and services from an agency to some at the expense of overriding the ecotourism its markets. Destination areas are usually remote philosophy and maximizing public welfare and and therefore less accessible. This part of the client group satisfaction over the long term. marketing mix, as with the ‘product’, is virtually Because ecotourism is dealing with a ‘scarce impossible to alter. resource’ the agency may use the marketing mix Marketing is often seen as simply flogging a effectively for discouraging participation. This product to a mass market and therefore has discouraging of demand has been termed negative connotations. From this discussion it is ‘demarketing’: ‘to emphasize that marketing clear that through appropriate and stringent may be used to decrease as well as increase the strategies, an agency can market a ‘destination’ number of satisfied customers. Demarketing is in a way that complies with organizational goals 118 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES and objectives and upholds the ecotourism phi- objectives, however, are unlikely to be reached in losophy. Through manipulation of the essential light of the nature and characteristics of the marketing mix factors, target markets, position- tourism industry in its present operations. ing statements and company objectives, market- The initial objectives of ecotourism in a new ing can be utilized as a tool for directing the destination may be to remain low-key and small- future development of ecotourism within the scale but it is difficult to guarantee this once the boundaries of sustainable development. Effec- tourism industry perceives a new product devel- tive promotion and communication strategies opment opportunity and starts to market that are one of the industry’s best opportunities to opportunity (Griffin and Boele, 1993). shape consumer demand and expectations so Suggested restrictions associated with sustain- they are reconciled with the product offered. able development and ecotourism have included Ideally, ecotourism is a small scale, low key both qualitative and quantitative measures, tourism, so as to minimize the impacts which including charging higher prices for access to may occur on destination environments. Meth- tourist destinations and attractions. Indeed, ods of achieving this may mean imposing ceiling restricting supply would automatically increase numbers which in turn suggest economically the price of tourism products, thereby reducing that prices charged per person will be somewhat the opportunities for some prospective tourists. higher than ‘mainstream tourism’, where econo- The question is whether this is consistent with mies of scale and competition help determine the principle of equity, embodied in the concept pricing structures within and between organiza- of sustainability, one of the central tenets of tions operating within one destination. These ecotourism. 9

Could the ‘real’ ecotourist please stand up!

A new group of tourism clients has emerged volunteer aid and community assistance in who are demanding different activities, experi- developing nations. ences and approaches to tourism from the This chapter explores the characteristics that industry: ‘these are the ecotourists – people who differentiate ecotourists through an analysis of require environmentally compatible recreational tourist motivation. We will examine demo- opportunities . . . where nature rather than graphic and psychographic characteristics, the humanity predominates’ (Kerr, 1991: 248). They needs of ecotourists, the images and attitudes are ‘shrugging off the shackles of traditional ecotourists ascribe to a destination, and the tourism’ in search of knowledge and experience. influence of social, cultural and physical envir- Their interest is not in ‘lounging by hotel pools onments. We will also address the managerial or hectic sightseeing schedules’ (Collins, 1993:7). implications for ecotourism operators that we They are, however, ‘interested in visiting wilder- initially realized in the preceding chapter, partic- ness, national parks, and tropical forests, and in ularly in attempting to align a preferred con- viewing birds, mammals, trees and wildflowers’, sumer group with a product offering. By under- they want to ‘experience new lifestyles and meet standing the nature of the target market, people with similar interests to themselves’ and ecotourism operators can alter marketing mix they want to see their travelling dollars contrib- components according to the needs of an envir- uting towards conservation and benefiting the onmentally conscious consumer. local economy (Eagles et al., 1992). Understanding what characteristics differen- So far we have explored many dimensions of tiate ecotourists also has significant implications ecotourism: a tourism product; a solution to for managers and protected area agencies. As planning; its relation to local, regional, national any person visiting the environment will impact and international politics; a strategy for sustain- on it in some way, industry and park manageable development. However, this has told us ment agencies require knowledge of ecotourist little of what ecotourists are actually like. As we characteristics in order to manage, influence and have seen there are an extremely diverse range of control impacts. However, due to the nature of ecotourism experiences, ranging from those ecotourism as an activity, with a focus on tourists wishing to learn about specific ecosys- sustaining the environment and education and tems or wildlife, those interested in experiencing interpretation, ecotourists differ in their needs indigenous cultures, some are adventure ori- and attitudes relative to other travellers. This ented and are interested in more rigorously chapter will attempt to provide a clear picture of active experiences, while still others may wish to the ecotourist. 120 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

Table 9.1 Ecotourist profile

Age Income Education Gender Country of origin

20–40 or 55 + $37 000–$60 000 Generally possessing Roughly equally United States, Canada, tertiary qualifications divided between Germany, Sweden, sexes Australia

Building a profile of the consumers interested in ecotourism and experi- ecotourist enced ecotourism travellers. Experienced ecotourism respondents were very highly educated, There are two primary groups of characteristics more so than general tourists interested in which will assist in exploring what features ecotourism, and tended to travel as couples distinguish ecotourists. They are demographic and (61%), limited family (15%) and some singles psychographic characteristics. Demographic seg- (13%), compared to general tourists who pre- mentation involves defining the market by vari- dominantly travelled as couples (59%), with 26% ables such as age, gender, life cycle stage, travelling as a family. However, the most notable occupation, income and education. It is a quanti- difference emerged in expenditure – experienced tative analysis method whereas a psychographic ecotourists are willing to spend more than profile is qualitative, analysing ‘soft’ data such as general tourists.2 Similarly, a study undertaken values, motivations and pre-established images in 1990, commissioned by the World Wildlife of the ecotourist. Both forms of information are Fund, found that people interested in nature vital to ecotourism operators, not only as a one- travel and in visiting fragile environments gen- off measurement, but as a continued body of erally exhibit higher expenditure levels than the information on the changing needs of their average tourist (although this additional expend- clients. iture may be in high leakage areas). ‘[Ecotourists] Through the compilation of demographic on average, would spend 8.5 per cent more for characteristics we can initially begin to build up services and products provided by environmen- an image of ecotourists. Table 9.1 illustrates what tally responsible suppliers’ (Wight, 1994: 41: cf. the profile of the average ecotourist looks like. Boo, 1991). Ecotourists can be generally characterized as In terms of country of origin the majority of having higher than average incomes, largely ecotourists are from relatively affluent Western holding tertiary qualifications and equally nations such as the US, Germany, Sweden, divided on the basis of males and females.1 The Canada and Australia. The rapidly ageing pop- US Travel and Data Centre study in 1992 ulations of these nations and the shift of the indicated that ecotourists are 5% more likely to ‘baby boomers3 into late middle age may prove have an income above $40 000, and 13% more to be a substantial demographic trend for leisure likely to have college qualifications than the and tourism as a significant proportion of these population as a whole (Blamey, 1995a, 1995b). Wight (1996) further refined the market profile of ecotourist characteristics, differentiating general 2 For example, a survey by Pamela Wight on the differences in expenditure of the conventional tourist over an ‘experienced ecotourist’ found that that the ecotourist was inclined to spend more than the conventional tourist (Wight, 1996). 1 Cf. Bates, 1991; Blamey, 1995a; Boo, 1991; Duff, 1993; 3 The term used to refer to the generation born in the post- Valentine, 1991a; Williams, 1990; Wight, 1996. war boom between 1946 and 1964. COULD THE ‘REAL’ ECOTOURIST PLEASE STAND UP! 121 groups will have significant levels of available tions. The same group regarded gambling, leisure time allied with relatively high levels of amusement parks, nightlife, big cities, watching disposable income to spend on leisure services. sport, doing nothing, indoor sports, shopping Along with these socioeconomic (demo- and resort areas as the least enjoyable activities graphic) characteristics are a range of attitudinal and attractions to visit while on holiday. The and behavioural patterns (psychographic charac- study also found that while ecotourists are teristics) that significantly allow us to differ- interested in nature in its own right they enjoy entiate ecotourists. personal development through physical activ- Generally, ecotourists demonstrate the follow- ity, experiencing new and simpler lifestyles, ing eight psychographic characteristics: meeting people of similar interests, seeing cultural activities, and buying local crafts (Eagles, 1 Possession of an environmental ethic. 1992). 2 Willingness not to degrade the resource. In this way ecotourism is more than a simple 3 Focus on intrinsic rather than extrinsic leisure activity. It is a style of travel that reflects motivation. and promotes a particular orientation to not only 4 Biocentric rather than anthropocentric in travel, but significant lifestyles, behaviours and orientation. philosophies: 5 Aiming to benefit wildlife and the environment. [Ecotourists are] expecting discovery and 6 Striving for first hand experience with the enlightenment from their ecotourism experi- natural environment. ence. Personal growth in emotional, spiritual, 7 Possessing an expectation of education and as well as intellectual terms appear to be appreciation. expected outcomes from ecotourism travel for 8 High cognitive and affective dimensions (Bal- the majority of these travellers. (Williams, lantine and Eagles, 1994). 1990: 84)

Ecotourists possess a preference for small groups In painting a picture of the ecotourist we will and personalized service (Duff, 1993) and tend to now broaden our brief brushstrokes by examin- be outdoor enthusiasts and frequently travel as ing tourist motivations which helps detail the couples or individuals and are frequent and differences that emerge for ecotourists as a experienced travellers (cf. Williams, 1990; Wight, specific market. Such an understanding assists 1996; see also Boo, 1991). They are ‘generally more tourism managers in making appropriate deci- accepting of conditions different from home than sions that will lead to tourist satisfaction, maxi- are other types of tourists’ (Boo, 1991: 13). Luxury mization of positive experiences and minimiza- accommodation, food and nightlife are far less tion of negative experiences (Pearce, 1993). This important to this group than living in local analysis will be based on a model of tourist conditions, and sampling local customs and food. motivation developed by Small (1997) which Due to their ‘strong science orientation’ and focus illustrates the key factors of tourist motivation on study and learning, ecotourists are instead by pictorially demonstrating each of the factors demanding of information and instruction on the in relation to one another (Figure 9.1). destinations they visit (Eagles, 1992: 12). Tourist needs, images, attitudes and the evalu- A study of Canadian ecotourists, for exam- ation of needs and image are the primary focus ple, found that they were interested in tropical of this model, with attention given to impacts of forests, birds, lakes and streams, trees and the physical, social and cultural environments. wildflowers, mammals, mountains and oceans. Reciprocal impacts exerted by the tourist (or These physical features were highly ranked by ecotourist) on these same environments are ecotourists when asked about their motiva- indicated by the two-way flow arrow. The 122 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

ual while pull motives are aroused by the destination. Push factors establish the desire for travel and pull factors explain actual destination choice (Bello and Etzel, 1985). Crompton (1979) modified the push/pull model in identifying tourists’ desire for pleasure and the desire for a break from routine. He identified nine motives in determining causal factors resulting in a tourist’s departure. Push factors are motives concerned with the social and psychological status of the individual, while pull factors, on the other hand, are ‘motives aroused by the destination rather than emerging exclu- Figure 9.1 A simple model of tourist motivation sively from the traveller himself’ (Crompton, (adapted from Small, 1997) 1990: 410). He found seven primary push motives and two pull motives: interplay of needs and images creates expectations, which differ for ecotourists relative to Push motives mainstream tourists. As sustainability is the ᭹ escape from perceived mundane environment; focus of ecotourism, the impacts upon the ᭹ exploration and evaluation of self; environment will be critical in establishing ᭹ relaxation; whether ecotourism is viable with the present ᭹ prestige; consumer base or whether operators need to ᭹ regression; define their market more stringently to achieve a ᭹ enhancement of kinship relationships; match between environmental/social/cultural ᭹ facilitation of social interaction. objectives, consumer needs/wants and profitability. Pull motives ᭹ novelty; ᭹ education.

Tourist motivations Crompton (1979) conceptualized motives as being located along a disequilibrium continuum. One way we can identify particular forms and When disequilibrium arises due to a feeling of styles of tourism is through an examination of dissatisfaction in relation to one or more push what factors motivate tourists. ‘Motivation is factors, it can be rectified by a break in routine, aroused when individuals think of certain activ- thus restoring homeostasis (equilibrium) – that ities that are potentially satisfaction producing. is, through travel. For Crompton (1979) the Since people act to satisfy their needs, motiva- destination site is merely a medium through tion is thought to be the ultimate driving force which motives are satisfied. that governs travel behaviour. Therefore, tour- Significantly, Iso-Ahola (1983) found that the ists’ motivation should constitute the basis for individual possessed an inclination to travel marketing strategies’ (Pyo et al., 1989: 277). primarily for intrinsic rewards. Intrinsically Motivational research is based on the early motivated activities are engaged in for their works of Dann (1981), who identified that ‘push’ own sake, rather than any external remunera- and ‘pull’ factors are central in motivating tion. The connection between intrinsic motiva- tourists. Push motives are internal to the individ- tions and push and pull factors was made by COULD THE ‘REAL’ ECOTOURIST PLEASE STAND UP! 123

McGehee et al. (1996), who recognized that For example, ‘curiosity, exploration, the desire to ‘most of the push factors are intrinsic motiva- learn, the desire to understand these are some- tors’. It is important here to note that satisfac- times pursued even at great cost to the individ- tion for the ecotourist may come not only from ual’s safety’ (1981: 155). the experience itself but from the external Eagles (1991) also found that the motivations reward of having promoted environmental of an ecotourist and those of the general tourist sound travel and having made a contribution differed in relation to intrinsic versus extrinsic to the destination region. motivations for travel. He found that the general Push factors are strongly related to Maslow’s tourist, in most cases liked to feel at home when hierarchy of needs (Uysal and Hagean, 1993). For away from home. Maslow actualization is the central driving force The results from this study align strongly with of human personality but before it can be the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors which influence pursued lower motivations such as hunger, tourist motivation. This is not to say that pull shelter and safety (to name a few) must be factors alone provide enough stimulation for a satisfied first. Maslow grouped these needs into trip departure, because despite the fact that pull five levels: factors are paramount for ecotourists, push factors still do (to varying degrees) influence the 1 Physiological – hunger, thirst, shelter, sex etc. departure decision. The application of Cromp- 2 Safety – security, protection from physical and ton’s (1979) theory illustrates that pull factors are emotional harm. necessarily ranked higher for ecotourists than 3 Social – affection, belonging, acceptance, mainstream tourists, based on their psycho- friendship. graphic characteristics. 4 Esteem – both internal (self respect, autonomy, However, accurately gauging the motivations achievement) and external (status, recognition, of ecotourists is difficult. To begin with, defining attention). tourists’ motivations using the push and pull 5 Self-actualization. model is more complex when applied to a specific market niche such as ecotourists, rather A tourist motivation framework developed by than mainstream travellers. The internal push Pearce (Pearce, 1993; Pearce, 1988) and based on motives of discovery, enlightenment and perso- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs provides an expan- nal growth are important to ecotourists but sive framework to identify the needs that a features of a natural destination are more than tourist is fulfilling when travelling. A main- simply pull motives to this group for ecotourists stream tourist is more concerned with fulfilling see physical locations as motivation in them- lower level needs of relationship, stimulation selves. To describe this as a pull phenomenon is and relaxation where the ecotourist is more to overlook the importance of the natural envi- concerned with development and fulfilment, ronment as a motivator (Eagles, 1992). which includes self-education. If the focus of The goals of ecotourism are to provide eco- ecotourism is nature-based activity, often intrins- logically sound travel experiences that contrib- ically aroused, with a degree of education and ute to the natural, economic, social and cultural interpretation of the natural environment, it environments. The provision of tourism services stands to reason that ecotourists are more is becoming central to local communities, partic- focused on the self-actualization and higher level ularly in a shift away from the dependence on needs than basic needs identified at the base of extractive industries. A combination of ecotour- Maslow’s hierarchy, by the nature of the experi- ist needs and the image they have of the ence they seek. As Mayo and Jarvis note, destination pre-departure, creates expectations intellectual needs can in some instances take that an ecotourist assumes will be satisfied. By precedence over some of the lower-order needs. understanding ecotourist motivations the local 124 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES community will be in a better position to meet difference between ecotourists and mainstream these needs and expectations. tourists is evident. Not only does this include The tailoring of products using motivational motivation, but also when the tourist first research is important in any sector of tourism. decides which destination to visit. Recognizing that motives of ecotourists differ is Social interactions involving tourists can take essential for tourism managers. Due to reduced the form of tourist–peer group interaction, tour- numbers of tourists, the likelihood of reduced ist–tourist interaction or tourist–host interaction. impacts and interest in an educative component, The first of these – tourist–peer group inter- roles and rules for ecotourists may be redefined actions – has a significant effect on destination and shaped about the needs this market niche choice. Social groups exert four kinds of effect in possesses, resulting in higher rates of destination selection: satisfaction. Research on visitor expectations was used in ᭹ direct persuasion to visit a certain destination; the ecologically sustainable management of ᭹ normative influence on a traveller’s opinion of whale shark tourism in Queensland. Swayed a destination; respondents felt regulations allowed divers to ᭹ long-term socialization leading to conven- swim too near to whale sharks. Management tional wisdom about a destination; used this research to modify guidelines, increas- ᭹ social group members living in destination ing the distance which enhanced protection of areas (Dann and Crompton, in Crompton, the species, while still offering a satisfying 1981). experience for ecotourists (Birtles et al., 1995). This demonstrates a differing managerial Although each of these factors, to differing response to the market based on their unique degrees, applies to the mainstream tourist, an needs and characteristics. ecotourist may not relate to any of these influ- Similarly a United States survey found that 45 ences. For example, the ecotourist would be per cent of US travellers felt that travel suppliers unlikely to visit a friend in a distant location and do not provide enough environmental protection call it ‘ecotourism’. In addition, the social training and support to employees. Respondents group’s opinion and persuasion is often of less also felt that companies offered little educational significance for an ecotourist as they may well content on environmental awareness and protec- visit places that others do not necessarily know tion during tours. Familiarity with ecotourist about. motivations will help prevent such dissatisfac- Once a pre-departure decision has been made, tions and bring added environmental protection the next significant ‘phase’ of social interaction is advantages. The ability of ecotourism operators that which occurs at the destination site itself. to meet ecotourist needs will determine ‘whether For all people social interaction is fundamental: or not the destination is ultimately regarded as a ‘It has long been recognized that the interactive viable and worthwhile ecotourism destination’ nature of social groups exerts a strong influence (Wight, 1994: 47). on an individual’s behaviour’ (Crompton, 1981: 551). In the case of mainstream tourists, the majority of social interaction occurs between members of the group of tourists. For ecotourism however – with a reduced group size and an Tourism interactions emphasis on destination attributes – the focus of interaction is between the tourist and those Tourist behaviour does not start at the time of encountered at the destination. travel, it exists before the tourist has left for the Ecotourists generally are likely to actively seek destination site and it is here that a major immersion in the local environment, rather than COULD THE ‘REAL’ ECOTOURIST PLEASE STAND UP! 125 enforcing an artificial barrier between them- but again, unlike the ecotourist, they are not selves and the host community. Cohen (1972: necessarily motivated by the desire to experience 167) refers to this as the ‘environmental bubble’ the natural environment. whereby the tourist is demarcated from the Cohen’s (1972) final tourist type is the drifter. destination environment – such as resort facili- This tourist ventures furthest off the beaten track ties where recreation opportunities are enclosed and wholly immerses themselves into a commu- largely within the resort. nity’s customs and culture, where novelty is of In determining the qualitative and quantita- utmost importance and all familiarity disap- tive differences in social interaction that differ- pears. The levels of social interaction with the entiate mainstream tourists from ecotourists, host culture and environment are maximized by Cohen’s (1972) typology of tourists serves to this form of tourist, particularly in comparison to demonstrate that differences in interaction can the mass tourist (Cohen, 1972). Again this tourist be the result of a willingness or otherwise to type is similar to the ecotourist in that they are venture beyond a tourist’s comfort zone. motivated by a desire for ‘experiences’ but they Cohen’s (1972) typology identifies four different are not necessarily travelling principally to types of tourists: experience natural areas’ scenery. These differences in interaction between tour- ᭹ the organized mass tourist; ist types and the social environment can be ᭹ the individual mass tourist; contextualized broadly with reference to the ᭹ the explorer; notion of tourism ‘authenticity’. MacCannell ᭹ the drifter. (1976) sees tourism as a modern functional substitute for the spiritual aspects of religion that Each of these tourist types embodies unique have diminished in social significance as a result characteristics that influence their likelihood to of the alienation of modern man from ‘tradi- immerse themselves in the host culture, or tional’ modes of life and therefore of perceiving alternatively, remain within the confines of their the world. This shift from traditional institu- touring companions, thus minimizing discom- tional bonds has caused man to seek the ‘real’ life fort or culture shock. Organized mass tourists of others – that is, what are perceived as and individual mass tourists never fully ‘authentic’ modes of life, cultures etc. immerse themselves into an environment as MacCannell proposed a continuum of tourist familiarity is a fundamental concern for them. settings across six stages, each denoting a level They tend to ‘look’ at the host from within the of authenticity gained from specific tourist relative security afforded by their travelling experiences. Stage One describes the social companions. The individual mass tourist differs space that tourists attempt to overcome or slightly from the organised tourist type in that penetrate, such as tourism facilities, institu- their tours are not entirely pre-planned, how- tional cultural sites etc. This ‘front stage’ often ever, both descriptions fit closely with a partic- suffices for organized mass tourists, as it is ular mode of tourist behaviour. constructed specifically for their benefit: ‘Tour- Explorers and drifters vary in the degree to ists commonly take guided tours of social which they communicate, immerse and learn establishments because they provide easy from the host communities. The explorer is access to areas of the establishment ordinarily similar to the ecotourist in that they both travel closed to outsiders’ (1976: 98). At the furthest individually and get ‘off the beaten track’. They end of the continuum is Stage Six, which do leave the ‘environmental bubble’ yet, unlike denotes the back region, where there is limited the ecotourist, they often require comfortable (if any) access to outsiders, a region where it is accommodation with reliable transport. They perceived that ‘authentic’ cultural representa- travel primarily to interact with other cultures tions take place (MacCannell, 1976). 126 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

Although MacCannell identifies that main- can be problematic. The mainstream tourist stream tourists experience ‘staged authenticity’ receives a ‘mainstream’ guide (by that is meant as a general rule, however he also recognizes that the guide elaborates in less detail about that on occasions mainstream tourists do have specific sites and caters to the sightseeing needs intimate involvement with the social environ- of the mainstream tourist) while the ecotourist ment. Nevertheless, he also recognizes that often receives a more descriptive and environmen- these authentic experiences happen by accident: tally aware guide to cater for their inherent ‘The tourist is passive; he [sic] expects interesting interest. In addition, the ecotourist retains more things to happen to him’ (Boorstin, in MacCan- of the guide’s information about the environ- nell, 1976: 104). ment than the mainstream tourist does, as the The constructed nature of the ‘authentic’ ecotourist has travelled with a specific interest experience is often facilitated by the tour guide’s in the topic of environment impact and inter- instruction, mediated through the perceptions action. Therefore, it seems inevitable that the and choice of information conveyed. Boorstin ecotourist must behave differently to the main- recognizes the importance of the guide in influ- stream tourist, as, in general, they have access encing a tourist stating that ‘a good guide, to better and more detailed information. This working in the correct context, provides a rela- information allows them to act more envir- tively safe and secure milieu for the tourist to onmentally consciously. The mainstream tourist collect those authentic experiences which fulfil does not have the same opportunity to behave the individual’s motivation for travelling’ more like the ecotourist, because the nature of (Pearce, 1984: 136). the information they receive does not assist in The tour guide is important for tourist inter- guiding their behaviour to be environmentally action with not only the social environment but sensitive to the same degree. also the natural environment. Tour guides are Up to this point we have discussed the central to both mainstream tourism and ecotour- differences between the ecotourist and the main- ism experiences, although their roles may differ stream tourist’s interactions with their social and significantly. environmental surroundings. As we have seen, An ecotourist is generally likely to have ecotourists generally have, and seek, an intimate obtained a detailed knowledge of the local understanding of the environment, which is not environment pre-departure. However, ecotour- an essential factor for mainstream tourists. ists are not immune to inaccurate information Therefore, it may seem obvious that the biggest given by the guide, as they also rely on the guide differences between the behaviour of the eco- for information. tourist and the mainstream tourist lie in their Not only is the information given by the interaction with the physical environment. guide important, but whether the tourist From the perspective of the physical environ- remembers the information is also important, as ment, ecotourism and mainstream tourism play it will affect the tourist’s behaviour: ‘the tour- very different roles. The ecotourist ideally enters ist’s own experience and knowledge; and the a destination in the ‘discovery and emergence’ features of the setting at hand would appear to stage of the ‘tourism destination product life be a major requirement for promoting the tour- cycle’ (Prosser, 1994: 23). This means that an ist’s memory and the recall of the setting’ ecotourist is an ‘explorer’ or someone who seeks (Pearce, 1984: 143). This would imply that, in the wilderness, or unspoilt areas, for the natural general, a heightened awareness of the environ- and cultural assets contained within the region ment for the ecotourist would result in a better before others have the chance to make a notice- retention of the information given by the guide able impact. In contrast, the mainstream tourist regarding those environments. Therefore, the would be involved in a destination in all of the guide’s role in influencing a tourist’s behaviour stages of the life cycle after the initial discovery COULD THE ‘REAL’ ECOTOURIST PLEASE STAND UP! 127 and emergence stage.4 However, the logical As we have noted, mainstream tourists tend to conclusion of placing ecotourism within the visit established destinations, places where the tourism destination product life cycle is the physical environment has been developed to a inevitable saturation and decline of an area considerable degree and tourism infrastructure through the emergence of mainstream tourism to is in place. Ecotourism, however, is often asso- the region once it is ‘discovered’. Does it really ciated with travel to more remote and envir- matter then if ecotourists and mainstream tour- onmentally sensitive locations. The common ists behave differently if the eventual outcome of thread which ties ecotourists and mainstream an ecotourist entering a site is the eventual tourists is the behaviour of moving from one invasion of mass tourism, hence the region’s destination to another for new experiences. destruction? Mainstream tourists do not necessarily need to A tourist’s attitude relates significantly to their behave like an ecotourist in the respect of behaviour towards the physical environment. It limiting impacts to the natural environment, as has been widely recognized that mainstream the physical environment is not as fragile as tourists generally tend to have a less envir- those areas often utilized by ecotourists onmentally conscious attitude when on (although the cultural and social environments holiday: may be as fragile). One potential catalyst for difference in the When on holiday . . . we may give little behaviour of tourists is the perception that the thought to whether such thought is socially or individual has about what ‘minimal impacts’ environmentally acceptable in our chosen des- actually are. Often people do not make changes tination, and indeed, if we are aware, we may to benefit the environment until they realize that rationalize that we have paid and they have it is damaged. However, the ecotourist is pre- taken our money, so we are entitled to take our ventative in attempting to ameliorate impacts holiday as we wish. (Prosser, 1994: 32) from the moment of initiating travel and by striving to leave the environment as they find it Ecotourists, as we have seen, actively seek to – an objective not always shared by the main- minimize the impacts that they have on a stream tourist: ‘For every traveller prepared to destination. However, while the individual eco- meet the wilderness on its own terms, there exist tourist may independently minimize their hundreds of others who demand that it be impacts, the management of the natural area to modified for their use with the provision of which they are travelling determines whether surfaced roads, cafeterias, toilets, parking, picnic the impacts are minimized overall: ‘Trekking facilities and a range of other amenities’ (Todd, tourists in the Nepalese Himalayas would 1989). This alone exemplifies the major differ- almost without exception declare themselves to ence in the behaviour of ecotourists and main- be eco-conscious or green, yet they too are stream tourists towards the environment visited: pushing against the carrying capacity and hence ecotourist behaviour is determined according to the sustainability of the regional environment’ the environment while the mainstream tourist (Prosser, 1994: 33). Therefore while the individ- adapts the environment to suit his or her usual ual ecotourist may behave differently to the behaviour. mainstream tourist in respect to the physical environment, the ecotourists, as a group, can potentially create similar impacts on the physical environment as a group of mainstream tourists. Economic differences

4 These successive stages include ‘growing popularity and Economic conditions are also fundamental to fashion’, ‘saturation’, ‘fading fashion’ and ‘decline’. understanding the differences in behaviour 128 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES between the ecotourist and the mainstream ᭹ there is a low level of local ownership of tourist. Economic based analysis of the destina- tourist facilities; tion region results in identification of a number of ᭹ there is a high proportion of transient impor- key differences in impacts (both direct and ted labour. indirect) by ecotourists relative to mainstream tourists. A balance of economic impacts in any These are often characteristics of developing tourism region is dependent on the characteristics countries, whose adoption of ecotourism in some of the economy (e.g. size, level of development instances has reversed the high leakages dictated and linkages), the type of goods and services by the previous structuring of their tourism demanded (or supplied in the case of ecotourism), industries. the type of tourism and ownership of services, infrastructure and superstructure. Due to the fact that the levels of development for ecotourism in the destination region are likely to be reduced Case study Ecuador relative to mainstream tourism, goods and services are produced in limited supply, based on the In Capirona, Ecuador, a community of 24 carrying capacity of the region, and ownership is Quichua Indian families have chosen eco- more likely to be local. tourism as the most appropriate form of Mainstream tourism often occurs in cities and economic development. This community towns, whereas ecotourism most often involves demonstrated a dependence on economic villages or smaller communities. Destination returns from crops (which had become regions benefit from ecotourism, as the ecotour- insufficient), and sought ecotourism as a ist minimizes cultural, social and physical form of industry that directly benefits the impacts, while creating beneficial economic community, whilst minimizing leakage. In impacts, purchasing local goods and services. economic terms, the venture has thus far The ecotourist does not demand that local been successful, however, impacts on neigh- communities engage in extensive infrastructure bouring communities have yet to be gauged development or changes in their normal cultural (Colvin, 1994). practices. Mainstream tourists, however, require that the products and services supplied ‘must reach the required standards’ of the tourist (Vellas and Becheral, 1995: 319). This is an example of the ‘environmental bubble’ whereby Individuals’ perception of the environment tourists need to recreate that which is found in has a profound influence on how it is experi- their home country and determines the satisfac- enced: ‘Both perceptual distortion and the tion of the tourism experience. expectations we bring to the environment affect Similarly, the nature of ecotourism develop- the role we play in it. People develop selective ment – small scale with minimal social and and unique conceptions’ (Ittelson et al., 1974: environmental impacts – reduces the likelihood 14). The expectations of a tourist therefore play of economic leakages to external owners, opera- a large part in the way a tourist behaves. They tors and investors. Leakages are likely to be high also determine if a destination will satisfy the if: tourist’s needs, i.e. if the expectations meet the experience. Considering that ecotourists and ᭹ the economy is small with a limited range of mainstream tourists are motivated to travel by domestically produced goods and services; different desires it is understandable that tour- ᭹ there is a high propensity to import goods and ists will hold different expectations, require service provision; the satisfaction of different experiences. An COULD THE ‘REAL’ ECOTOURIST PLEASE STAND UP! 129 ecotourist is seeking education about a region The management of tourists is undertaken to along with the experience of both natural and control and influence tourist behaviour, thus cultural environments and may not be satisfied seeking to minimize the impacts of tourism on by the ‘pseudo’ events (Boorstin, 1972) that are communities and on the environments. This dominating the tourist market. As we have chapter has shown that ecotourists and main- seen, ecotourists will seek to educate them- stream tourists differ in their behaviour to a great selves about the destination site prior to depar- extent so it stands to reason the management ture and will therefore have some knowledge systems implemented for these two types of about the destination. The mainstream tourist, tourists will be vastly different. The difference in however, ‘seldom likes the authentic product of behaviour between the ecotourist and the main- the foreign culture; he prefers his own provin- stream tourist relates directly to the fact that the cial expectations’ (Boorstin, 1972: 106). These attitude and motivation for travelling is very expectations are often greater than the destina- different between the two groups. Ecotourists tion may provide and are often satisfied by a travel to experience natural environments, to ‘commodified’ experience. educate themselves about these areas. Main- Service providers such as tour operators can stream tourists on the other hand travel to satisfy manage the tourist and ensure satisfaction by leisure, pleasure and recreational needs. There- providing a tour which fulfils the needs of the fore differing customer perceptions, needs, atti- different tourist types. For a tour operator who is tudes, levels of environmental stewardship and to provide the total ecotourist experience, the likely impacts must be considered by operators – tour must enhance a genuine environmental both managers and marketers – natural area experience whereby the tourist learns and com- managers, and local communities when con- municates with the host environment. sidering this market segment. 10

Ecotourism – a model for sustainable development

We currently live in a world dominated by communities, or ideally where development of rationalistic philosophies and practices, where these projects is controlled by local communities, ‘good’ decisions are deemed to be those that are there is always the danger of imposing a cultural able to identify and provide a tangible and hegemony. Once established, cultural hegemony measurable balance of benefits, adjudicated by means that the values of the tourist culture not cost–benefit ratios and statistical quantification. only encroach on and often destroy the host However, as we have seen, little, if any, accord is culture, but also reinforce the narrow percep- given to the underlying principles and values tions and representations of these cultures that underpin such evaluations. Whilst the West- through Western eyes. ern world aspires to increasing ranges of low The tourism industry often does not acknowl- cost goods and efficiency of production and edge that ‘explicitly or implicitly, every debate provision of services, it reaps large-scale unem- on policy is a debate about values’ (Stretton, ployment patterns reflected in global trends and 1976: 3–18), and yet decisions are made on environmental debilitation in the form of atmos- approaches, projects and practices without con- pheric pollution, biodiversity decline, siltation, sidering the effect of values, especially their own, land degradation and global warming – which is on their work. The transfer of methods, tech- beginning to have profound impacts on global niques and practices from mass tourism approa- weather patterns. ches to ecotourism practices without reassess- Just as wilderness and natural areas are in ment of their relevance or appropriateness has marked decline, both in terms of quality and been problematic. quantity, demand for tourism to these areas is The analysis and outcomes are therefore likely increasing markedly. However, tourism as an to perpetuate the mode of practice rather than industry deserves significant criticism, not least find appropriate alternatives. Ecotourism has because in many cases it contributes to the often been defined and debated from within this decline of natural areas. Tourism is dominated frame, often as little more than a ‘niche market’. by developed Western countries with tourist However, as we have seen, ecotourism is one of marketers increasingly designing, planning and many forms of ‘alternative’ tourism that are implementing tourism into developing coun- influenced by profound philosophic social and tries. However, without inclusive processes that environmental shifts. Indeed they are all ori- at the least utilize consultation with the host ented by a change in current value systems. ECOTOURISM – A MODEL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 131

Table 10.1 Concerns of mass tourism and alternative paradigm (ecotourism) views

Mass tourism Alternative tourism

1 Management of ‘evolutionary’ change (survival of 1 Radical change moving towards cooperatives and the fittest) within a Western rationalist approach community based approaches outside of the based on existing economic principles existing tourism industry 2 Maintaining social order, existing tourism systems 2 Transforming social systems, analysing structural unquestioned conflicts and contradictions and including nature 3 Greater efficiency of current tourism systems, in the equation hence increased profitability 3 Creating more just and equitable systems that can 4 Appearance of harmony, integration and cohesion step beyond the tourism system of social groups involved in the tourism process 4 Contradictions between social ideals and reality, 5 Focus on ways to maintain cohesion and attempts to demonstrate this and alleviate it consensus 5 Ways to dismantle or change systems of 6 Solidarity domination 7 Identifying and meeting individual needs within 6 Emancipation existing social system 7 Current tourism systems incapable of equitably 8 Focused on actuality, discovering and meeting basic human needs understanding what is 8 Focused on potentiality: providing a vision of what could be

Source: Adapted from Maguire, 1987: 12

Despite claims to the contrary, ecotourism has ment of host communities, as it is about fostering not simply allowed the tourism industry sig- a sustainable industry. Ecotourism can therefore nificantly to expand in market scope. Its sig- be said to have three primary objectives: sustain- nificance lies in its ability to offer alternative ability, conservation and empowerment of host approaches to the industry’s operational prac- communities. The unifying concern is one of tices. These ‘alternative’ paradigms make possi- living in harmony with nature and recognizing ble an increase in the breadth and depth of the intrinsic value in beings other than humans understanding of the industry. Specific philo- (Haywood, 1988). That is, it is concerned with sophical approaches such as ecocentrism and the relationship between humanity and nature, environmentalism, as we have seen, pose sig- with the intention of making that relationship nificant questions for the tourism industry in more equitable. their challenge to the economic rationalist prac- In contrast to more conventional forms of tices in tourism. tourism, ecotourism is unique in its ecocentric From an ecocentically informed perspective, focus along with education, personal growth and ecotourism is not just an ‘industry’ or activity other intrinsic values underlying travel motiva- undertaken in the natural environment; it is tion. Ecotourists tend to be highly focused on intended to be an experience that an individual these intrinsic values and, unlike other tourist or group has that affects their attitudes, values forms, they pursue these goals ‘with high levels and actions. Ecotourism then is as much about of physical and mental rigour’ (Williams, 1990: environmental education, the fostering of atti- 83). Many ecotourism activities combine phys- tudes and behaviour that is conducive to main- ical activities such as trekking, cycling and taining natural environments, and empower- kayaking with environmental awareness-raising 132 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES pursuits. Experience of indigenous foods and groups. customs occurs in close proximity to learning As we have seen, ecotourism has great poten- about native flora and fauna. Thus ecotourism tial for its ability to be both a tool for conserva- activities focus on active appreciative endeav- tion and sustainable development. Ecotourism ours (Swanson, 1992). appears to present us with one of the few However, ecotourism should not only be activities where the link between economic concerned with identifying the target market of development and conservation of natural areas ecotourism and its level of satisfaction, but is potentially clear and direct. However, these should also be concerned with understanding links have not led to the expected benefits for the range of experiences of all participants in many communities or conservation groups, par- ecotourism (host and guest) and explaining why ticularly in many cases because of the dominance these patterns of experience exist. It might also of short-term profit-orientated goals. Clearly, be concerned with identifying sites of oppression where there has been innovation and new and possible processes to overcome such oppres- management practices which have separated sion. A wider focus in ecotourism will look for ecotourism from mass tourism positive out- and question concepts such as globalization comes have occurred. Partnerships will be an and anthropocentrism, which will limit the important component of these innovations contribution of ecotourism. As such, it could which can see ecotourism benefiting both parks examine the: and local communities. In a commodified market-place ecotourism also cannot exist without ᭹ ecotourist’s experience; government regulation or strong delegation of ᭹ access to be an ecotourist; management authority to the regional or local ᭹ access to power and decision making in levels, otherwise ecotourism in most places management of ecotourism; won’t differ from mass tourism. The challenge ᭹ host’s experience. for ecotourism planners will be to establish regulations and incentives so that socio-eco- In exploring ecotourism the questions who par- nomic benefits are generated, and appropriately ticipates, who makes decisions and who controls distributed, from activities which are culturally the structure of the ecotourist experience should and ecologically sustainable. be pursued. A changed focus would highlight Unfortunately, however, government has also and identify as one issue of concern the narrow seen it as a panacea for development problems: a socioeconomic group which constitutes the eco- solution for lack of employment, foreign tourism ‘market’. That is, the issue of equity of exchange, and capital for infrastructure. In for- access. The issue is of concern not only because mulating projects a lack of thought and direction of the inherent imbalance of opportunity which has resulted, in many cases, in ecotourism not reflects a system of oppression, but also because living up to expectations in terms of creating the issue needs to be addressed in order to fulfil revenues for conservation or in creating alter- the original agenda of ecotourism itself. Remem- native income sources for communities. It is ber that ecotourism aspires to educating visitors regarded by many social scientists, and many about the value of natural environments, how- tourists themselves, with increasing scepticism ever without considering equity of access the given the increasing documentation of its envi- current ‘target market’ will simply be ‘preaching ronmental record, cultural impact and the qual- to the converted’. In addition, equity is an issue ity of jobs it has created. In a majority of because ecotourism activities principally occur countries, ecotourism has been promoted by within publicly owned resources and according government or industry without an overall to current (but possibly changing) community strategy, effective protected area management views access should not be limited to elite plans, and without consultation or inclusion of ECOTOURISM – A MODEL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 133 local communities. While local communities do Wright, 1994: 1). A variety of terms have been receive benefits from ecotourism, these benefits used, such as joint management (Hill and Press, are most frequently in the form of seasonal or in Western and Wright, 1994: 499) and co- low-paying jobs. At the community level, eco- management (Brechin et al., in West and Bre- tourism may generate increased revenues, pro- chin, 1991: 5), all of which can be operation- vide for more infrastructure such as roads and alized by organizations like the World Bank and electricity, or proceeds from ecotourism may be the World Tourism Organization if they are directed to community projects such as school willing to embrace the alternative paradigms construction, and health clinics, but this has to be offered through ecotourism. Ecotourism, from clearly identified and specified in its develop- this perspective, is therefore concerned that ment. Additionally it has to be made clear to communities retain and exercise control in eco- these local communities that these benefits may tourism development and implementation. That be offset by interference in their daily lives and is, from a community development perspective resultant cultural changes. When outside control one of the central issues is equity of power or profit oriented segments of the local commu- between community, state, individual and cor- nity dominate the decision-making process often porate enterprise. the low-impact scale of ecotourism is exceeded and it takes on the characteristics of mass tourism, with increased traffic, pollution, seques- tering of profits by outsiders and rising local Developing tourism partnerships prices all becoming significant problems. This model of development parallels that of develop- Ecotourism has facilitated a major change in the ing countries’ economies when dominated by a relationship between host communities and developed nation’s agenda and the World tourism development. Since its recognition, there Bank. has been a movement away from developing a The effectiveness of ecotourism in the future site or region without any consultation between will ultimately depend on who will benefit, as local residents and development bodies. How- well as where, when and how it can be appro- ever, even now their needs and concerns are not priately implemented: all of which is dependent often heard; but, ecotourism and other alter- on a wide range of actions which are under- native forms of tourism have recognized that pinned by the philosophical approaches we have partnerships between local people, the private discussed in Chapter 2, particularly in relation to sector and government open up a range of their implementation planning and management opportunities not restricted to any one group. frameworks. Most of these partnership arrangements are a Underpinning this approach is a need for recent development and are gaining acceptance support from local communities, and to best because they make good economic sense and investigate this support and involve these com- benefit all partners. munities in an empowered way there is a need Some partnerships will be born of necessity, to use community development approaches. A for example the need for local communities to community development approach advocates market their destination to a wider audience that change comes from within communities, with images that represent for them what they not outside, and that power and decision mak- really are rather than what some marketeers ing associated with that change should be would like to sell them as. Other linkages may community-driven and controlled. A recent ini- result from a need for greater flexibility in tiative that would be relevant for ecotourism is management where areas of the natural environ- community-based conservation (CBC) which ment are closed off to tourism only because of arises from within the community (Western and international conservation guidelines that have 134 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES no relevance to the local community. These sorts but may require high levels of coordination with of conflicts have led to the development of other agencies. Ecotourism then provides the partnerships between governments and NGOs, catalyst for the development of improving pro- where management is delegated to the NGO, cesses for decision making while giving an initial who often can better act with the community in framework that may allow attempts to reach their interest. The Santa Elena Rainforest Reserve partnership agreements based on a shared case study in Chapter 7 demonstrates how this vision. might occur. Ecotourism, for example, would suggest that New ways of looking at partnerships between for equity to be established in say national parks the government and the private sector have and other conservation areas which are used allowed the private sector to manage operations extensively for tourism, there needs to be trust and run concessions in places where the govern- and respect between the traditional custodians of ment lacked the resources, capacity and invest- the land and the more recently arrived park ment, such as accommodation in national parks management agencies. For this to happen, both (see MacKinnon et al., 1986). Interesting partner- parties must understand the other’s culture in ships have started between governments and order to come to terms with each other’s inter- local people, such as at Uluru, in Australia, pretation and perceptual view of any given where joint management arrangements have situation. This understanding requires facilita- created new approaches and more refined ways tion across a significant cultural divide. The role on interpreting the resource. of culture in interpersonal dealings is more fully New mechanisms and arrangements are con- explained below: stantly being devised with an increasing number of partners, including many often not considered Cultural learnings influence the perception of by more mainstream tourism organizations. other people. Developing crosscultural under- With the global recognition of ecotourism inter- standing involves perceiving members of national industry donors have come to play a other cultural groups positively. By under- role. For example, USAID (United States Aid standing the basic principles of person percep- Program) is promoting a tourism strategy called tion, and the natural effects of one’s own low-impact tourism (LIT). LIT focuses on estab- cultural experience and learning on perceiving lishing indigenous natural resource management other people, unproductive explanations of through private sector initiatives and investment crosscultural misunderstandings as prejudice in rural village-based tourism business infra- or even just differences may be replaced with structures. Rural communities would get a per- productive methods of avoiding misunder- centage of tourism revenues, employment bene- standings and stimulating positive percep- fits and improved infrastructure (Lillywhite, tions of other people. How we perceive other 1992) while international donors can provide people affects how we behave towards them water turbines or other technology-based infra- and how they, in turn, behave towards us. structure to markets that have not needed this (Robinson, 1988: 49) before ecotourism came to these remote areas. However, while bringing many partners to the Placing external definitions and ways of life table offers the strengths of the combined organi- (such as tourism) on people and communities zations, it can make coordination and decision can affect the lives of those people in far-reaching making quite cumbersome. In such cases, eco- ways (Schwartz and Jacobs, 1979). It is important tourism development may seem akin to a large then to acknowledge when working with mar- integrated development project, with many of ginalized sectors of society that we may already the difficulties that these projects face. Projects be dealing with stereotypes and misconceptions with fewer partners may be more manageable, placed upon them by society in general ECOTOURISM – A MODEL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 135

(Eckermann and Dowd, 1988). It is thus desirable distribution of the rewards to local to work with flexible models that are more open communities. to allowing the expression of individual charac- Ecotourism represents an alternative approach teristics of a subject group. For example, in to tourism. That is the thinking around ecotour- relation to the Australian Aborigines, their land ism is derived equally if not dominated by an and their cultures, Barlow makes four points: alternative focus which will allow ecotourism to be placed outside of the current dominant Aborigines have never had to define them- framework and challenge contemporary tourism selves, their cultures or their lands – that practices. definition was made in the time before time Ecotourism generates benefits for biodiversity when the great ancestral creative beings conservation and can often succeed in meeting brought into existence land, people, and law. conditions which cannot be met in other activ- All other definitions have been made by ities. It often allows partnership where destina- people who are not Aborigines for their own tions can become competitive and the protected reasons. People who are not Aborigines con- area authorities have the capacity and jurisdic- tinue to define Aborigines, their cultures and tional mandates to design, implement and man- their lands for their own reasons. These age sustainable ecotourism consistent with their definitions are effectively imposed on Aborigi- protected area objectives through having a work- nes so that they are impelled to act in able framework in ecotourism. In this case the accordance with them. (Barlow, 1992: 57) cost reflects the true cost of tourism and site protection. Finally, there are mechanisms where The underlying philosophies of ecotourism are revenues from fees can be allocated to the parks significant to the manner in which it is examined and can be applied toward priorities in overall and interpreted, and that these approaches take biodiversity conservation in the country. These into consideration the original principles of frameworks have been difficult to establish prior ecotourism. There is a danger of losing the to the recognition of ecotourism. central ethical ideas that surround ecotourism without utilization of wider perspectives. Ecotourism has offered the potential for the tourism industry to look towards alternative Sustainable models and perspectives for tourism, when left as an ecotourism assumed autonomous category it is in danger of becoming isolated through an economic rational- ‘Sustainable development’ was a much talked ist focus devoid of any social experience. The about model for development in a policy context, very ambiguity of ecotourism lends itself to a debated at conferences such as the United theoretical and research approach that is itself Nations Conference of Environment and Devel- about the use of alternative approaches. opment, Earth Summit, the International Union We believe that ecotourism can offer a clearly for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resour- defining philosophical approach; as shown in ces (IUCN) and the IVth World Congress on Chapter 2, and in doing this it has expanded National Parks and Protected Areas. However, tourism beyond an economic rationale; ecotour- the mechanisms for local communities to partici- ism is able to achieve environmental sustain- pate only came about through the phenomenon ability and its affiliated social goals. These goals of ecotourism. Local communities could learn include the minimization of damage to natural about impacts, options and possibilities of eco- resources, education of ecotourists to conserva- tourism development, explore means for owner- tion values, access of the tourism experience ship of specific ecotourism ventures and con- beyond a ‘converted and elite’ group, and the sider strategies for ecotourism as compensation 136 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES for restricted access to protected areas, including ically and environmentally sustainable in order coordinated investments in local infrastructure to reduce waste, provide local groups with and services that improve local quality of life training, technical assistance and information and collection of local user fees from tourists necessary to participate in the benefits and which support local development initiatives. employment opportunities from ecotourism; and Governments have found that it provides collect information and monitor and evaluate approaches to supplement ongoing activities by ecotourism development. improving existing policy, including requiring This book has highlighted the complexity of the development of ecotourism strategies as using ecotourism as a tool for conservation and components of government documents as well sustainable development. The explosion of inter- as clarifying the jurisdictional mandates and est in ecotourism as a funding source for responsibilities of agencies involved in ecotour- conserving both biodiversity and cultural patri- ism planning and management. In addition, mony and as a strategy for generating socio- governments were able to justify developing economic development has seen a mechanism pricing policies for use in protected area sites for a movement of the tourism industry to which reflect the social cost of operating and become more aligned to the sustainable develop- maintaining such areas and could decentralize ment models that underpin ecotourism. And responsibility for area-specific ecotourism, strat- with the demand for ecotourism steadily increas- egies and developments. ing, a trend that can be expected to continue its Additionally, many governments support the influence on the tourism industry and commu- collection of user fees from tourists. However, in nities can only continue to promote sustainable many cases these fees are often appropriated into models of development. general revenue rather than to maintaining and If ecotourism causes mass tourism to become improving the quality of parks and protected more ecologically and culturally sensitive and areas by the development of facilities which are less likely to bring negative impacts then it has environmentally and culturally appropriate in made a major contribution to sustainability. scale construction and context. Similarly, broader This book has attempted to provide a means for principles also need to be adopted such as the reader to evaluate how well ecotourism introducing sound environmental practices might live up to the expectation created for it. including waste reduction and recycling; and to Case studies presented in the book cover a explore joint ventures and partnerships with range of protected areas, cultures, types of local communities, NGOs, and other organiza- ecotourism enterprises and management tions for ecotourism development. Additionally, options and suggest we are moving toward the flow on benefit where the private sector can more sustainable models. Where we have not then see clear benefits on ground such as better lived up to expectations in terms of creating facilities and are therefore implicitly introduced revenues for conservation or in creating alter- to the ideas of sustainable development. native income sources to take pressure off NGOs and academic institutions who had protected areas or for local communities, they supported the development of the tourism have at least begun to develop mechanisms that industry have found in ecotourism a mechanism can become a potential avenue for conservation with which to practise sustainability. In this though ecotourism. context, they were able to have a clarified role in In learning about the impacts, potentials and the industry, such as acting as intermediaries possibilities of ecotourism development enables between the private sector and local interests in the creation of mechanisms to allow for every ecotourism development. Similarly, they could stakeholder’s involvement in ecotourism plan- identify technologies and products that are ning and development. Sustainable models of produced or used locally and which are econom- development are not inherently designed to ECOTOURISM – A MODEL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 137 restrict, rather they allow for new ways of tice, is a strategy for mapping and addressing thinking that can, and should, achieve a range new approaches to humanity’s interaction of objectives guided by a common interest. with the environment for the twenty-first Ecotourism, as a sustainable development prac- century. Appendix I

Select glossary

Alternative tourism The common feature of opposed to anthropocentricism which focuses on ‘alternative tourism’ is the suggestion of an the human and the instrumental value of nature. attitude diametrically opposed to what is charac- See also Ecocentric. teristically viewed as mass tourism. Alternative tourism often is presented as existing in funda- Biodiversity The variety of different species mental opposition by attempting to minimize the and genetic variability among individuals within perceived negative environmental and socio- each species. cultural impacts of people at leisure in the promotion of radically different approaches to Biological diversity The variety of all life tourism. Examples include ecotourism, green forms; the different plants, animals and micro- tourism, ‘nature-oriented tourism’, ‘soft tourism’ organisms, the genes they contain and the and ‘defensive tourism’. ecosystems they form. It is usually considered at three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity Anthropocentric Focuses on the human and and ecosystem diversity. the instrumental value of nature, regards humans as the central fact of the universe and Bioregion A territory defined by a combination therefore interprets everything in terms of of biological, social and geographic criteria rather humans and their values. than by geopolitical considerations; generally, a system of related inter-connected ecosystems. Areas of High Conservation Value Areas important at a regional or national level for the Built environment A reference to building, conservation of native fauna, flora, natural fea- dwellings, structures, utilities, roads and services tures or systems or sites of cultural significance. which enable people to live, work and play, circulate and communicate and fulfil a wide Baseline study Assessment of the present sit- range of functions. The built environment of a uation in order to measure changes in that place reveals its historical and spatial develop- environment over time. ment, its past and present, and something of its social structure and conflicts. Best practice Involves seeking excellence, keeping in touch with innovations, avoiding waste Carrying capacity The level of visitor use an and focusing on outcomes which are in the area can accommodate with high levels of community interest. It involves managing change satisfaction for visitors and few impacts on and continual improvement and in this way it resources. Carrying capacity estimates are deter- encompasses all levels of an organization. mined by many factors, environmental, social and managerial. Biocentric Focuses on living things (different species and genetic variability) as the central Code of conduct Guidelines for appropriate point to the development of value systems as social, cultural and environmentally responsible APPENDIX I: SELECT GLOSSARY 139 behaviour. Codes of conduct are in no way Decentralization A conscious policy of locat- binding on the industry or the individual. ing or relocating some parts or the whole of an organization in outlying regions away from Commodification The production of commod- metropolitan areas with concomitant develop- ities for exchange via the market as opposed to ments of infrastructure coupled with extensions direct use by the producer. One form of commo- of existing residential areas or the establishment dified leisure today can be seen in specific forms of new towns. The policy may aim at the of tourism, where travel to far distant and strengthening of specified regional adminis- different places is marketed as ‘paradise gained’. trative centres. Tourism becomes a ‘freely chosen’ leisure activity to be consumed. Deep ecology The belief that the earth’s resources should be sustained and protected not Community see Local community just for human beings but also for other species. People who believe in this philosophy tend to Community based tourism (CBT) CBT is gen- have a life-centred approach rather then a erally considered a privately offered set of human-centred approach to managing and sus- hospitality services (and features), extended to taining the earth’s resources by working with visitors, by individuals, families, or a local nature, not wasting resources unnecessarily and community. A key objective of CBT is to establish interfering with nonhuman species to meet the direct personal/cultural exchange between host needs of humans. and guest in a balanced manner that enables a Demarketing mutual understanding, solidarity and equality The term is used to emphasize for those involved. that marketing may be used to decrease as well as increase the number of satisfied customers. It Conservation The protection, maintenance, is used to decrease numbers so that an increase management, sustainable use, restoration and in clientele satisfaction can be increased, through enhancement of the natural environment preserving a higher quality experience. (ANZECC Task Force on Biological Diversity, Development The modification of the bio- 1993). The management of human use of the sphere and the application of human, financial, biosphere so that it may yield the greatest living and non-living resources to satisfy human sustainable benefit to present generations while needs and improve the quality of human life maintaining its potential to meet the needs and (World Conservation Strategy). The application aspirations of future generations (National Con- of human, financial and physical resources to servation Strategy for Australia). satisfy human needs and improve the quality of life: inevitably development involves modifica- Conservationists People who believe that tion of the biosphere and some aspects of resources should be used, managed, and pro- development may detract from the quality of life tected so that they will not be degraded and locally, regionally, nationally or globally. unnecessarily wasted and will be available to present and future generations. Ecocentrism Focuses on the environment as the central point to the development of values Constant attractions Attributes that are wide- systems as opposed to anthropocentricism which spread or have an intangible quality about them focuses on the human and the instrumental (eg. good weather, safety etc.). value of nature. See also Biocentric.

Creative thinking The act of redefining an Ecologically sustainable development Using, issue by looking at it from a new perspective. conserving and enhancing the community’s 140 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES resources so that ecological processes, on which Environmental economics A recognized field life depends, are maintained and the total quality of specialization in economic science. Environ- of life, now and in the future, can be increased mental economics examines the costs and bene- (Ecologically Sustainable Development Working fits of pollution control, and protection of the Groups, 1991). environment.

Ecologically sustainable tourism An activity Environmental education A concept ranging that fosters environmental and cultural under- from media coverage of environmental issues to standing, appreciation and conservation. formal environmental education, its aims ranging from raising awareness to formal training. Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal, fungal and micro-organism communities Environmental impact assessment (EIA) A and the associated non-living environment inter- method of analysis which attempts to predict the acting as an ecological unit. likely repercussions of a proposed major development upon the social and physical environ- Ecotourism There is no general definition cur- ment of the surrounding area. rently in circulation but any conception of it must involve travel to relatively undisturbed or Environmentalists People who are primarily uncontaminated natural areas with the objective concerned with preventing pollution and degra- of studying, admiring and enjoying the natural dation of the air, water, and soil. See environment of that area. An important point is Conservationists. that the person who practises ecotourism has the opportunity of immersing him or herself in Ethics What we believe to be right or wrong nature in a way that most people cannot enjoy in behaviour. their routine, urban existences. As there is no strict consensus on a specific definition of eco- Ethics of ‘nature’ Holds that non-human enti- tourism it had been suggested it also is responsi- ties are of equal value with the human species. It ble travel that conserves natural environments is broadly intrinsic and ecocentric. and sustains the well-being of local people. Ethic of ‘use’ This is the normative or domi- Endangered species Fauna and flora likely to nant mode of how human beings relate to become extinct due to direct exploitation by nature: where nature is viewed predominantly as humans, intrusion into highly specialized hab- a set of resources which humanity is free to itats, threats from other species, interruption of employ for its own distinct ends. It is an the food chain, pollution or a combination of instrumental and anthropocentric view. such factors. Infrastructure The buildings or permanent Endemic tourism Broadly defined as tourism installations associated with a site. Infrastructure which recognizes: (a) that each individual local- for ecotourism is often developed in protected ity or community has its special character; and areas and usually involves a scaled down or (b) that particular character or identity may well minimal approach to physical development and constitute its major attractiveness to tourists. change. Infrastructure such as boardwalks and viewing platforms can be used by resource Environment All aspects of the surroundings managers to provide for visitor access to ecotour- of human beings as individuals or in social ism destinations, while at the same time assisting groups (Commonwealth Environmental Protec- the management of environmental impacts and tion (OP) Amendment No. 12, 1967). the physical protection of natural resources. APPENDIX I: SELECT GLOSSARY 141

Institutional planning Planning by institu- Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) Is a tional agencies and public bodies not central to model used to help establish the maximum the planning process, yet having significant ‘damage’ level for a resource that society is implications for environmental planning. One of prepared to accept as custodian of resources for the functions of the central planning agency is to both present and future generations and to accommodate and coordinate proposals to ena- define the maximum level of use consistent with ble the objectives of other agencies to be recon- that damage level (RAC Coastal Zone Inquiry ciled with overall planning objectives. Information Paper No. 8, 1993).

Integrated planning Planning process which Local community The concept of local commu- takes into account the social and cultural prior- nity concerns a particularly constituted set of ities of host communities to shape tourism into a social relationships based on something which form appropriate for each locality. the individuals have in common – usually a common sense of identity (cf. Marshall, 1994: Intergenerational equity Refers to a concept 73–76). that the present generation should ensure that the health, diversity and productivity of the Management plan The process of the coor- environment is maintained or enhanced for the dination and preparation of a document and the benefit of future generations. realization of a set of goals, within a protected area or local community or organization, that Internalization of environmental costs Intern- leads to some common directions. alization of environmental costs involves the creation of economic environments so that social Market demand How much of an economic and private views of economic efficiency coin- good consumers are willing to buy at a particular cide. It is concerned with structures, reporting price. mechanisms and tools to achieve this end. Market supply How much of an economic Interpretation An educational activity which good consumers are willing and able to produce aims to reveal meanings and relationships and sell at a particular price in a given period. through the use of original objects, first hand experience and illustrative media, rather than Mass tourism Mass tourism is generally seen simply by communicating factual information. as being an overarching term for tourism that is Intragenerational equity Intragenerational undertaken by the majority of travellers. This equity concerns equity within a single generation. thesis, in exploring the specificity of a particular It concerns equity issues within nations and tourist experience in depth, may contribute between nations. Inequity within a generation towards an understanding of not only the may involve failure to meet what might be widely significant divergences and convergences that regarded as basic environmental or social needs, exist between both mass tourism and alter- or gross disparities between the environmental or native tourism, but also the subtle nuances that social quality of life of individuals or groups. subtend these tourist experiences. Therefore, it is not simply a matter of differentiating, in a Intrinsic value Is value that exists in its own binary fashion, between a general category of right, for its own sake. mass tourism and the derivation of niche elements within it. Semiotically, in its structural Land use zoning Land use zoning divides sense, the appellation of ‘alternative’ logically sections of land into areas based on their implies an antithesis. It arises as the contrary to sensitivity and conservation values. that which is seen as negative or detrimental 142 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES about conventional tourism, so it is always a and which influence their behaviour and semantic inversion, which is found at all levels development. of discourse. In the domain of logic, an alternative is based on a dialectical paradigm that Precautionary principle Where there are offers only two possibilities. Two contempora- threats of serious or irreversible environmental neous terms are placed in mutual exclusion, damage, lack of full scientific certainty should with an ‘excluded middle’, that leaves a conclu- not be used as a reason for postponing measures sion that is either one or the other. Therefore to prevent environmental degradation. In the the terminology of alternative and mass tour- application of the precautionary principle deci- ism are mutually interdependent, each relying sions should be guided by careful evaluation to on a series of value-laden judgements that avoid serious or irreversible damage to the themselves structure the definitional content of environment and an assessment of the risk- the terms. weighted consequences of various options.

Micro-social Macro- and micro-social are used Protected areas Defined in Article 2 of the in the context of sociology. The former generally International Convention on Biological Diversity examines the wider structures, interdependent as a geographically defined area which is des- social institutions, global and historical processes ignated or regulated and managed to achieve of social life, while the latter is more concerned specific conservation. Protected area system with action, interaction and the construction of characteristics are: adequacy – the ability of the meaning. It is important, however, not to gen- reserve to maintain the ecological viability and eralize too greatly as the relationship between integrity of populations, species and commu- social system and social actor is not always nities; comprehensiveness – the degree to which clearly distinguished (cf. Marshall, 1994: 298). the full range of ecological communities and their biological diversity are incorporated within Motivations The factors that determine a reserves; representativeness – the extent to which human’s reasons for doing something, in the areas selected for inclusion in the national context of travel the reasons for someone to reserve system are capable of reflecting the travel to a destination. known biological diversity and ecological patterns and processes of the ecological community Multiple use Principle of managing public or ecosystem concerned. land such as a national forest so it is used for a variety of purposes, such as timbering, mining, Recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) The recreation, grazing, wildlife preservation, and basic assumption of ROS is that a quality soil and water conservation. recreational experience is assured by providing a diverse range of recreational opportunities, cater- Natural Existing in, or formed by nature; non- ing for various tastes and user group preferences. urban; also incorporates cultural aspects. The ROS focuses on the setting in which recreation occurs. A recreation opportunity setting is Performance standards Standards employed the combination of physical, biological, social and in environmental planning which specify desired managerial conditions that give value to a place. results and do not in themselves specify the ROS has been described as a framework for methods by which performance criteria should presenting carrying capacities and managing be met. recreational impacts. The ROS provides a systematic framework for looking at the actual distribu- Philosophy The system of principles concern- tion of opportunities and a procedure for assessing all the conditions in which humans live ing possible management actions. APPENDIX I: SELECT GLOSSARY 143

Social impact assessment (SIA) An assess- meet their own needs’. Environmental protection ment of the impact on people and society of and management is central to sustainable major development projects: social impact development. assessment is often a weak point in environmental impact assessments. Social impacts are Sustainable yield The use of living resources defined as those changes in social relations at levels of harvesting and in ways that allow between members of a community, society or those resources to supply products and services institution, resulting from external change. indefinitely.

Stewardship An approach to the care of nature SWOT analysis SWOT is an assessment of the through its dominance by humans relying on project/organization strengths and weaknesses predominantly economic value systems and the and an analysis of the opportunities and threats pre-eminence of technology (backed up by enor- that exist in the marketplace. mous advances in scientific understanding). Technocentrism A belief system that supports Strategic planning A dynamic and issue-ori- the idea that the creation of new products and entated process to help the individual/organiza- processes will be able to improve our chances of tion take control of significant and desirable survival, comfort and quality of life before the potential futures. Strategic planning is the proc- depletion or destruction of renewable resources. ess of deciding what the future of the operation should be, and what strategies should be fol- Tourism industry The collection of all collabo- lowed in order to make that future happen. rating firms and organizations which perform specific activities directed at satisfying leisure, Sustainability This is advanced through the pleasure and recreational needs (Stear et al., magical transmutation of the term ‘ecological 1988: 1). sustainable development’ into ‘economically sustainable development’ through the substitution Tourism optimization management model of the letter E in the acronym ‘ESD’. It is an (TOMM) This model builds on the LAC sys- indication of the latitude with which the concept tem to incorporate a stronger political dimension of sustainability can be interpreted. Thus the and seeks to monitor and manage tourism in a concept of sustainability is both contested and way that seeks optimum sustainable perform- deployed, often for profoundly different reasons. ance, rather than maximum levels or carrying capacities. TOMM involves identifying strategic Sustainable Able to be carried out without imperatives (such as policies and emerging damaging the long-term health and integrity of issues), identifying community values, product natural and cultural environments. characteristics, growth patterns, market trends and opportunities, positioning and branding, Sustainable design Environmentally and cul- and alternative scenarios for tourism in a region, turally sensitive building design, where con- while seeking optimum conditions, indicators, struction methods and materials have minimal acceptable ranges, monitoring techniques, impact on the environment. benchmarks, annual performance and predicted performance having done this it can examine Sustainable development Defined by the poor performance, and explore cause/effect World Commission on Environment and Devel- relationships. opment (WCED) in 1987 as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without com- Tourists All visitors travelling for whatever promising the ability of future generations to purpose involving at least an overnight stay 144 ECOTOURISM: IMPACTS, POTENTIALS AND POSSIBILITIES

40 km from their usual place of residence (World tor impacts within acceptable levels while inte- Tourism Organization). grating visitor impact management into existing agency planning, design and management pro- User pays The principle that management and cesses. It attempts to do this based on the best maintenance costs for individual parts should be scientific understanding and situational infor- borne (either partially or fully) by those using mation available. While both LAC and VIM them. frameworks rely on indicators and standards as a means of defining impacts deemed unaccept- Utilitarian A focus on the usefulness of nature able and place carrying capacities into a in terms of human values rather than a focus on broader managerial context. VIM however, beauty or spirituality – practicality of nature’s makes reference to planning and policy and use by humans for material gain. includes identifying the probable causes of impacts, whereas LAC places more emphasis Visitor activity management process on defining opportunity classes. (VAMP) The visitor activity management process relates to interpretation and visitor services. Wilderness Land that, together with its plant This framework involves the development of and animal communities, is in a state that has not activity profiles which connect activities with the been substantially modified by and is remote social and demographic characteristics of the from the influences of European settlement or is participants, the activity setting requirements capable of being restored to such a state, and is of and trends affecting the activity. The VAMP sufficient size to make its maintenance in such a framework is designed to operate in parallel state feasible. A wilderness area is a large, with the natural resource management process. substantially unmodified natural area (or capable of being restored to such a state). Such areas are Visitor impact management (VIM) The visi- managed to protect or enhance this relatively tor impact management process involves a natural state, and also to provide opportunities combination of legislation/policy review, scien- for self-reliant recreation in a relatively unmodi- tific problem identification (both social and fied natural environment. natural) and analysis and professional. The principles of VIM are to identify unacceptable Zone of Opportunity A geographic area that changes occurring as a result of visitor use and ideally encompasses an endemic core resource, developing management strategies to keep visi- as well as particular resources/attractions. Bibliography

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Accreditation, 29, 32 Blangy and Nielsen, 30 Africa, 53 Boden and Breckwoldt, 102 Agri-tourism, 13 Boele, 111 Allcock, 32 Boo, 38, 83, 87, 88, 89, 92, 113, 114, 120, 121 Almond, 63 Boorstin, 126, 129 Alternative tourism (AT), 1, 2, 134 Bowermater, 88, 89 American Birds, 4 Bowman, 84 American Society of Travel Agents, 30 Bragg, 18 Anapurna, Nepal, 19 Britten and Clarke, 89 Antarctica, 15 Bruntland Report, The, 7, 16 Anthropocentrism, 11, 12, 13, 16, 18, 40, 43, 99, 100, Buckley and Pannell, 37, 53, 54 101, 121 Bunting, 52, 56, 79 Ashworth and Goodall, 106 Burchett, 77, 78 Australian Associated Press (AAP), 101 Busch, 61 Australian Nature Conservation Agency (ANCA), Butler, J.R., 7, 46, 47 102 Butler, R.W., 1, 72, 115 Australian Tourism Industry Association (ATIA), 115 Australian Tourism Operators Network, 33 Calkin, 25 Cameron-Smith, 55, 57, 64, 65, 66 Ballantine and Eagles, 121 Canadian International Development Agency Barlow, 135 (CIDA), 88, 91 Bates, 78, 80, 120 Cape York Peninsula, 27 Beaumont, 59 Carrying capacity, 8, 22, 37, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 56, 68, Beckmann, 55, 63, 64, 65 108, 112, 113, 115, 127 Bello and Etzel, 122 Carson, 13 Bhutan, 25 Carter and Moore, 108 Bilsen, 3 Carter, R.W., 59, 65 Biodiversity, 6, 12, 13, 39, 40, 46, 94, 95, 136 Cathedral argument, 12, 40 Birch, 14 Ceballos-Lascurain, 4, 7, 27, 28, 34, 46, 52, 74 Birdwatching, 5 Charters, 99 Birtles, 124 Chiapas, Mexico, 4 Birtles and Sofield, 28, 32 Choegyal, 46, 55 Blamey, 120 Church, 21 Blangy and Epler-Wood, 8, 82, 83 Clark and Banford, 79, 81 160 INDEX

Clark and Stankey, 49 Ecotourism plan, 26, 27 Cockrell, 65 Ecoturisimo, 4 Codes of practice, 28, 29, 31, 35, 109 Ecumenical Coalition of Third World Tourism Cohen, E., 1, 125 (ECTWT), 2 Cohen, J. and Richardson, 36 Edward, 19 Collins, 108, 119 Edwards and Prineas, 35 Colong Foundation, 98 Eidsvik, 43 Colvin, 128 Encel and Encel, 83 Commons argument, 17, 19 Endangered species, 39 Communalist, 19 English, 21 Community based tourism (CBT), 2 Environmental best practice, 33, 35 Compliance, 29, 31 ESDSC (Ecologically Sustainable Development Coppock and Rogers, 43 Steering Committee), 35 Cornelius, 39 Evans-Smith, 25, 26, 27 Costa Rica, 8, 10, 39, 44, 82, 86, 106, 113 Extinction, 22 Courtenay, 69 Cox, 3 Craik, 112 Figgis, 94 Crompton, 122, 123, 124, 125 Forestell, 55, 58, 62, 68 Crompton and Howard, 117 Forestry Tasmania, 33 Cruz, 87 Fox, 12, 13 Cultural tourism, 13

Gabor, 24 Dann, 122, 124 GAIA, 14 Department of Tourism, Sport and Recreation, 30, 33 Galapagos Islands, 22 Dernoi, 2 Gertsakis, 30 Developing countries, 7, 19, 21, 22, 46, 56, 77, 79, 88, Gilbert, 33 128, 130, 133 Greenpeace, 108 Dowling, 24, 30, 37 Global warming, 13, 39, 130 Driver, 49 Godfrey–Smith, 11, 12 Duff, 30, 120 Goldfarb, 21 Dunster and Dunster, 18, 45 Gonsalves, 3 Durst and Ingram, 4, 113 Government, 11, 18, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 40, 45, 88, 97, 98, 108, 114, 132, 133 Graefe, 51 Easter Island, 81 Graham, 47, 51 Eagles, 8, 119, 120, 123 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, 33, 98 Eckermann and Dowd, 135 Green Globe, 31, 32 Eckersley, 16 Greenies, 16 Ecocentrism, 11, 12, 13, 19, 40, 45, 95, 111, 131 Griffin and Boele, 118 Ecology, 23, 57, 93 Gunn, 27 deep, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19 Gymnasium argument, 12, 16, 40 human welfare, 16 transpersonal, 16 Economic rationalism, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 19, 45, 72, 96 Hackett, 30 Econsult, 67 Hall and McArthur, 25, 55, 68 Ecotourism Accreditation Committee, 33 Hall, C.M., 25, 27, 30, 59 Ecotourism Association of Australia (EAA), 30, 33, Hall, M., 37 77, 99 Hall, S., 76 code of practice, 30 Ham, 58, 62, 64 INDEX 161

Hardin, 17, 18 Kusler, 78, 81 Harrison, 90 Kutay, 8, 83, 89 Hawkins, 31 Haywood, 131 Healy, 78 Laboratory argument, 12, 16, 40 Henion, 108, 113 Lasaux, France, 11 Henion and Kinnear, 108, 115 Lea, 72 Hill, 67, 133 Leakages, 21, 23, 44, 46, 84, 120, 128 Himalayan Environmental Trust, 30 Leopold, 14, 15 Himalayas, 18, 19, 55, 127 Lewis, 62, 64, 65 Holden, 2 Lillywhite, 134 Hore-Lacy, 16 Lillywhite and Lillywhite, 5 6, 107 Hultman, 62 Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC), 34, 47, 49, 50, Hvenegaard, 24 51, 52 Lindberg, 5, 21, 83 Locke, 10 Industry Quality Continuum, 28, 29 Lovelock, 14, 15 Ingram and Durst, 113 Low Impact Tourism (LIT), 5, 6, 134 Inskeep, 23, 26 Lucas, 46, 53, 54 Instrumental value, 11 Lucas and Stankey, 50 Intergenerational equity, 16 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), 6, 40, 42, 43, 96, 100, Maasai Maara, 27 135 MacCannell, 76, 125, 126 Interpretation, 8, 51, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, Machlis and Field, 58 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 108, 119, 134 Machlis and Tichnell, 44, 95 Interpretation Australia Association, 58, 67 Mackay, 19 Intrinsic value, 11 MacKinnon, 44, 134 Iso-Ahola, 123 Mader, 5 Ittelson, 128 Maguire, 79, 131 Manidis Roberts, 28, 29, 30, 35, 52 Marketing, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 115 Jarviluoma, 115 Marriott, 56 Jefferson and Lickorish, 105 Marsh, 88 Jenkins and McArthur, 69 Mason, 31, 76 Jenner and Smith, 73 Masson, 113 Johnson, B., 81, 82, 83 Mathews, 12, 14, 15 Jones, 4 Mathieson and Wall, 21 Joy and Motzney, 79 Mayo and Jarvis, 123 Judeao-Christian tradition, 12 McArthur, 33, 34, 50, 52, 59, 67 McCool, 50 McCurdy, 57, 65 Kakadu, 98 McGehee, 123 Kangaroo Island, 34, 94 McIntyre, G., 37 Kenchington, 55, 62, 64 McIntyre, N., 60 Kenya, 27 McKercher, 22, 27 Kerr, 111, 112, 119 McNeely and Thorsell, 8, 46, 53, 54, 83 Kingfisher Bay Resort and Village, 30 Meganck, 60 Kotler and Andreasen, 108, 115 Mercer, 112 Kotler and Armstrong, 112 Merschen, 112, 113, 115 Krippendorf, 4 Messer and Mosley, 12 162 INDEX

Mexico Journal, 4 Pigram, 115 Middleton, 104, 105, 109 Pinchot, 17 Mieczkowski, 2, 3, 6, 24, 72 Pittock, 100 Mitman Clarke, 41 Point Nepean National Park, 37 Mount Everest, 19 Pollution, 12, 17, 21, 23, 108, 130 Mountain Protection Commission, 19 Preservationist, 18, 19, 39, 40, 46, 95 Multiplier effect, 21 PRONATURA, 4 Munn, 44 Prosser, G., 34, 49, 50 Murphy, 24 Prosser, R., 126, 127 Murray-Darling Basin, 27 Public Land Users Alliance, 102 Mutual coercion, 17, 18 Pyo, 122 Pythagoras, 12

Naess, 14 Nash, 12, 43, 44 Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service, 58 National Development Plan, 26 National Ecotourism Accreditation Program, 33, 67 National Ecotourism Strategy, 26, 27 Rachoweicki, 88 National Park Service, 64, 65, 84, 106 Rainforests, 39 National Strategies for Ecologically Sustainable Regulation, 5, 18, 19, 20, 25, 27, 28, 35, 41, 44, 57, 114 Development, 25 Richardson, 7, 22, 108, 114 Nature-based tourism, 4, 5 Robinson, 134 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Roggenbuck, 56, 66 Service (NPWS), 98, 100, 102 Rovinski, 89 New Zealand, 30, 59, 107 Runte, 43 Sub-Antarctic Islands, 30 Rwanda, 36 New Zealand Tourism Industry Federation (NZTIF), 30 Sachs, 25 code of practice, 30 Saglio, 3 Non-Government Organisation (NGO), 28, 80, 88, Santa Elena Rainforest Reserve (SERR), 86, 90 134 Schwartz and Jacobs, 134 Ngorongoro Crater, 27 SEDUE (Mexican Ministry of Urban Development Norris, 37 and Ecology), 4 Nyungwe Forest Reserve, 37 Self regulation, 22, 28, 31, 33 Serengeti, 27, 53 O’Neill, 7, 46 Shackley, 37 Sharpe, 63, 64, 66 Sheppard, 40, 44 Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA), 30, 33, 35, 36, Shiva, 11 68, 115 Shurcliff and Williams, 33 code of practice, 30 Silo argument, 12, 16 Palacio and McCool, 116 Simmons and Harris, 37 Parc National d’Akagera, 37 Sirakaya and Uysal, 32 Parc National des Volcans, 36 Small, 121, 122 Payne and Graham, 50, 51 Social infrastructure, 75 Pearce, 120, 123, 126 Social marketing, 108 Pearce, Moscardo and Ross, 77 Sofield, 76, 82 Peng, 11 Soft technologist, 17 Pepper, 11, 13, 19 Solorzano, 87 Peterson, 18 Solow, 11 Philippines, 24 Spinoza, 14 INDEX 163

Stankey, 35, 48, 49, 50, 51 Valentine, 5, 6, 52, 106, 120 Stankey and McCool, 49 Vanuatu, 82 Stanton, 105 Vellas and Becherel, 128 Stear, 104, 105 Visitor Impact Management Model (VIMM), 34 Steele, 23 Stewardship (of nature), 15, 16, 17, 40 Stretton, 42, 45, 130 Wallace, 8, 77 Strom, 40, 43 Watson, 49 Sustainability, 3, 5, 6, 7, 16, 17, 22, 23, 25, 27, 36, 46, Wearing and Gardiner, 55, 56, 65, 66 47, 52, 62, 73, 108, 110, 118, 126, 130, 135 Weiler and Hall, 78, 79 Sustainable development (definition), 18 Weiler and Johnson, 30 Sutherland, 108 Wells, 25 Swanson, 7, 56, 132 Wells and Brandon, 95 Szabo, 97 Wescott, 37 West and Brechin, 89, 133 Western and Wright, 133 Tanzania, 27, 44, 53 Wheeller, 115 Tasmanian Professional Trout Fishing Guides Whelan, 87, 88 Association, 30 White, 11, 13, 84 Taylor, 51 Wight, 108, 109, 110, 111, 120, 121, 124 Technocentrism, 13, 16, 17 Wild, 23, 27 Teo, 81 Wilderness, 1, 3, 12, 43, 46, 49, 53, 54, 56, 57, 94, 111, Thackway, 94, 95 119, 126, 128 The Ecotourism Society, 7, 30, 110 Williams, 46, 121, 131 Tilden, F., 65 World Bank, 22, 133 Tilden, J., 58 World Commission on Environment and Todd, 52, 53, 127 Development, 6, 19 Tolhurst, 24 World Resources Institute, 16 Tonga, 24 World Tourism Organization (WTO), 6, 60, 133 Tonge and Myott, 117 World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), 31, 88 Tourism Council Australia (TCA), 30 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 6, 23, 80, 81, Code of Sustainable Practice, 30 108 Tourism Optimisation Management Model (TOMM), 34, 35, 48, 52, 187 Tourism Plan, 26 Young, 14, 15 Tourism Stream, 9 Yum, 3 Travis, 3 Tubb, 70 Turner, 43 Zoning, 37 This Page Intentionally Left Blank