and parnwell hitchcock, king Tourism is one of the major forces for economic, social and cultural change in the Southeast Asian region and, as a complex multidimensional phenomenon, has attracted increasing scholarly attention during the past TOURISM two decades from researchers from a broad range of disciplines – not least anthropology, sociology, economics, political science, history, development IN SOUTHEAST ASIA studies and business/management. It has also commanded the attention of challenges and new directions policy-makers, planners and development practitioners. However, what has been lacking for many years is a volume that analyses tourism from the major disciplinary perspectives, considers major substantive themes of particular significance in the region (cultural IN TOURISM tourism, ecotourism, romance/sex tourism, etc.), and pays attention to such important conceptual issues as the interaction between local and global, the role of the state in identity formation, authenticity, the creation of ‘tradition’, and sustainability. Such a thorough analysis is offered by Tourism in Southeast Asia, which provides an up-to-date exploration of the state of tourism development and associated issues in one of the world’s most dynamic tourism destinations. The volume takes a close look at many of the challenges facing Southeast Asian tourism at a critical stage of transition and transformation, and following a recent series of crises and disasters. Building on and advancing the path-breaking Tourism in South-East ASIA SOUTHEAST Asia, produced by the same editors in 1993, it adopts a multidisciplinary approach and includes contributions from some of the leading researchers on tourism in Southeast Asia, presenting a number of fresh perspectives. The volume combines introductory material with an in-depth examination of anthropological writing on Southeast Asian tourism followed by case studies dealing with issues as diverse as globalization, terrorism, ‘romance tourism’, and ecotourism. The subjects addressed in this volume are not solely Southeast Asian phenomena and are moreover caught up in the ongoing debates about the political, cultural and environmental ramifications associated with globalization. As such, this study is a crucial text for anyone working on Southeast Asian tourism but it will be of great interest to many scholars in fields beyond this area. edited by www.niaspress.dk michael hitchcock, victor t. king and michael parnwell TiSEA-NIAS-pbk_cover.indd 1 3/11/08 17:01:07 Tourism in Southeast Asia Hitchcock book.indd 1 18/8/08 14:10:42 Hitchcock book.indd 2 18/8/08 14:10:42 Tourism in Southeast Asia Challenges and New Directions Edited by Michael Hitchcock, Victor T. King and Michael Parnwell Hitchcock book.indd 3 18/8/08 14:10:42 Tourism in Southeast Asia: Challenges and New Directions Edited by Michael Hitchcock, Victor T. King and Michael Parnwell First published in 2008 by NIAS Press NIAS – Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Leifsgade 33, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark tel (+45) 3532 9501 • fax (+45) 3532 9549 email: [email protected] • website: www.niaspress.dk Simultaneously published in the United States by the University of Hawai‘i Press © NIAS – Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 2008 While copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, copyright in the individual chapters belongs to their authors. No chapter may be reproduced in whole or in part without the express permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Tourism in Southeast Asia : challenges and new directions 1. Tourism – Southeast Asia I. Hitchcock, Michael II. King, Victor T. III. Parnwell, Mike 338.4’79159 ISBN 978-87-7694-033-1 (Hbk) ISBN 978-87-7694-034-8 (Pbk) Typesetting by Donald B. Wagner Produced by SRM Production Services Sdn Bhd and printed in Malaysia Hitchcock book.indd 4 18/8/08 14:10:42 Contents Tables vi Figures vii Contributors viii 1. Introduction: Tourism in Southeast Asia Revisited Michael Hitchcock, Victor King and Michael Parnwell 1 2. Anthropology and Tourism in Southeast Asia: Comparative Studies, Cultural Differentiation and Agency Victor King 43 3. Indonesian Souvenirs as Micro-Monuments to Globalization and Modernity: Hybridization, Deterritorialization and Commodification Kathleen Adams 69 4. Terrorism and Tourism in Bali and Southeast Asia I Nyoman Darma Putra and Michael Hitchcock 83 5. From Kebalian to Ajeg Bali: Tourism and Balinese Identity in the Aftermath of the Kuta Bombing Michel Picard 99 6. Tourism Policy-Making in Southeast Asia: A Twenty-First Century Perspective Linda Richter 132 7. The Development of Private Tourism Business Activity in the Transitional Vietnamese Economy Jonathan Bennett 146 8. Tourism in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic David Harrison and Steven Schipani 165 9. Southeast Asian Tourism from a Japanese Perspective Shinji Yamashita 189 10. Cultural and Gender Politics in China–Vietnam Border Tourism Yuk Wah Chan 206 11. Romance and Sex Tourism Heidi Dahles 222 12. A Political Ecology of Sustainable Tourism in Southeast Asia Michael Parnwell 236 13. New Directions in Indonesian Ecotourism Janet Cochrane 254 Hitchcock book.indd 5 18/8/08 14:10:42 Tourism in Southeast Asia 14. Dragon Tourism Revisited: The Sustainability of Tourism Development in Komodo National Park Henning Borchers 270 15. Is the Beach Party Over? Tourism and the Environment in Small Islands: A Case Study of Gili Trawangan, Lombok, Indonesia Mark Hampton and Joanna Hampton 286 16. Current Issues in Southeast Asian Tourism Michael Hitchcock, Victor King and Michael Parnwell 309 Bibliography 314 Index 351 Tables 4.1. Countries of Origin of the Victims of the 2002 Bali Bombings 87 4.2. Countries of Origin of the Killed Victims of the 2005 Bali Bombings 94 4.3. Countries of Origin of the Injured Victims of the 2005 Bali Bombings 95 8.1. International Tourism in Lao PDR 169 8.2 Concentration of Tourism in Lao PDR, 2005: Selected Indices 171 8.3. A Summary of the Financial Benefits from Select New Tours Developed by the Mekong Tourism Development Project (March 2005–February 2006) 181 8.4. A Summary of Financial Benefits at Tourist Destinations Supported by the Mekong Tourism Development Project (March 2005–February 2006) 182 8.5. Tourist Arrivals in the Lower Mekong Region: Selected Years 184 10.1. Numbers of Chinese and Vietnamese Tourists in Lao Cai Province (1994–2002) 208 13.1. Tourism Arrivals to Indonesia 1969–2004 258 vi Hitchcock book.indd 6 18/8/08 14:10:43 Figures 3.1. Toraja effigies of the ead (tau-tau) 73 3.2. Doll-sized tourist carvings of Toraja ‘village types’ 74 3.3. Bugis-made lacquered plate with rice husk picture of Toraja tongkonan (ancestral house) 78 3.4. Bugis-made pins depicting Toraja effigies of the dead (in the style of Peruvian ‘worry dolls’) 80 8.1. Map of Lao PDR 166 8.2. Lao National Tourism Administration – ADB Mekong Tourism Develop- ment Project (MTDP) 174 8.3. Organizational structure of the Lao National Tourism Administration 176 12.1. Schema 1 – Schematic representation of the relative balance of influence in orthodox tourism 241 12.2. Schema 2 – Schematic representation of the relative balance of influence in alternative tourism 243 14.1. Komodo National Park 273 15.1. Map of Southeast Asia, showing the islands of Lombok and Gili Trawangan 291 15.2. Map showing the location of the coral reef study on Gili Trawangan 298 15.3. Diagram to show location of the survey plots 300 Hitchcock book.indd 7 18/8/08 14:10:43 Contributors Kathleen Adams, PhD, is Professor of Anthropology in the Department of Anthro­­pology at Loyola University, Chicago. Her research interests include inter-ethnic relations, nationalism, and conceptions of heritage, tourism and the arts. She has published extensively on issues of cultural tourism and heritage among the Toraja of Indonesia. She has also conducted research in Alor, Indonesia and San Juan Capistrano, Southern California. Jonathan Bennett, PhD, completed his doctoral studies on tourism business develop- ment in Vietnam at the Centre for South-East Asian Studies, University of Hull. A fluent Vietnamese speaker, he spent a period with the British Council in Istanbul, and is presently teaching English in Hanoi. Henning Borchers, MA, undertook research on Komodo National Park as part of his MA in Development Studies at the University of Auckland, New Zealand, and continued following up on developments in the park for some years thereafter. His research interests range from tourism and resource management to human rights and conflict. He currently works with Peace Brigades International in Indonesia. Janet Cochrane, PhD, is Senior Research Fellow in the Tourism, Hospitality and Events School at Leeds Metropolitan University. She has extensive research experi- ence in nature-based tourism in developing countries in Asia and Africa. She has worked as a consultant for WWF, UNEP, The Nature Conservancy, and Conser vation International. She has published widely in the field of ecotourism in Indonesia. Heidi Dahles, PhD, is Professor of Organizational Anthropology in the Department of Culture, Organization and Management at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Her research interests include the anthropology of tourism and small-scale entre preneur­­ ship in Indonesia, as well as transnational business organization, particularly among the Southeast Asian Chinese. She has published widely in these fields and especially on tour guides, entrepreneurship and gender relations in Java and Bali. Mark Hampton, PhD, is Senior Lecturer in Tourism Management at Kent Busi ness School, University of Kent. His research interests are within the broad field of tour- ism and economic development in less developed countries, and specifically island and backpacker tourism. He has also undertaken research on the development of island states, coastal areas and small states, as well as the political economy of offshore financial centres and tax havens. He is widely known for his published work on backpacker and island tourism and on global finance and tax havens.