The Worship of Bh½ma
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The worship of Bhima Duijker, M. Citation Duijker, M. (2010, April 15). The worship of Bhima. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/15227 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) Licence agreement concerning inclusion of License: doctoral thesis in the Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/15227 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). THE WORSHIP OF BH½MA In memory of my father and ‘guru’ Bert Duijker 2 THE WORSHIP OF BH½MA The representations of Bh»ma on Java during the Majapahit Period PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof.mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op donderdag 15 april 2010 klokke 15.00 uur door Marijke Duijker geboren te Amsterdam in 1944 Volume I: Text EON Pers Amstelveen 2010 3 Promotiecommissie Promotores: Prof. Dr. A.J.J. Mekking Dr. H.I.R. Hinzler Leden: Prof. Dr. W.R. van Gulik Prof. Dr. J. van Alphen (Universiteit Antwerpen / Bozar Brussel) Dr. E.M. Raven Prof. Dr. B.F.H. Arps Prof. Dr. P.J.M. Nas Dr. P. ter Keurs (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden Leiden) Cover illustration: Detail, Cat. no. 30 The publication of this book has been supported by a grant from the Leiden University Institute for Cultural Disciplines © 2010, Marijke Duijker, Boijl ISBN 978 90 77246 39 9 All rights reserved / alle rechten voorbehouden Vormgeving: Hans Seijlhouwer, Amstelveen Drukwerk: Ridderprint, Ridderkerk 4 Contents Volume I: Text Foreword 11 Introduction 13 Previous research on Bh»ma 15 The aim of the study 19 Methodology 20 Terminology 22 Spelling 23 Previous iconographical research on stone statues from the Classical Period of Indonesia 23 Part 1 The iconography of Bh»ma 1.1 The iconography of stone representations of Bh»ma and the worship of Bh»ma outside Java 29 1.1.1 Representations in Cambodia 29 1.1.2 Representations and worship in India 30 1.1.3 Representations and worship in Nepal 33 1.1.4 Conclusion 35 1.2 The iconography of stone representations of Bh»ma on Java during the Majapahit Period 37 1.2.1 Introduction 37 1.2.2 The use of the descriptive principles and the glossary of the Javanese wayang kulit puppets in the analysis 38 1.2.3 The corpus of Bh»ma representations 41 1.2.4 The arrangement of the tables and data 41 1.2.5 The description of the iconographical features in codes and the analysis 44 Morphological features of Bh»ma on statues 44 Variations on morphological features of Bh»ma on statues 47 Morphological features of Bh»ma on reliefs 47 Variations on morphological features of Bh»ma on reliefs 49 Ornamental features of Bh»ma on statues 49 Variations on ornamental features of Bh»ma on statues 51 Additional variations on ornamental features of Bh»ma on statues 54 Ornamental features of Bh»ma on reliefs 54 5 Variations on ornamental features of Bh»ma on reliefs 56 Special ornamental features and colours on Bh»ma statues 57 1.2.6 Results of the quantitative analysis 59 The morphological features on statues and their variations 59 The morphological features on reliefs and their variations 60 Height of the statues 60 Height of the reliefs 60 The ornamental features on statues and their variations 60 The ornamental features on reliefs and their variations 62 The colours 63 The geographic arrangement in the tables 64 Conclusion 65 1.3 Comparison of the iconography of Bh»ma in and outside Java 69 1.4 The iconography of Bh»ma during the Majapahit Period compared to the iconography of statues from the same period 71 1.4.1 Introduction 71 1.4.2 Deified royalty 72 1.4.3 Deities (bha−¹ra or bha−¹ri) 73 1.4.4 Seers (r¬i) 75 1.4.5 Guardians (dw¹rap¹la, suwuk lawang) 76 1.4.6 Conclusion 76 1.5 The interpretation of the iconographical features of Bh»ma 79 1.5.1 Introduction 79 1.5.2 The morphological features of the statues and some special ornamental features 80 1.5.3 The ornamental features of the statues and the remaining special ornamental features 85 1.6 Conclusion 93 Part 2 Bh»ma in literature, narrative relief scenes and inscriptions 2.1 Bh»ma in Old Javanese literature and in a Balinese Sanskrit text. The parwa, kakawin, kidung and stawa 99 2.1.1 Introduction 99 2.1.2 The analysis 102 2.1.3 The parwa 102 The ¸diparwa 103 The Wir¹−aparwa 107 6 The Udyogaparwa 111 The ¸sramaw¹saparwa 113 The Prasth¹nikaparwa 117 Overview of the analysis of the parwa 119 2.1.4 The kakawin 120 The Hariwang¶a 120 The Bh¹ratayuddha 123 Overview of the analysis of the kakawin 128 2.1.5 The kidung 129 Introduction 129 The Nawaruci 130 The Dewaruci 142 Overview of the analysis of the kidung 149 2.1.6 The Bh»mastawa 151 Overview of the analysis of the Bh»mastawa 155 2.1.7 Conclusion 156 2.2 Bh»ma’s role in relief scenes 161 2.2.1 Introduction 161 2.2.2 Candi Jolotundo 163 Interpretation of Bh»ma’s role in the relief scenes on Candi Jolotundo 166 2.2.3 Candi Jago 167 Interpretation of Bh»ma’s role in the relief scenes on Candi Jago 170 2.2.4 Candi Tigowangi 170 Interpretation of Bh»ma’s role in the relief scenes on Candi Tigowangi 172 2.2.5 Candi Selokelir 173 Interpretation of Bh»ma’s role in the relief scene on Candi Selokelir 174 2.2.6 Candi Kendolisodo 174 Interpretation of Bh»ma’s role in the relief scene on Candi Kendolisodo 176 2.2.7 Candi Sukuh 176 Interpretation of Bh»ma’s role in the relief scenes on Candi Sukuh 179 2.2.8 Conclusion 180 2.3 The Bh»ma inscriptions 183 2.3.1 Introduction 183 2.3.2 The inscriptions on Bh»ma statues 184 The back slab of the statue from Trenggalek 184 The back slab of the statue from Sapih 186 The backside of the statue from Candi Sukuh 186 The pedestal of the second statue from Candi Sukuh 187 The back of the statue from Candi Ceto 188 2.3.3 The relief from Candi Sukuh 188 7 2.3.4 The inscription on copperplate 189 2.3.5 Conclusion 191 Part 3 The material and historical context 3.1 Bh»ma statues and terraced sanctuaries 195 3.1.1 Introduction 195 3.1.2 The lay-out and architecture of the terraced sanctuaries 195 3.1.3 The location of the Bh»ma statues on the sanctuaries 200 Statue Cat. no. 7 of Candi Wayang on Mount Penanggungan 201 Statue Cat. no. 8 of Candi Naga on Mount Penanggungan 201 Statue Cat. no. 18 of Candi Gilang on Mount Kawi 201 Statue Cat. no. 20 of Candi Papoh on Mount Kelud 201 Statue Cat. no. 27 of Candi Penampihan on Mount Wilis 202 Statue Cat. no. 28 of Candi Hutan Dadapan on Mount Wilis 202 Statues Cat. nos. 30 and 31 of Candi Sukuh on Mount Lawu 202 Statue Cat. no. 34 of Candi Planggatan on Mount Lawu 205 Statues Cat. nos. 32 and 33 of Candi Ceto on Mount Lawu 205 Statue Cat. no. 35 of Candi Menggung on Mount Lawu 206 3.1.4 Other remains on the Bh»ma sanctuaries 208 Candi Kedaton on Mount Hyang 210 Candi Wayang on Mount Penangunggan 212 Candi Naga on Mount Penangunggan 212 Antiquity IL on Mount Penangunggan 213 Candi Gilang on Mount Kawi 213 Candi Papoh on Mount Kelud 213 Candi Hutan Dadapan on Mount Wilis 214 Candi Penampihan on Mount Wilis 214 Candi Sukuh on Mount Lawu 215 Candi Planggatan on Mount Lawu 224 Candi Ceto on Mount Lawu 224 Candi Menggung on Mount Lawu 229 Overview 229 3.1.5 The relation between Bh»ma and the terraced sanctuaries 233 3.2 The Majapahit Period 235 3.2.1 Introduction 235 3.2.2 The genealogy of the Majapahit dynasty and major political developments 236 3.2.3 Approximate dating of the Bh»ma worship 239 3.2.4 Religious developments from Hayam Wuruk’s period onwards 241 8 3.2.5 The status of the P¹ª©awa 243 3.2.6 Theological concepts and the rise of Bh»ma in the Majapahit Period 244 3.2.7 The Bh»ma worship, only a Javanese affair or were there foreign influences? 246 3.2.8 Royal involvement in the Bh»ma worship 247 3.2.9 Conclusion 251 General conclusion 253 Appendix: Catalogue of Bh»ma representations 261 Abbreviations 305 Bibliography 306 Summary 321 Samenvatting in het Nederlands 329 Curriculum vitae 336 Volume II: Illustrations. Index List of Figures 7 Figures 13 Index 179 9 10 Foreword In 1990 I participated in a Dutch-Indonesian project which dealt with rewriting the Inleiding tot de Hindoe-Javaansche kunst, the opus mag- num of Krom written in 1920 and revised in 1923. The idea was to add new discoveries and new perceptions to Krom’s work, creating a more complete work. During this time I worked on Candi Sukuh, a very interesting terraced sanctuary on Mount Lawu in Central Java. Unfortunately, the project never got off the ground very well, but it did bring me indirectly to this thesis. I tried to trace the statues of Candi Sukuh mentioned in the first monograph written about this sanctuary by Van der Vlis (1843) enti- tled Proeve eener beschrijving en verklaring der oudheden en opschriften op Soekoeh en Tjetto.