Early Priestesses

B.C.

B.c.-2501 B.c. Venus figurines-small statuesof facelesspregnant women, with greatly exaggeratedbreasts and buttocks-were among the small carvings(mobilin, or portable art) createdin Eurasia and Africa (from ca. 35,000 B.c.or earlier). Some have taken these as evidenceof fertility cults,and of earlygoddess worship. Both women and men wereemployed as professionaldancers, attached to Eglptian temples(as earlyas 3000 n.c.). Techniquesof raising silkworms and spinning silk thread were developedin China; in ancient China, discoverieswere traditionally creditedto the emperor,at this time HuangTi, but silk making (aswell asweaving) was creditedto the emperor'schief wife, ki-tzu (ca. 2600 r.c.), popularly called Si Ling-chi (Iady of the Silkworm). She is supposedto havediscovered the art after picking up a sillauorm'scocoon in her mulberry garden and idly pulling it apart. China would keepsilk making techniquessecret for millennia.

B.c.-2001 B.c. Ritual dancesinvolving sophisticatedacting by professionalperformers, both women and men, seemto have been important in Egryt's religious observance(by 25OOn.c.). By that time, Egyptianrecords also suggesta dancingtradition outside Eg5pt,probably in Ethiopia; cer. tainly professionaldancers were employed by royal courtsin China and India. Enheduanna(active ca. 2300 n.c.),Assyrian princess, priestess, and poet, daughterof King Sargon of Akkad; she is the earliestwriteq, male or femalg whose name and work havesurvived.

n.c.-1501 r.c. Oldest referencesto contraceptionfound in EgSrytianmanuscripts (ca. 1900 n.c.),though how widely it wasused, and how effectiveor harmful, is unclear. The law code of the Middle Assyrianempire (ca. 1750 n.c.)was the first known regulation requiring women to be veiled, including daughters,wives, widows, concubines,and sacredprostitutes,

Early Priestesses ln the secondand third millennia n.c.in Mesopotami4 daughtersof kingpwere, like Enheduanna, appointedto be moon-priestessesof Inanna'Ishtal wearingspecial garments, living in and man- aglngthe temple, and performing religious ceremonies.The goddessIshtar was herselfpossibly derivedfrom the earlier Eglrptiangoddess Isis. Priestessesoperated in other temples aswell; some participatedin an annual "sacredMarriagg " relatedto fertility rites, probably the origin of later 'temple prostitution." They generallycame from wealthy families, joining the temple when young and bringing to it a dowry. Generallyunmarried and forbidden to bear children, they would often adopt daughters,to whom they would leavetheir dowries, often much increasedthrough their commercialactivities. With activitiesat different levels,a major temple might include severalhun- dred women. Though such worship would gradually decline priestessescontinued to operatein the Mediterraneanregion for manycenturiegperhaps mostlynotablythe Greeks'powerfrrlDelphic oracle-calledllthia, DragonPriestess of Earth(alwap a woman of at least50)-and the Romans' Vestalvirgins, who tended the sacredhearth of Vesta,goddess of the hearth. 2000-1501n.c. The Wilson Chronology of Women's Adrievemenc Wilson Chrom

eventhose who later manied; common prostitutes,however, were not allowed to weara veil d- Athaliah (3-ce wereobliged to leavetheir headsuncovered. of leham, kir Hatshepsut(1503-1482 Y.c.),Eg5ptian queen, daughter of ThutmoseI; wife of her half-brother her son" Ahr rvas Thutmose II; regent for her son, Thutmose III; ind then herself pharaoh, ruling Eg5pt for 2l Arhalie b years,one of the most powerful and historicallyimportantwomen of the Bronzi ^e,!*a*ong Sammuramat (& her accomplishmentswere the establishmentof triding relationswith punt, on thi Redsea Shamsi-Add and the commissioningof severalmassive monuments. as Semirami Dido (actftrc ca- t 1500 s.c.-1001"n.c. fsslding ftr At leastsome women studied medicine at the medicalschool in Heliopolis,Eg5pt (by ca. 1500n.c.). founded bo One female phpician, Peneshet,became director of physiciairs;othli'*d."n are shown preparingdrugs. In addition, some women worked as-embalmers,especially to handle the rc.-501 e.c bodies of aristocraticwomen; beforethe adventof femaleembalm"rrj ,o..'families would Early Hindu rd$ hold women's bodies in the home for severaldays so they would not be misusedby male as sourcesd embalmers, somewith necrophiliactastes. als, notablyi Secularprofessional dancers,many of them women, wereemployed in Egypt,primarily to enter- Sappho (activecr tain the nobility (by ca. 1500 o.c.); they were often impbrtia from"Airici and India, many all the eadtt probably asslaves. notably FIlr Nefertiti (activeca.-1379 n.c.), Eg;ptian queen,wife of KingAkhenatonand a supporterof his new ing women: religion, worshiping the sun-god Aton. Surviving pillars t The oldest books in the Old Testamentof the Bible-Genesis, Exodus,Leviticug Numbers,and in Ienrsalem Deuteronomy, collectivelycalled the Pentateuchor (among fews) the Torah-were written Theano (actiw k (by 91..1200P.c.).These introduced the story of Eve,Adam,-and the Gardenof Eden,which original wrili would help shapesocial attitudestoward women in the ludeo-Christiantradition, and codi- thought to I fied various social assumptionsabout women, including the idea that a wife washer husbandt Ijrthagorean ProPerry,as much as were his ox, his ass,and his servants;that a woman had virtually no Myrtis (active 5th independentlegal standing;and that woment bodily processeswere "unclean,', with ritual lyric poet Hir purification required after menstruation, sorual inteicourse, and childbirth. Ttreseand later books of the Bible also introduced-manyother women, some of them historical (or histori- cally based)figures. Among those from this shadowyperiod were: ec.-401 s.c. With the rise of o Sarah,Abraham's wifg who pretendedto be his sisterso he would not be killed for her resPonseto I beauty; both Sarahand Abraham were sent away her true identity was "motherryhen revealed;long an ascaic lift childless,she bore Isaacand was later called of the nation." o not considen Deborah,who as a prophet warned of an impending Canaaniteinvasion, and then with (therLs)begro her general, Baralgled Israelitroops againsta Canaanltearmy; another Israeli woman, Iael, Though appr reportedlykilled the Canaanitegeneral. Sous andpft o Ruth, a widow who caredfor her widowed mother-in-law Naomi, and arrangedfor her Corinna (aaiw ! welfare, th-en hgrs-elfremarrying becoming the ancestor of King -only "Whither David. It was to 36s61ding to Naomi that Ruth said the famous lines: thou goest,I will 96; and where thou Cleopatra (actire lodgest,.rwill lodge:thy p?g-pleshall be my people, and thy God mjr God: where thou Alexandria; I diest, will I die, and there will I be buried: the foia do sq to me, and'more also, if aught but deathpart theeand me." (Ruth l:16-17) reproductiw Agamede(aqtive 1?!1.:n.c.), Diotima of Mam Greekphys-ician ryho, accordingto Homer, lived beforethe Trojan war and wasskilled in using plants for medicinalpurpos-es. priestessand Greek poet TiC6i 1000 n.c.-751 s.c. resist inva& lezebel (aaive ca. 9th c. r.c.), princessof Tlte who, accordingto the Old Testamengmarried At the Battle of lt Ahab, who b.ecameking of israel; their diughter wasAthah;h. A worshiper of the phoenician forces, Arteu gods,lezebel was murderedby Israeli army commanderIehu. Herodotrrs s Troupesof seculardancers, many of them women,-workedas independent professionals in Eg5pt, Phaenaratebegn touring to perform in the major cities (tst millennium B.c,). deliveredchi ca. 469 nc-), Companiesof dancers,mimes, acrobats, and jugglerstoured Greece(as early as 9th c. B.c.);these included both men and women, though women would be baned from the stagein ireece,s Aspasiaof Miletq classicera. sophical, arti said shehad Achievements 500 s.c.-401 n.c. r of Women's Acttievements Wilson Chronology of Women's

(?-ca.837 n.c.),queen of daughterof lezebeland Ahab,king of Israel,and wife L \r'erenot allowedto wear a veil but d. Athaliah Judah, of Jeham,king of ludah. Accordingto the Old Testament,she took power afterthe death of her son, Ahaziah,and ruled for sevenyears, becoming Judah's only queen.Racine's 1691 play hutmoseI; wife of her half-brother Athatiewas based qn this biblical story. rerselfpharaoh, ruling EgYPtfot 27 n.c.),possibly mythical queen of Assyria,wife of King t rvomenof the BronzeAge. Among Sammuramat(Semiramis, active ca. 800 Adad-nirariIII. Historian Diodorus Siculusidentified her elationswith Punt, on the RedSea, Shamsi-AdadV and mother of King asSemiramis, who allegedlyruled-alone for decades,founding Babylon. Dido (activeca. 800 r.c.), princessofTlrre who, accordingto the ,\eneid,fled to North Africa,there founding the city of -arthage; archaeologicalevidence suggests_that the Phoeniciancity was date (814 n.c.) and the mid-8th centuryB.c. Heliopolis,Eg5pt (by ca.1500 n.c.). foundedberweenthe traditional r,lsicians;other women are shown mbalmers,especially to handlethe B.c.-501 B.c. e embalmers,some families would EarlyHindu religioustexts criticized prostitution (ca.8th c. n.c.);wom-en were generally.regarded re-vrr'ould not be misusedbY male assources oltemptation and pollution, but prostituteswere involved in some religiousritu- als, notably in fertility cults. of ploled in Eg1pt,primarily to enter- Sappho^ 'all (active ca. 610B.c.-ca. 580 n.c.),Greek poet from the island of Lesbos,the bestknown orted from Africa and India, many the early Greekwomen who woe poets,though only fragmentsof her work survivg most notably Hi*" to Aphrodite,seeking that goddess'shelp in seducinga young girl. Women-lov- after her. henaton and a supporterof his new ing women arenamed lesbians Survivingpillars called,\sherahs suggest that the ancientmoon-goddess Ishtar was still worshiped (586 s. Exodus,Leviticus, Numbers, and in lerusalem r.c.). ong lervs)the Torah-were written Theano (activelate 6th c. B.c.),Greek philosopher, mathematician, and physician;none of her rnn.and the Gardenof Eden,which original writings survive,but som" (believedapocryphal) have been ascribedto her; she is ludeo-Christiantradition, and codi- tho"ughtto haie been the wife or daughter of Pythagoras,and possibly to have run the re ideathat a wife washer husband's Pythagoreanschool afterhis death. nts:that a woman had virtuallY no said to havebeen the teacherof the male "unclean," Myrtis- (active6th-5th c. n.c.),Greek poet from Boeotia, :ocess€swere with ritual lyric poet Pindar;her work hasbeen los! exceptfor paraphrasesin Plutarch. nse,and childbirth. Theseand later someof them historical(or histori- B.c.-401,B.c. rl'ele: iod With the rise of Buddhism in India (ca. 500 B.c.) came nunneriesfor women, reportedly i1 r so he would not be killed for her responseto a requestby Buddha'saunt Mahapraiapatifor a nunnerywhere women could lead her true identity wasrevealed; long aniscetic life of religiousstudy and contemplation,free fromfamily demands.The nuns were rf rhe nation." not consideredequil within the faith, however,being subordinateto monks. Buddhist nuns Canaaniteinvasion, and then with (thnis) beganto write the poemsthat would later be collectedin the Therigatha(ca. 80 n.c.). e army anotherIsraeli woman, Jael, itto"gt afparently restrictedfrom higher religious leamin& somewomSn participated in religious and pfritosoptricaldiscussions in this period, including Gargiand Maitreyi. l-larr',Naomi, and arrangedfor her Corinna (aaive 5th c. n.c.), Greekpoet from Tanagra,noted for her choral lyric poems, who arcestor of King David. It was to accordingto Pausaniai(Zna c. n-.c.)was considereda rival to her male contemporaryPindar. )u goest,I will go; and where thou Cleopatra(active ca. 5th c. n.c.),a physician,probably of Greekancestry and possiblyworki,ngin and rhy God my God: Where thou el"*.ndtir; Hippocrateswrotl 6f a physician named Cleopatrabeing concemedwith the o so to me, and more also,if aught reproductiveprocess. Diotima of Mantinea (activeca. 5th c. r.c.), Greekphilosopher who, accordingto Plato, was a "".er, lived beforethe Troian g:: priestessand a teacherof the philosopher Socrates' Greekpoet Telesilla,noted for her choral poetry reportedly mobilized the women of Argos to resistinvaders from Sparta(494 n.c.). At the Battle of Marathon (490 n.c.),where the Greeksdefeated the far more numerous Persian ling to the Old Testament,married forces,Artemisia of Fialicarnaisus,a Greek ally, commanded severalships, accordingto rliah. A worshiperof the Phoenician Herodotus;she is the first femalesea captain known by name. Jehu. Phaenaratebegan working as a midwife in Athens. Athenian midwives were requir,edto have independentprofessionals in Eg1pt, deliveredlhildren thJmselvesbefore working as midwives.Phaenarate's son was Socrates(b. rc-). "midwife ca-469 n.c.), who would call himselfa to truth." Greece(as early as 9th c. B.c.);these Aspasiaof Miletos (5th c. n.c.),Greek courtesan whose home in Athensbecame a centerfor philo- be baned from the stagein Greece's sophical,artistic, and poiitical discussion,reportedly includingtoth Socratesand Plato,who said shehad taught him the theory of love.Aspasia married Athens's powerful ruler Pericles, 500 s.c.-401 s.c. The Wilson Chronolory of Women's Adri Chror

who personallyand successfullydefended her in the city-state'shigh court againstcharges d'rrh fu h atheismand procuring. trs- tlrrq Praxilla(active 5th c. r.c.), Greekpoet from Sicyon,noted for her drinking sengsand hymns, h ln{i,& fu cd fragmentsof which survive. mhrlEc! oi4uu (a In Greekstates of the 5th century women's rights and liveswere generallydefined by their rela- tionships to men-their fathers,husbands, and sons-with upper-classwomen often livi ,Acpodi.he(eot in some seclusion in isolated women's quarters. Though they could sometimes hold *ttt to fi{ in their own name, notably as heiresses,women were unable to vote or hold public office nwe hemll 'The SaidAthenian leaderPericles (430 n.c.): greatestglory of a woman is to bL leasttalked omlt aftrU about by men, whether they are praising you or criticizing yort." Women did, however,exer- L'rcelsryft cisesome public power aspriestesses, in Sth-centurys.c. Attica aloneserving in some40 cults- rudg rtrrl rfi Lysktrata,Aristophanes' comedy, introduced the idea of women using-oq rather,withholding- m rhmc sCI(to try to force an end to war (411n.c.). Ironically, no women appearedin the play; thry l@parchla (rfr| were barred from the Greekstage, meaning that all the greatwomen's roles of the classic her hushd Greektheater, including Antigone, Medea, Clytemnestra,and the rest, were originated by aXso Mrgerfi men. Women did, however,perform in touring companies,as dancing mimes, as temple laerft-rs s Li dancers,and as dancer-prostitutes,called heterae. Ariothea of FhE one of rrio I 400 n.c.-301 n.c, frinna (amtne d Arete of Cyrene(active late Sth-early4th B.c.),Greek philosopher of the Cyrenaicschool of c. Anme d hedonisrn,founded by her father and teacherAristippus, a studentof Socraies;at her fathe/s [a,mh Acccrd.iog m Gr lsa,iinB r€si Early Midwives liossis factrre {d lrimro (fqrre. f For how many thousandsof yearsno one knows,almost all babieswere delivered by midwives;the "she Poflr.F. Iatin word obstetrixmeans simply who is present."In biblical times, a birthing stool-a semi- [nthe HetXeuigi circular obstetricalchair with the seatopen in the middle-was used,though in some culturesthe lr*rat gfef,ilEl mother sat on the lap of the midwife, who wasthen ableto hread the mother'sbelly, attemptingto i-n econornil hastenbirth, often while singing sacredsongs. Midwives were generallyolder women, the main rr--201 nc- requirementsbging that she be honest,have a good character,have small handswith well-trimmed and cleannails, and havebome at leastone child henelf. hddhis ttospilr rtrele rralncd Greek midwives (perhapsworking with male physicians)developed the technique of podalic The ruorship of I version,in which the midwife manipulated a crosswiseor feet-downinfant in the womb into the rise to the n properposition for normal headfint birth. This techniquesaved the livesof thousandsof mothers these $r'@[rF and infants in the Greekand Romanworlds; but in other parts of the world it wasunknown, and nnar,s droq in Europeduring the Middle Agesit was forgotten, causingmany to die in agony.If the child died prieseqs sh "child-breakers" in the womb, were called in with knives,hooks, and forcepsto removethe body piecemeal.If the mother died first, the child would be cut from the womb-but not while she rc--101 nc lived, for the operation in those centuriescaused virttrally certain death. Rome'sOppian I Midwiveswere also often chargedwith taking the child to the father for acknowledgmenUwhere mems sr,rch "e>rposed" ed the nawe the father did not acceptthe child, the midwife the child in a public place,where it either Cho (Chr-ro)ltEr died or was adopted by a passerby.Midwives also checkedfor vitginity and fertility in young hersetrfalrd I women, often as part of a sideline in matchmaking.In some placeg they were also chargedwith Rome'sVocon-lirrr cutting awayparts of a girl's entemalsexual organs,a procedurecalled clitoridectomy or female his tnefuer I genital mutilation, still performed in some culturestodly. ryasoflr.en cit Midwives also assessedwhether a pregnancyexisted, predicted the due date of the baby, and a famiilr inrh sometimesacted as abortionists.After the birth, midwives often stayedwith the mother for a few Hsi-chtur "medical famhe weeks,advising on diet and child care.From zuch activitieg some midr,vives"developed culture @ r into generalmedical advisers,often in consultationwith male physicians,for women who for rea- lvto, of the I sonsof modestyfelt unable to consult a male physiciandirealy. 200 n.c.-L0Ls-c- The wilson chronology of women's Achievements ly of Women's Adtievements

with more than 40 works' all now death she becamethe school'sleading teachet credited high court againstcharges of "Mothet-taught'" r-$ate's lost. Her .orr, .iio named fuistippus,ias nicknamed exchanginggifts equally with each In India, the earlierpractice of a bride and groom's families 'her drinking songsand hYmns,onlY groo{n .ng tti; ftmilygiving the bride other gaveway (from ca. 400 r .ii;,h.;t.*:. o.fthe and sulka(a bride price)' stridhana(specihed maintenan..l .io,t itig and adomments) \r?re generallydefined by their.rela- who reportedlydisguised herself as a Agnodike (activelast third of 4th c. n.c.), Gregkphysician ulpper-classwomen often living at.a time when Athenian women ntrh man to study medicine under ttre ptrltsjcian.Htrophilus, sometimeshold property in labor,who had acceptedhelp thel' .blta werebarred from practicing-"ai.iri..'nner aiding'u*o-u" to vote or hold public office' Agnodikewas brought to trial for unai'le only afterbeing assuredthat the physicianwas a woman, woman is to be leasttalked ,o1tt^tty*omen that the fon' of a breakingthe laW the penaltybeingdeath. Bug reportedly, Protested did, however,exgr- medicine,but paying stipends ing-1'ou."Women judge changeJiir" f "w not only allowing women to pt..ti.t sewingin some4o cults' riica alone io tho." who were most skilled' withholding- of crnic school' aswere nen using-or, rather, (Hipparchus,active mid-4th c. r.c.), Greekphilosoph:t the theY Hipparchia philosophicall\" treatises and lo \t'ornenaPPeared in PlaY; Cratesand broth"' f'A"tiottei'credited with writing of the classic her husband to be profiled in re greatwomen's roles and noted for wearing male-attirg she is the ottly *omen originated bY also tragedies, u."rnd the rest, were of thePhitosophtrs (3rd c' n'o')' as temPle laertius'sLiues ianl.s, as dancing mimes, who, dressedin men's clothing was Axiotheaof phlius (activeca. 350 n.c.), Greekphirosopher nephewand successorSpeusippus' one of two f"Li. f "pils of Plato'andlatei of his bestlcrown for her poem TheDistaff ' Erinna(active 4th c. n.c.?),Greek poet from the islandofTelos, pastoralepigrams' hll:scpher of the Cyrenaicschool of Anyte (active4th c. n.c.),Greek poet noted for her at her father's India after her husband'sdeath' s : srudentof Socrates; According- --- to Greekrecords, Krpi assumedpower in-northwest -326 n'c')' leadingr".irt"nie to Alexanderthe Grelt (ca. 327 southernItaly, noted for her epigrams' Nossis(active 4th-3rd c. n.c.),Greek poet from Locri, in Byzantium,noted for her epigramsand lyric Moero (Myro, active4th-3rd c. n.c.),Greek poet from p5 rrei? delivered bY midwives; the poetry. Great'sdeath (ca.323 n'c'), women had some- semi- In the Hellenisticworld that survivedAlolander the ca-'rmes, a birthing stool-a in society'to act independently what greaterfreedom in their personallives, to move about use.j- Crough in some cultures the to becomeeducated' in economic and legal affairs,io obtain a divorce,and rd dre mothe/s bellY, attemPtingto generallY older women, the main 300 s.c.-201s.c. with well-trimmed most wereyoung men, but elderlywomen ne small hands Buddhisthospitals developed a classof trained nurses; *"r" tr.ii-,edto carefbr femalepatients (3rd c' n'c')' of reachedRome (by 200 n'c')' giving h'eloped the technique Podalic The worship of Isis,dating backto at least 25oon.c. in Eg'?I, rrJintr would be tended by vestalvirgins; 4t6rrn infant in the womb into the risetoihe related*orrnif oivot., whose sacred given d.o1vries.11dallowed to of mothers servedfrori childhood for 30 year:,-l!el were il the lives of thousands thesewomen while servingas a most .t or. "oi,o do so. If a Gstal virgin lost her virginity i of the rvorld it was unknown, and marry though be buried alive' the child died prigsiess,she could 4- lo die in agonY. If the bodY ks and forcePs to remove 2n0s.c.-101 n.c. orn the womb-but not while she ownership and-wearing of clothing and adom- Rome's Oppian Law (1g5 n.c.) attempted.to restrict miny affluent women publicly Protest- rir, death. ments, such as jewelry ,(.i op"itry displayed wealth; e father for acknowledgment; where ed the law and won its rePeal' where it either saleof her lovepoems helped suPPon irild rn a public place, Cho (Chuo)Wen-chdn (179? r.c,-I17?n.c.), Ctrinese PoeU for rirginity and fertility in young herselfand her husband,poet Ssu-maHsiang-iu' with or husbandfrom making a woman places, theY were also charged Rome'sVoconian law (169 n.c.)prohibited a father,guardian, of other heirs,thorlgh the la*' clitoridectomy or female heir, or from leavingher an ;;;;i gieateiihan that ioint ure called his weretteated equally in was often circumvented;before then daughtersand sonstraditionally a familY inheritance. icted rhe due date of the babY, and wrote in lamentationafter being cut off from her mother for a few Hsi_chtin(active ca. 1o5o.c.), chinese poet, who en staled with the elderly Central Asian nomad king K'un 'medical culture by a politically .turrg.J i""iiiug" with an orne midwives" develoPed Mo, of the Wu-sun. ph1:sicians,for women who for rea- h'" 100 s.c.-51.n.c. The Wilson Chronology of Women's Achievements h

100 n.c.-51 s.c. ftmltle mrnmfl Elephantis (active ca. 1st c. n.c.), Greekphysician, probably a courtesan. Plinywrote of her skills dmurysd as a midwife and her disagreements with midwife and physician Lais; Galen noted her abili- lmnu ty to cure baldness; possibly they were describing two different people of the same name. umry mdl mmnfufl; Lai's(active ca. lst or 2nd c. n.c.), Greek midwife and physician mentioned in Pliny's Natural History as disagreeingwith the midwife Elephantis on the use of abortive drugs, on the causesof steril- ntud-il crr ity or fertility, and the like; Lais was said to have developed a treatment for rabies ffia f, and fevers. tunil Sotira (active 1st c. e.c.), Greek physician who, according to Pliny, was noted for her remarkable rdN"'l[tb"'n!q:frf"""""""'d cures; possibly the author of a surviving manus cript, Gynaecia. @dtuT Metrodora (active 1st or 2nd c. n.c.), Greek midwife whose writings survive in a work titled Extracts sndrrnd 6ql from the Works of Metrodora Conceming the Diseasesof Women. hnddrtEdl Salpe (active ca. 1st c. n.c.), Greek midwife from Lemnos whose remedies for various problems I [I,1 were described by Pliny. @firyIem, Natya-sastrawas produced in India (ca. 100 n.c.), outlining the stylized forms and gesturesto be .Zhm" a I used by performers, many of them women, who combined music, drama, and dance in a sin- fi@siffintP6 Lc gle art foim. Temple dancers called deuadasiperformed in Hindu temples of southern India and at various ceremonies, processions, and rites; they are best heown for the Dance of Creation; they also acted as prostitutes in the service of Shiva, god of dance. With the rise of the Mahayana strain of Buddhism (ca. 100 s.c.-ca. a.o.1o0), women-long regarded among Hin_dusas potential temptresses and polluters-came to be viewed as capatle-of tiv- ing spiritually pure religious lives. Poems by various Buddhist nuns (rhens), some dating back to the 6th c. 8.c., were collected in a 'theTherigatha work called (ca.80 n.c.), in the first known anthologlr of women's literature. tr(r d. Berenice II (?-s0 n.c.), Greek-Egyptian queen, who survived her husband, ftolemy XI, to briefly rule Egypt; she was murdered when she resisted ftolemy Alexander, sent by the Romans to umnI- gun marry her and take power. [lt9j1, od mr* dffiE b. Cleopatra VII (69 n.c.-30 n.c.), Greek-Egyptianqueen. Wmd qr oerm{ b. Drusilla Livia (later lulia Augusta, ca. 55 B.c.-A.D.29), Roman empress and politician. hnsBrfrilF.rre 50 n.c.-l n.c. @rd@, wr h[ reomfiru Olympias of Thebes(active 1st c. n.c.), Greek midwife who, accordingto Pliny, wrote various works, notably on the medicinal propertiesof variousplants that iould induce abortion or fifusmil cure infertility. trwsrI Sulpicia(active 1st c. B.c.-1stc. a.o.),Roman poet, six of whoseelegies survive. t&srytr.m rsgnil b. BanIieyu (ca.48 B.c.-ca.6 n.c.),Chinese poet. fu {ff Eglptian forcesof CleopatraVII and her youngerbrother, Ptolemy, were defeated by Romanforces r {I,{ ,mqEmuttrnr led by JuliusCaesar at the Battleof the Nile (47 n.c.);Cleopatra and PtolemyXIII remained al corulersof Egyptunder Rome. hMDs :I9),d 7$$mnm Hortensia,daughter of orator Quintus Hortensius,made a public speechprotesting the proposed @ taxing of women's property to support Rome'scivil war, on the groundsthai women were un hird unableto participatein political life (a2 n.c.);the speechitself survivedonly as describedby "mVmf eU others. hrmrm @tr m'rnmf Romangeneral Marc Antony met Egptian queen CleopatraVII and followed her back to Egypt, md beginningtheir liaison (42 a.c.).After they married(36 n.c.),the RomanSenate revoked ill of his powersand ultimately went to war againstEgypt (32 n.c.).Antony respondedby send- ing a fleet and army to Greece,quartered near Actium. In a decisivesea blttle off Actium, an_d {ntony Cleopatra'sforces were defeatedby the Romans(31 r.c.), their remaining forces @d fleeingto Egypt,where their army defected to the Romans(30 n.c.).- &qnc'mul d. CleopatraVII (69 n.c.-30 n.c.), Greek-Eg5ptianqueen, wife of Roman leader Marc Antony. atoffi Cleopatraand Antony committedsuicide after losing their war with the Romans(31-30 n.c.). hL@omf b. Mary (ca. 20 n.c.-?),Jewish woman who becamethe mother of JesusChrist, founder of i@r f, (l Christianity;over the centuties,Mary herselfbecame the object of great devotion, a female Cdfiel,a wf, g of Women's Adrievements Chronolo gy of Women's Achievements 50-99

'role model" in an otherwisemale-dominated Christian religion, especially after suppression of many earlierreligions with their femaledeities. a :runesan. Plinywrote of her skills Ilnder RomanemperorAugustus, marriage laws (18 B.c.,A.D. 9) requiredwomen ages20 to 50 to rhr:i:ian Lais; Galen noted her abili- marry and bear childr"en,with penilties being-imposedfor those who did noU p-reviously iiff.,.r,t people of the same name. married women were ro remarry 18 months ifter being divorced ot 24 months afterbeing n rentioned in Plin/s Natural History widowed.Wives brought a dowry to the marriage,all or part o-fwhich might be retumed in ab -'rive drugs, on the causesof steril- caseof a divorce,dep"ending on the circumstances.Either wife or husband could obtain a >e: : Eeatment for rabies and fevers. d.ivorcewithout the consent"of the other. Only a women, however,could be chargedwith pros- r F--:r;-.rvas noted for her remarkable adultery if shewas caught, her husbandwas obliged to divorceher or himself risk being "pandering.;An p-i::ic. ecuted?or adulterouswoman could be killed by herhusband. Rapewas con- representedby-a woman's husband or father,and onlythey riru:gs suwive in a work titled Extracts sidereda crime againitthe family, right to prosecute,an attitude that would persistinto the 20th century. btrti"nr. had the and politician, granddaughterof the emPer- rhcse remedies for various problems b. Agrippina I (14 s.c.-A,.o.33),Roman noblewoman or Augustus. of noted Chinesewomen, was written by Uu Xiang dre sn lized forms and gesturesto be Lienu Zhuan, a collection of biographies oei ::usic, drama, and dance in a sin- (before6 n.c.). I iL: Hindu temples of southern India n- ?.e best lmown for the Dance of ['5:--".= god of dance. :-:: .:-.D.100), women-long regarded A.D. ;c:::e :o be viewed as capable of liv- rt: --,:eSth c.8.c., were collectedin a women's literature. rr :::hology' of b. Agrippina II (15-59), empressof Rome,daughter of Agrippina I and Germanicus. RolemY XI, to brieflY ed :le: husband, Agrippina I, granddaughterof the Romanemperor Augustus, the new emPeror,Tiberius the Romans to " ^(ig), -accused 6r -1-{i-3.nder, sent by ofirdering ihe death of her husband,Germanicus, his adoptedson; shebecame leader of the opposition to the emPeror. b. valeria Messalina(22-48), Romanempress, wife of claudius. and rm = ampress Politician. lvtaryMagdalene (active 1st c.), an early follower of JesusChrist, accordingto New Testament accounts,pr"i"rrt at key "u.rrtr, includingthe Crucifixion and the Resurrection.Modern biblical scholarsfind no te>rtualsupport for the idea that shewas a reformedprostitute. to PlinY, wrote various hc :::ording Tiberiusbanished opposition leaderAgrippina I from Rome (29)' abortion or Emperor ipl',::-s that could induce wife of d. Drusilla Livia (later Julia Augusta,ca. 55 B.c.-A.D.29), Romanempress and politician, the emperor-octavius(latJr Augustus)and mother of Tiberius;she held greatpower during eiegies survive. trcse the reigns of Augustusand Tiberius. g1g$dlughter of the.emPerol d. Agippina"n I (14 B.c.-A.D.33), Romannoblewoman and politician, blenr'. rvere defeated by Roman forces rgurtrs;tafterrrrrr.r.."sfully challengingthe emperbrTiberius (19), shewas banished from Ce:; atra and RolemY XIII remained Rome(29), dying in orile. b. Ban Zhao (Pan Chao, ca. 45-l\5), Chinesescholar and historian. p,ri:-.c speechprotesting the proposed d. ValeriaMessalina (22*48), Roman empress,wife of Claudius,who orderedher executionfor ra: ::r the grounds that women were allegedlyptotting his overthrow.Her iexual life, in its main outlinesrather tlpical of the male ri: ::-lf survived only as described by Rorian "bt,ifity"of her timg apparentlycontributed greatlyto her adverserePutation, then and afterward. n \-li and followed her back to EgYPt, II marriedthe RomanemPeror Claudius (49 n'c')' t5 i.c.j. the Roman Senaterevoked all furippina r (;: l.c.). Antony responded by send- n. l: a decisive sea battle offActium, was describedas existing outside Alocandria- rm1:s (31 n.c.), their remaining forces A Jewishwomen,s asceticmonastic community (ca. 50). na::s[30 n.c.). Egypt,near lake Mareotis pamphila, duringthe of the RomanemPeror Nero (r. ca' 54-68)' , rsie of Roman leader Marc AntonY. 'best a historianworking in Greek leign only in summariesby others. hell',r'ar rr'ith the Romans (31-30 n'c.). known for her MiscellaneousHistory,-which survives of Agripgina,I and Germanicus,sister of e n:ther of Jesus Christ, founder of d. Agrippina"criigut^, II (15-59), Roman empress,daugtrter who ultimately orderedher murder- the :bfec of great devotion, a female wiflof "*p"tot Claudius,and moiher of Nero, Adlievem 50-99 The Wilson Chronology of Women's

inzurrectionof the lceni d. Boudicca(Boadice a) (?-62),Icenianquee-n, who reportedlyled an early successes Trinobant., p"opi.i ,grirrrt Roman rule in soutirernEngland,. achieving in battle and taking ultimately b.iil'J;i.ui"J-sn" n.. f".tt variouslyrePortft as dying son afterdefeat. (64-66) in.the NewTestame Asceticorders of widowsapparently existed by the time of Timothy I other orderswould From this period o.r, ifr. ..."ti. life wouid exerta strongpull, ana *Py or after it' iffiil;;;;;;;h" chosesexual abstinence, eithei before maniage

100-149 alchemist, who wrote as -Mary -- (Maria; Miriam) the fewess.(active1st or 2nd c.),Alorandrian 'pi"fit"t'rr.ta"i-t-h'" "Miriam, "t"."--H,::.:t::::""Y::*:*h:*:ttf,Iii!fi;":, ;;: sisler,ojf re but h"r pra.ti.rl l"botrtory inventionslaid the basisfor laterche iilJ;;ilil;;;."ts, wereal istry.Her theories itrri'-.t.t-t *5t. maieand female, and that chemicalProcesses to iexual reproduction,had far lesslong-term impact' ntt (ca' 100-ct |!3 During the great ageof sanskrit dram.ain India 9q?)l1T:1.i1*:?^tl:1,""1 pr"yingroles written ror ttreopposite ro,. Wo-"n wouldremain equals nh ,1,il;'rffi"iirnt* wouldbe for theIndian stage "otii trtEarrival of the rttustimslafter a'p. 1000),when they dh off the stage,until modern times' r or later),Greek phvnician *lto:" *:* rytrr Aspasia(active 1st c. T:-bj:"1:itj.T1*:t**,"ffiin theworks #fiil;il ;;;ffiil;;; kilo*" o"rythrough fragmentary references {@1 others. became the patron saint of music' Cecilia (active 2nd or 3rd c.), Roman Christian martyl who thepractice of a groomand h5 familygivinsthe bride *::ff11,-8]1:-glt:"rYy-!Yj &ffiir In India, a dowry' In c.) to the practic" oiiUriae's family.,tppiylttg tfie groom and his familywith min of widows was ,J." divorce (alwaystut";-.tn'"'tg-b" protriUitea,temartiage zda f"rioa, property. courafed,and women werebarred from inheriting c 4Enl who compl.eted-thegreat d. Ban zhao (pan chao, ca.45-115),Chinese.scholar and historian odd authors, her father and History of the Han Dynasty aftert'he successivedeaths of the original I"ffi on women's behavior,Na Chien brother (92). She also published a classicConfucian work finfod', r p""tty. skilled in astronomyand mathematics,Ban zhao (Muicefor women),and works .r ulicd wasteacher to the young EmpressTeng' r;lle'r (P Roman empless, daughter of the Roman emperol b. Anna Galeria Faustina (ca. 725-176), d}{ Antoninus Pius and Faustina (the elder)' f Zmt*r [r- tabn m I 150-199 ,[l b. Ts'aiYen (Cai Yen;Cai Wenii, 762?-239?'),Chinese poet' b &drlil of MarcusAurelius' whom d. Anna GaleriaFaustina (ca. 1 25-776), Roman€mpres-s, wife of EmPeroj lh,fu,rnrr (tzo-t7-4); di"d en to Rome'seastern provinces' dlmifr. ,n"...o-fanied on.r.p^igns rir" loule He foundeh the puellaeriustnarr"", t school for poor girls, in her honor'

mh(cffiil cffiid tlrryrue (r Alchemy: Women's Work ones,was from early oerfi Alchemy,basically the searchfor waysto make preciou.smetals out of base by the goddessIsis' lbbcirr times stronglyassociated with women and was held to havebeen founded scientist$was @, perhapsthe bestknownof the early alchemists,and one of the most notableearly { &rlalir ofl of whose laboratoryinventions arestill usedtoday. These include the three- Mary the Jewess,some oq r tubing probably the worlds first distilla- Htr part still, the tribikos,constructed of pottery and copper 0'TiEd and o[ a devicefor creatingand caPtulingvaPors of metalssuch as mercury tion device; thekerotakis, I Frrl.efineof I Mary's Black and the balneummariae, arsenic;a metal alloy coatedwith black sulfide, still called e"alry pt prototypeof the doubleboiler or autoclave' alsonamed for her,the Irdr\ner Shr y of Women's Adrievements Wilson Chronology of Women'sAchievements 300-349

led an insurrection of the Iceni and 249 achieving early successesbut llan,i, ruled a kingdom in (2OO-270)after the deathof her husband,the d as df ing in battle and taking poi- The semilegendaryIingu fapan emperor,according to the |apanesechronicle Nihonshoki (720). politician,second wife of the EmperorSeptimius thv I (64-66) in the NewTestament. d. Julia Domna (?-217),Roman empress and emperors Geta and Caracalla;during rll, and many other orders would be Severus,sister of Julia Maesa,and the mother of imperial functions dur- fore marriage or after it. Caracalla'sreign she held greatpower (212-277), taking over many ing his military campaigns;she was murderedor committed suicidethe yearhe died. d. fulia Maesa(?-ca. 226), Roman politician, sister of JuliaDomna, mother of JuliaMamaea, and andrian alchemist, who wrote as a grandmother of emperorsElagabaeus and AlexanderSeverus. She strongly influenced the rinen rvorks, the Maria Practica, sut- iccessionof eachin turn, and held considerablepower in Rome,although her daughterJulia nrcns laid the basis for later chem- Mamaeaheld far more power during the reign of AlexandetSeverus. were akin I mat chemical processes d. Julia Mamaea(?-235), Romanpolitician, daughterof Iulia Maesa;she ruled as regentfor her son,the emperorAlexander Severus. Both wereassassinated by Romansoldiers, the army hav- EC'l), women and men shared the ing blamed them for a Romandefeat in Persia(232). a. \r-rmen would remain equals on d. Ts'aiYen (Cai Yen; Cai Wenji, 162?-239?),Chinese poet, daughterof scholar-poetTs'ai I; cap- would be forced - i-- --rJ),when they tured by CentralAsian nomads,the Hsiung-nu,she was later ransomedback to China, but wasforced to leavetwo sonsbehind, experiencesabout which shewrote in Lamentations.Her rtrs:errics and g5rnecology, especially story was later much retold by others. referencesin the worl

BCl::e the patron saint of music. 299 e r'r::e)'and gifts gaveway (by 2nd In the Christian sect of Montanism, Priscillaand Maximilla were held to be prophets directly ar:. -ris family with a dowry. In the transmittingrevelations of the Holy Spirit (mid-2nd c.). of widows was dis- ec :amarriage influence,first ry-- Queen Zenobiatook control of Palmyra(267), a city within the Romansphere of as regentfor her son, Vaballathus,then as full ruler, after the murder of her husband, King rvho completed the great hls::i-an Odaenathus.Zenobia's forces took Eglpt and defeateda Romanarmy sent againstthem. rhe :-iginal authors, her father and Immae, near ,fk :: rtomen's behaviot, Nu Chien QueenZenobia's Palmyran forces were defeatedby Romanforces under Aurelian at )nc n1.-and mathematics, Ban Zhao Antioch, and at Emesa.After a siegeof Palmyra,Zenobia sunendered, with all Palmyra'ster- ritories coming under Romancontrol (277-272). oa;ghter of the Roman emperor Palmyra'sQueen Zenobia again warred with Rome (272); Aurelian's Roman forcestook and sackedPalmyra, taking Zenabiaand her son, Vaballathus,to Romeas prisoners. d. Zenobia (?.-274),queen of Palmyra.After losing finally to the Romans(272), she had been takento Rome,where she remarriedand later died in orile. b. Eulaliaof M€rida (ca.29I-304), Spanishchild marfFrand saint. of Enperor Marcus Aurelius, whom Himiko, an unmanied priestess,ruled a kingdom in fapan (before 297), accordingto a Chinese provinces. ro ..ie ro Rome's eastern chronicle. irns ::: her honor. -349 Nina(Christiana; Christina, early 4th c.),'Georgiansaint, a slavewho is creditedwith introducing Christianityto Georgia,inducing King Mirian to sendfor Christianmissionaries. )rk Cleopatra(active 3rd or 4th c.), an alchemist,probably of Greekancestry working in Alorandria, describedas a follower of the Alexandrianalchemist Marythe Jewess;Cleopatra's manuscript trt :: base ones, was from early Chrysopeia(Goldmaking) survives in a later coPy (10th-11thc.). n fcunded by the goddess Isis. Theosobeiaworked as an alchemistin Alexandria,with her brother Zosimus,authot of an ency- losi totable early scientists,was clopediaof alchemy(ca. 300). t rodar-.These include the three- d. Eulaliaof M€rida (ca. 291-304),Spanish child martyr and saint believedto havebeen burned saint robab\'the worlds first distilla- on a pyre under the anti-Christianedicts of Diocletian (303-ZO4);she becamepatron s oi metals such as mercury and of Oviedo and M€rida. Biack and the balneum mtrtae, d. Eulalia of Barcelona(?-304), Spanishvirgin saint martyredunder Diocletian'santi-Christian and of sailors. e. edicts;patron saint of Barcelona ladyWei Shaowrote the flrst known Chinesetreatise on calligraphy(320).