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Dedoublement: the Negotiation of Gender in Transvestism

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Dedoublement: the Negotiation of Gender in Transvestism Durham E-Theses Dedoublement: the negotiation of gender in transvestism D'Exaerde, Caroline de Kerchove How to cite: D'Exaerde, Caroline de Kerchove (2001) Dedoublement: the negotiation of gender in transvestism, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/4272/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk "Bedoublenieiit": The Negotiation of Gender in Transvestism Caroline de Kerchove d'Exaerde The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published in any form, including Electronic and the Internet, without the author's prior written consent All information derived from this thesis must be acknowledged appropriately. Department of Anthropology University of Durham Ph.D. Thesis 2001 i "Dedoublement": The Negotiation of Gender in Transvestism Caroline de Kerchove d'Exaerde Department of Anthropology University of Durham Submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree of Ph.D. 2001 ii The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without their prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. iii Abstract "Dedoublement": The Negotiation of Gender in Transvestism This thesis is intended to contribute to anthropological and sociological debates on the sources of gender identity and the strategies that are entailed in its management. Cross-dressing among men in western societies has been studied from two major perspectives. One comes from behavioural psychologists and psychiatrists who regard transvestism as deviant behaviour that requires counselling and treatment. This medical model has limited use and is not acceptable to transvestites. Cross-dressing has also been studied from a social scientific perspective that views transvestism in relation to the performance of gender. It is within this perspective that the results of my research are primarily located. The example of male transvestism is particularly instructive because it demonstrates a creative play within shifting sexual boundaries. Male transvestites challenge assumptions about gender practices in the context of every day life when expressing their 'dedoublement' that juxtapose masculinity and femininity. Transvestism is thus an attack on the very notion of gender deviance, which is being mounted by small groups of otherwise very 'ordinary' men. These men also have a developed masculine image reflecting a specifically regional discourse of masculinity that has its origin in socio-economic backgrounds based on heavy industry and its collapse in the 1960s. A similar masculine ideology is present in both areas of my research: the North East of England and Liege in Belgium. Transvestites, by asserting 'feminine within the masculine', seriously transgress this ideology. Transvestites are often rejected on the basis of their non-normative behaviour. The boundaries between 'normal' and 'deviant' are reinforced on a daily basis through, among others factors, the media. To avoid being labelled 'deviant', transvestites tend to keep their behaviour secret or meet with others in groups that have recently began to flourish. iv Acknowledgement I am grateful to many people who contributed to the creation of this thesis. First I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Sandra Bell and co-supervisor Dr. Peter Collins. Due to their infinite patience, advises and criticism, they have helped me to get this finished and polished work out of my raw data. I particularly thank all my informants without whose friendship and trust would not have made the redaction of this work possible. Not only did they open the door to a complete new world for me, but also their own private life and feelings. I am also indebted to the several funding bodies who trusted and supported my research by providing me some financial support: The Rotary Club Antwerpen, Graduation Society Accommodation Award, L'Association de la Noblesse du Royaume de Belgique, The Sidney Perry Foundation and the BFWG Charitable Foundation. Finally, and on a more personal level, I would like to thanks all my friends and colleagues in the Department of Anthropology, University of Durham, who have provided advice, encouragement and above all friendship that has supported me trough the best and more stressful time of the redaction of this thesis. I would like to give a particular thanks to Alison Todd who gave me some of time in her busy schedule to read and criticise the content of my thesis and gave me some precious advises. And Mariella Marzano who proof read part of my thesis. My final thanks go to my family who have encouraged me over the phone and provided me with the warm stable roots that was needed during the time of doubt and crisis. There are many other people who have helped intentionally or unintentionally and who are not mentioned, to all of them a sincere thanks. Table of Contents Abstract Hi Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v Liste of Plates viii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1. Western perspectives on 'transvestism' 3 2. Terminology 5 3. Development of the masculine ideology in both areas of my research 6 4. Description of the Chapters 13 Chapter 2: Literature Review 15 1. Two approaches of Transvestism 15 1.1. The medical view of transvestism 15 1.2. The social scientific approach to transvestism 27 2. Sex/Gender 32 2.1. Gender assignation 36 2.2. Gender identity 38 2.3 . Gender role 39 2.4. Gender attribution 39 2.5. Discussion about the duality of sex and gender 40 3. Learning of gender 43 3 .1. The essentialist approach 43 3.1.1. Biological development of male andfemale 43 3.1. 1. 1. Chromosomal abnormalities 44 3.1.1.2. Sex hormone abnormalities 45 3.1.2. A Cross-ctdtural view of biological determinism 46 3.2. The Socialisation approach 47 3.2.1. Social interpretation 47 3.2.2. Psychological interpretation 50 3.2.2.1 Freud's interpretation of gender differences 50 3.2.2.2. More recent psychological interpretations 51 3 .3. The structuralist approach 52 4 Male anatomy and 'masculinity' 55 5. Conclusion 61 vi Chapter 3: Methodology 64 1. Preparing for field work 64 2. Locating the field and initial questions 65 3. Entering fieldwork and making contacts 66 3.1. Meeting places I frequented on a regular basis 72 3. 1. 1. Transvestites' group in Darlington (UK) 72 3. 1. 2. Newcastle transvestites' group (UK) 14 3.1.3. Newcastle gay bar: The C. (UK) 74 3.1.4. Newcastle night-club: The P. (UK). 74 3.1.5. Liege gay bar: The M. (Belgium) 75 3.1.6. Meeting individual transvestites in Liege and Brussels (Bel) 75 3.2. Fieldwork 75 4. Conversations, interview and ethnographic exchange 78 4.1. Participant observation 79 4.2. Conversations 82 4.3. Interviews 85 5. Ethics 89 6. Conclusion 90 Chapter 4: Meeting Groups 92 1. Transvestites' groups 92 1.1. The Darlington group 95 1.1.1. Etiquette and dress code 97 1.1.2. Socialisation 98 1.1.3. Dominoes 100 1.1.4. Friendship 102 /. 7.5. Topics of conversations at the meeting 103 1.2. The Newcastle group 105 1.3. Transvestites in Belgium 108 1.4. Internet 108 2. Drag Queens shows 109 3. Conclusion 113 Chapter 5: Fashioning a 'double' 114 1. Case studies 114 1.1. Jo 114 1.2. Christine 118 1.3. Jerry 122 1.4. Ghislaine 125 vii 2. Shaping a 'woman' 126 2.1. Transvestites and the approach to female clothes 130 2.2. Clothing the body 133 3. Development of self and identity 136 3.1. Transvestite's identities 139 3 .2. Going out and 'Passing' 147 4. Conclusion 154 Chapter 6: Transvestites and family life 158 1. Theoretical approach to transvestites' close family 158 2. Telling or not telling their wives about their transvestism 160 2.1. The institution of marriage and divorce 162 2 .2. Management of the couple 163 2.3. Acceptance by wives 171 3. Telling the close family members 178 3.1. Telling or not telling the children 178 3.2 Telling or not telling the parents 179 4. Transvestites and wives' interpretation of the origin of'dedoublement' 181 5. Conclusion 185 Chapter 7: The "Others" 187 1. Challenging the gender dichotomisation 187 2. Labelling non-normative behaviours 193 2.1. Labelling theory 195 2.2. Use of the labelling theory 200 3. Social consequences of gender assignation 201 3.1. Sub-culture 202 3.2. Minority 208 4. The image of the transvestite through the media 211 5. Political involvement of transvestites' gender identity 215 6. Conclusion 220 Chapter 8: Summary 225 Bibliography 233 viii V List of Plates Plate 1. Major informant 156 Plate 2. Dustin Hoffman as Tootsie 157 Plate 3. Some Like it Hot 222 Plate 4. The Rocky Horror Picture Show 223 Plate 5. Mrs. Doubtfire 224 ix Chapter 1 Introduction There has been, during the second half of the twentieth century, in Britain and other European countries, a major shift in the expression, orientation and representation of gender as a cultural category (Garber 1992; King 1993).
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