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Home , East European Plain, Richard Chancellor

Dr. Alexei Nallmov Slate University Russia

Russia and the Seas: Economic-Geographic Essay with Special Reference to Eastern Seas , Perception, and Use

As far as I am informed, the ongm of geographical names of different seas washing Russian shores already has been surveyed during one of the previous seminars. To my opinion, the toponimic (or pelagonomic) survey of this kind can be completed and amplified with the review of political reasons and economic-geographic circumstances of Russian expansion to Ihe seas during different periods of its history. Also the contemporary evaluation of economic potential of Russian sea-shore likewise the country strategy respect nearby seas and the World Ocean in general must be taken in mind for purposes of the present seminar devoted to Ihe East Sea! Sea of Japan. As Russian history shows, geographical discoveries and, in certain degree, origins of geographical names are strongly tied with development of the "inner" of Ihe country itself. Re-orientation of Russia in the surrounding space and evolution of geopolitical ideas were often determined by changes in regional proportions inside its territory. Since its ancient history Russia grew as a continental country. Maritime fringes of Russian (East-) seemed hostile to each of consequently replaced national cores: Kievan Rus, Vladimir­ Suzdal' Kniazestvo (kingdom) and the Muscovy.' The drift of the core of

I The only exception was Novgorod feudal republik in the North-West, independent from other Russian territories until QVI century, which grew as a hinterland of a trading river port, adjacent to the . 2

nation inside the continental territory led to location of Russian capital far away from the seas. Moscow, hide in the forested between Oka and rivers for centuries had direct access by river roules only /0 one sea -- an illler-contillellial -lAlre. In XVlllth century it was connected by system oj channels with Baltic Sea and only i" present age became a "port of five seas" after building several channels: Belomorsko-BoltiisklY (1933), Moscow-Volga (1937), Volgo- (1952) and reconstruction qf Volgo-Baltyiiskiy water roule (1964). As the seas surrounding near-by parts of mediaeval Russia were considered "foreign" by Russians, their names as usual had an ethnic origin and were taken from peoples, who settled and controlled access to their shores. For example, different parts of the contemporary were called by Russians Skiffs, Khozar's, Rum's, Burgas', Cherkass' and Turkish Sea. Even Baltic Sea, well known by Novgorodian merchants who intensively traded with Hanseatic cities in , was narned after ultramarine ethnos Variyajhskoie (Varangian) and later Sveiskoe (Swedish). Part of Ocean adjacent to firstly named by Novgorodian settlers Studionoie (Cold) Sea soon became for - - their descendants Norman (or Murman) Sea after contacts with Scandinavian peoples. Thus, from five seas washing shores of European part of contemporary Russia (not considering Caspian Sea-Lake) only one -- the newer have had official or commom narne of foreign ethnos origin. Interesting hypothesis for explanation of this fact was proposed by professor Postnikov. He derives this pelagonim from the mystical land Be/ovodie -- country, free from invadors and kind of Heaven on the Earth, often mentioned in ancient Russian legends [I]. In fact, the White Sea, reached by Novgorodians in X - Xlth centuries, has been a unique "inner" 1 sea for Russia quitely safe for navigation and fishing until Peter The Great victories on the Baltics in the beginnings of XVllth century. Though, the White Sea name fignrally meaning "free" was opposed to other "foreign" nothern and north-western seas. At the same time, there ;s one more fact aboul White Sea interesting to men/ioll. Ruuion stale (at that time he Muscawy kingdom) "discovered" this sea for foreign trade after ship commanded by Richard Chancellor sent by so called "Society qf British merchants" entered in J553 the mouth f?f Northern Dllina river. Territorial growth of centralized Russian state scince the middle of XVlth century led the country to the shores of . Muscowites followed then routes of Novgorodian colonization in North-Eastern direction, and relatuvely soon -- just about 60 years after the first campaign of Ermak to West reached in 1639 shores of . At that time territories behind the Urals, especially their northern littoral fringes were sparcely populated and seemed quitely insignificant for Russians, who used for routes to the East N orth-Euporean and Great Siberian rivers and their afluents. Thus, in XVI - XVIIth centuries pclagonyms of river origin dominated for seas, washing Arctic shores of North-Eastern comer of European part of Russia and Siberia. Pechorskole more (Pechora Sea) was common name for eastern part of the modem . received its name from Kara river -- part of a water route through the Yugorsky Penninsula roundabout straits to the South of Novaya Zemlia. The inicial name for the £as/em part of Karo Sea -- Mangazeiskoye more desappeared qfter was abandoned MallgQzeia Use(f - fur trading center near Obskaya guha (' bay). One l.?f the reasons for that was the fear of Moscow mlers lhal loreign traders could establish direct con/acls with the aboriginal tribes qf Nenez. 4

Names for other seas washing Arctic shores of Siberia were: Lenskoe (Sea of river; at the present Sea of Laptevykh, renamed in honour of officials of the Great Northern Expedition, cousins Dmitiy and Khariton Laptev'), Indigirskoie (of Indigirka river) and Kolymskoie (of river), both later united under the name of the Eastern Siberian Sea. The origin of name of Okhotsk Sea of Pacific Ocean is related with the general tenn for river -- "okat" in the languge of the local people -­ Evenk and northern part of the modem Bering Sea was inicially called Anadyrskoie more after Anadyr river. Though, the tradition of giving "riverain" names for seas continued after Russians discovered Pacific ocean. In the list for the Drawing of Siberian land composed in 1672 also it is mentioned Amurskoe more, or the Sea of Arnur (there is no pass trough Amurskoe more to the Chinese kingdom) [2] . In some sources one more "sea" -- Penzhinskoe more (after Penzhina river) is shown, which is now Penzhiskaya Bay of Okhotsk Sea [3]. b,icial Russian names for Far-Eastern seas also reflect/he elhnogeography of the . Another names for Okholskoe Sea were Trmgusskoe more (Tungus was a name used for Even and Evenk people) and Lamskoe more ("lam" means the sea in Evenk). The central fX1r1 of the Bering's sea was tlQllled Olutorskoe more after the name of Koryak's tribe. On the majority of Russian maps of Xvnth and first half of XVIIlth centuries all the aquatory to the East of recently conquested Russian shores is called Vostochnoe More-Akiyan (Eastern Sea-Ocean) or simply Akiyan (Ocean). Its southern part sometimes is called Yuzhnoe more (Southern Sea) or TlOploe more (Warm Sea) as opposed to "cold" Arctic sea. 5

!J we analyse, for emmple, the scetch map of Piotr Godunov from /667, we find thai on map. composed by lhe "data of eye.wilnl!ss'~ Kolyma and even Lena rivers jlow into the Eastern (Pacific) ocean. The way from Sludionoe more (Arclic Ocean) to Tioploe more (another name for Pacific Ocean) is shown as free; that means the composers of map knew the relUits qf Semen Dieznev expedition of 1648. II is obvious also dislOrtion in the real size of eastern terTi/ories: enormous North­ Eastern edge dominates and Ziemba Kitaiskaya (The Land qf China) seems very small. [4] After Russians discovered in the middle XVIIIth century America, the main aim for them became conquest of its Pacific shores and adjacent islands. [t is well known, that Russian discoverers advanced by American shore much more to the South, than by the Pacific funge of . Fur trade with American tribes made trans-Pacific navigation much more important than cabotage in the Far-Eastern seas. Though, the image of aquatory of the modem Sea of Japan on Russian maps in XVlIlth century even after middle of XIXth century was often taken from the Western European cartographic sources. Most of them use the name of Eastern Ocean (as, for example, on the map of Adam Brand published in Holland in 1698: "Oceanus Orientalis") [5J. Only one source -- maps composed by librarian of Navigatskaya shkola (School of navigation) in Moscow Vasilii Kiprianov use the name of Western Ocean (to the west of Jedso (Japan) islands) [6]. Koreiskoe 1II0re (Korean Sea) between Korean penninsula and Japan (Nifon) islands appeared on Russian maps scince the end of XVlllth century. Probably, information about this part of Pacific Ocean was based on the descriptions composed by Jesuit missionaries in China and Manchzuria who travelled to the East by land through Moscow. Several descriptions of "The Great Tartaria" and so on lands are known, where, as usual, Korean Sea is mentioned. 6

Some ...colars consider thai the propper name of Korea came /0 Europe from Portugese larvellers alld thaI its origins are related with misrepresented dynasty name KogrlYe [7]. There were aslo propper Russian sources of infonnation, for instance the report of Russian envoy to Beijin Nikolay Sapfary (1678) and some Japanese captured in Kamtchatka and Pacific islands and brought to Moscow and Saint Petersburg. During XVIIIth century Russian interests in the Pacific were oriented mostly to the territories in its North-East. The Great Northern Expedition established by Peter the 1st and leaded during several years by the discoverer of Alaska captain-commander realized research mostly in the seas of Arctic Ocean. Bul in spite of predominance of Russian activities in there were also tentatives to discover and colonize Pacific costs to the South. William Elton, an Englishman at Russian service scince 1733 made preposition of "Discovery of the ship's pass from Arkhangel lown around Novaya

Ziem/yo /0 Japan, China, India and to other 'ands' ~ There he insists that it is recommended to organize sea trade around Siberia with Japan, China, and other countries to the South. [8] But Russians who surveyed the aquatory of Okhotsk Sea because of navigation between the continental shore, Kamtchatka penninsula and Kurily islands and even reached Japan approached the crucial part of this proposed maritime route -- the modem Sea of Japan only during expedition of [van Krusenshtern (1803-1806). Coming from the side of Pacific Ocean, he followed his French predecessor -- La Perouse, the first European who mapped in spring of 1787 shores of Japan Sea and East Chinese Sea and pul on his map name of Ihe Sea of Japan. [9] It is clear that this name of the sea reflected principaly new "oceanic" manner of perception of the aqualory. Wiewed before from the 7 and named after aboriginal inhabitants of eastern (or continental) shores the sea became "of Japan" for aroud-the-world navigators who came from the West (South-West) and left Japan islands behind. At the same time, the name of Korean strait became common for southern part of this sea between Japan and Korea. Northern shores of the Sea of Japan belong to Russia SCIDce annexion of Priamurte (territories along Amur river) by G.!. Nevel'skoi in 1850 who founded Nikolaevskiy Post (nowadays Nikolaevsk-na-Amure, town in 80 kms from the mouth of Amur) and declared as Russian possesion the whole Priamurskiy kray "until the Korean boundary with Sakhalin island". [1 0)

During his navigation by lhe strail between the continent and Sakhalin island, later named in honour of him, Nevel'skoy in 1849 reached lhe northern point of the route of La Perouse. Russia discovered southern limits of its Oikumene in the rar East and very soon new geiopolilicai ideas appeared reflecting changes in orientation of the country in the Pacific. Among the most prominent representatives of these new geopolitical ideas let us mention first of all Veniarnin Piotrovich Semenov-Tyan'­ Shan'skiy. Afret his words, "If we look to the World map, it is easy to notice in the , on the border of tropical and temperare belrs besides 0 and 45° of latitude rhree great oceanic bays or rhree mediterranean seas -- Euriopean Mediterranean with the Black Sea, Chinese Seas (Southern and Eastern) with the Sea of Japan' and Yellow Sea, at least Karibbean Sea with the Mexican GUlf" . [11) Comparing all three "mediterranean" seas this geographer finds for them several general features, including relatively abundant natural

2From the physical-geographical popint ofwiew, Eastern China Sea with the Sea of Japan is a fringe sea (Krummel), but from the point of wiew of antropogeography it have to be counted as mediterranean. 8 resources of the shores and "growth of the most strong and most prominent human civilizations" arOlU1d . He also points out that more "perfect" political systems developed as usual near the oorthern, temperate by its climate parts of these seas. According to Semionov-Tyan'-Shan'sIGy, nations, which dominate each of three mediterranean seas could be "owners of the World". He predicted that "very sooo the collar system of possession, experienced by Europeans, probably, if in favourable conditions, will be followed respective to the Mexican and Chinese mediterranean seas by Americans and Japanese. [12) Simultaneously the Significance of the seas herween temperate and tropical bellS 0/ Eurasia was considered as priority of geopolitical interests by British geographer Halford J. Macldnder in his article "The Geographical Pivot of His/ory". He considered the "fnner or marginal crescent between pivot area and /and of outer or insular crescent" as the area of main contradiction of interests and conflicts between "sea powers" (Britain, Japan) and "land-powers" (Russia). [!3] Russian empire tried to slrenghten its presence on the shores of the eastern "" building in 1897-1903 the Chinese-Eastern railway and fortresses on the shores of the Yellow Sea. But soon this attempt of building Russian geopolitical space "from sea to sea" failed after defeat, suffered in the war with "sea-power" Japan. The theme of colonization of the rar East was very popular among Russian geographers at the end of XlXth - beginnings of XXth centuries. Some of them proposed to create a system of "new cultural bases" as' cores of development through the south of Siberia. The above mentioned Samionov-Tian '-Shan 'ski compared Russian colonization with the "sword, wedged between severe in climatic conditions territories of the North qf and the abori"'"al lands of the largest state qf the yellow race". [14] He considered as the principal condition of successful development qf Russia coinsidence of the geographical center qf Russian territory with allocation of the country population and hoped thaI with the growth of population in Siberia the 9

Far.Eastenrjringe will approach to Russia itself Many other interesting publications appeared at thai time, giving live for the so-called "EurQ--Asian" school ;n Russian social science. Only one of many 0/ them interesting to mennon for the purposes of the present seminar ;s the article of A.I. Voyeikov "If the Pacific Ocean will be the World route ". But nowadays the geographical center of Russia, even shifted towards East from the Western Siberia after disintegration of the Soviet Union is still far from its "center of population"; that one allocated somewhere between the Middle Volga river and the . Russia remains "the land-power" as the majority of its inhabitants live far from sea shores. Even in the European part of the country very small portion of population (less than 10%) corresponds to the sea shores. There are now millionaire cities on the sea shores except the about 5-milljonaire Saint-Petersburg and in the enormous territory of the with the total 6 millions of inhabitants (less then 4% of the whole country population) only one city -­ Vladivostok exceeds 500.000. Interesting wiew to the proportions in the studied region give the so-called anamorphic (anamorphoid) maps composed by the scholars qf Moscow Sate University V. Tikunov and S.Gusein-Zade (figures J and 2). Contemporary Russia, even in the boundaries C!f its recent ancestor - Soviet Union seems comparing with the other Wortld povers and even _some new industrialized estates if the square of courllriers corresponds not to the land area as usuall, but to S4!rtain indicators - number of inhabitants (fig. J) or Gross Domestic Product (fig. 1). On the population "anamorphoid" - only the Okhotsk sea in the Far east is viewed as advamageous allocated for Russia. The Sea qf Japall in its northem part appears as a very narrow angle between Primorie (Vladivostok region) and Sakhalin,

incomparable with the figurally "blowing liP " due 10 its inmense population Chinese territory and other powerful neighbours - Japan and Korea. On the second map where real proportions are distorced in favour qf GDP all space C?f the Far East

seems 10 be "organized" around Japan. As the countries of secondary rank appear 10 the Republik of Korea, Taiwan and Honlwng (that time given ""parately from the People's Repuhlik oj China). Bul jar Russia the situation on this map seems more favorlrable. as the economic significance 0/ its Far East erceeds human poIen/jal of the region. For Russia possessing the biggest fisbing flest in the World (by deadweught) the Pacific Ocean is the main source of fish and seaproducts. It gives about 3/4 of fish catch amount, and about 1/3 corresponds to the Primorskiy Iaay (Vladivostok gerion). International trade with other countries arround far-eastern seas is also very important, but especially for , Russian raw materials exports. Trading with Japan and Korea seems more close to his foreign partners than to and even Southern Siberia. For example, stalistic dota for NaIchodIca Free Economic zone shows for /996 72% of exports orientod to Japan and 9% to the Republic of Korea; 18% of import comes from Japan, 17%from the Republic of Korea and IO%from China. Japan is the leader by capital investements to the development of this port. Though, The Sea of Japan really became mediterranean for the Far East. For Russia its significance is indisputable, but in the present econontic and demographic stage of my country its far-eastern sea shores seem kind of "periphery" of the more developed and fast growing neigbour nations and econonties. Mental maps of the majority or Russian inhabitants of the area consider Japan as the main power in the region and it will be difficult to find many enthusiasts who desire to rename The Sea of Japan into The East Sea among, for instance, citizens of Vladivostok who drive Japanese used cars, watch Japanese TVs and listen Japanese radios. From the more "scientific" and moderate point of view we must also be very accurate taking in mind other nearby aquatory -- the Southern Chinese Sea, which name can be disputed by many nations of the South- II

Easten Asia. Probably, the solution would be to name all the seas from OkhotSlSea to the Southern Chinese Sea "Eastern Mediterranean Bascin" whiCllrefiects the economic reality (strong intra-regional relations) and expectations of exploreres and geographers who discovered this part of the World Ocean. Let this name appear at first in geographical literature, and soon it could be one of the non written on maps but widely used geographic names as "", "Arab World", etc.

References: L Poslni/wv A. v.. Pospelov E.M The History of Russian Names for Seas with the special Reference on the Development of the Korean (Japanese) Sea Presentation on

Maps (Seventeenth through nineteenth centuries). ~. The international Seminar on the Geographical Name of East Sea. Session I, Seoul, 1995, p. 32-65 2. Cited by: Efimov AV Is istorii velikih russkih geograficheskih otkrytii. [On the History of Russian Great Geographical Discoveries], Moscow, 1950, p.76 3. lbidem, illustration for p. 88: liThe Drawing of the New Kamchadal Lands"by S. Remerov from 1705-1706. 4. Ibidem, p.75 5. Ibidem, p.77 !+t~'II.A.V'f"/ 6.rt6.dem, p.35 7. R.A. Ageeva. Strany I narody: proiskhozhdenie nazvaniy (Lands and Peoples: Origins of Names). Moscow, 1990, p.193 s. Ibidem, p.212 9. lP. Magidovitch. Ocherki po istorii geograficheskih olkririy. (Essays on the History of Geographical discoveries). Moscow, 1957. p.494 10. Ibidem, p.51S 11. V.P. Semionov-Tyan'-Shanskiy, 0 mogushestvCMom territorial/nom vladenii primenitel'no k Rossii (ocherk po politicheskoy geografii) (About the Powerful Territorial Possession Respect to Russia (Essay of ). Petrograd, 1915 12. Ibidem 12

13 . Halford J. Mackinder The Geographical Pivot of HistoryllGeographical Joumal23, 421-37,1904 14. V.P. Semionov-Tyan'-Shanskiy, Ibidem " i~;~~?i~~~f' ;_i~:~, I ··'

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