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Evolution of the Toxins Muscarine and Psilocybin in a Family of Mushroom-Forming Fungi

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Evolution of the Toxins Muscarine and Psilocybin in a Family of Mushroom-Forming Fungi Evolution of the Toxins Muscarine and Psilocybin in a Family of Mushroom-Forming Fungi Pawel Kosentka1*, Sarah L. Sprague2, Martin Ryberg3, Jochen Gartz4, Amanda L. May5, Shawn R. Campagna5, P. Brandon Matheny3 1 Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States of America, 2 Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States of America, 3 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States of America, 4 MITZ Merseburg, Merseburg, Germany, 5 Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States of America Abstract Mushroom-forming fungi produce a wide array of toxic alkaloids. However, evolutionary analyses aimed at exploring the evolution of muscarine, a toxin that stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system, and psilocybin, a hallucinogen, have never been performed. The known taxonomic distribution of muscarine within the Inocybaceae is limited, based only on assays of species from temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Here, we present a review of muscarine and psilocybin assays performed on species of Inocybaceae during the last fifty years. To supplement these results, we used liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) to determine whether muscarine was present in 30 new samples of Inocybaceae, the majority of which have not been previously assayed or that originated from either the tropics or temperate regions of the southern hemisphere. Our main objective is to test the hypothesis that the presence of muscarine is a shared ancestral feature of the Inocybaceae. In addition, we also test whether species of Inocyabceae that produce psilocybin are monophyletic. Our findings suggest otherwise. Muscarine has evolved independently on several occasions, together with several losses. We also detect at least two independent transitions of muscarine-free lineages to psilocybin-producing states. Although not ancestral for the family as a whole, muscarine is a shared derived trait for an inclusive clade containing three of the seven major lineages of Inocybaceae (the Inocybe, Nothocybe, and Pseudosperma clades), the common ancestor of which may have evolved ca. 60 million years ago. Thus, muscarine represents a conserved trait followed by several recent losses. Transitions to psilocybin from muscarine-producing ancestors occurred more recently between 10–20 million years ago after muscarine loss in two separate lineages. Statistical analyses firmly reject a single origin of muscarine-producing taxa. Citation: Kosentka P, Sprague SL, Ryberg M, Gartz J, May AL, et al. (2013) Evolution of the Toxins Muscarine and Psilocybin in a Family of Mushroom-Forming Fungi. PLoS ONE 8(5): e64646. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064646 Editor: Jason E. Stajich, University of California Riverside, United States of America Received January 30, 2013; Accepted April 16, 2013; Published May 23, 2013 Copyright: ß 2013 Kosentka et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Funding: Support for this research was made possible by a grant from the National Science Foundation to P.B. Matheny and N.L. Bougher (DEB-0949517). Support for undergraduate research was provided by the Hesler Endowment Fund and a Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU) supplement to Matheny. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing Interests: JG is an employee of MITZ Merseburg, Merseburg. There are no patents, products in development or marketed products to declare. This does not alter the authors’ adherence to all the PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. * E-mail: [email protected] Introduction poisonings in humans [14]. Dogs are particularly susceptible to muscarine poisoning with some cases resulting in death [15,16]. The alkaloid muscarine, an ammonium quaternary compound Over a thirty-year period in the United States, four reported cases that stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system of animals, is of human poisonings and ten in dogs were confirmed due to found in clinically significant amounts in basidiomata (fruitbodies) muscarine intoxication [17]. However, most mushroom intoxica- of several distantly related groups of mushroom-forming fungi tions in the United States fail to be ascribed to any particular (Clitocybe sensu lato, Mycena, Omphalotus, Inocybe) [1,2]. Muscarine fungal species. Outside the United States, muscarine intoxication binds to acetylcholine receptors and induces a characteristic suite cases continue to be documented, including a recent human of symptoms that include profuse sweating, lacrimation, and fatality [18–20]. Fortunately, poisonings are rarely lethal in bradycardia. These symptoms are generally expressed quickly humans, and atropine may be administered to patients to block within two hours after consumption. The toxin is particularly muscarine stimulation [2,21,22]. widespread in basidiomata of species of Inocybe sampled from Psilocybin, a tryptamine alkaloid that acts on serotonin 5-HT2A/ North America and Europe [3–13]. C receptor sites and induces hallucinations [23], was first Species of Inocybe may be mistaken for, or mixed with, other demonstrated in Inocybe in the 1980s [3,24,25]. Several related desirable species for consumption, perhaps in part because psychotropic toxins–norbaeocystin, baeocystin and psilocin–tend mushrooms that contain muscarine tend to fruit in urban to co-occur with psilocybin. A fifth, aeruginascin, an indole environments and therefore are more easily collected for the table alkaloid and trimethylammonium analogue of psilocybin, was or grazed by young children [2]. A flush of I. patouillardii (now recently discovered in the European species I. aeruginascens [26]. known as I. erubescens) in Germany in June 1963 led to mass This species has also been shown to lack muscarine [27]. Overall, PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 1 May 2013 | Volume 8 | Issue 5 | e64646 Evolution of Toxins in the Inocybaceae six species of Inocybe, five of which correspond to section Lactiferae, Materials and Methods produce psilocybin and have been shown to lack muscarine (I. coelestium, I. corydalina, I. erinaceomorpha, I. haemacta, and I. tricolor). Muscarine- and Psilocybin-containing Taxon Datasets However, the classification of I. aeruginascens within subgenus A literature review of muscarine and psilocybin reports in the Inocybe is not known. Species of section Cervicolores (viz, I. calamistrata Inocybaceae was performed (Table S1). To this we added and allies) lack muscarine as well but do not produce psilocybin or muscarine presence-absence data for 30 new collections (Table 1) other hallucinogenic compounds [3]. including representatives from previously unsampled regions of Although muscarine has been known as a toxin in Inocybe for Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Africa, and the neotropics. Data nearly 90 years, methods used for its detection have varied matrices for presence/absence of muscarine and psilocybin were widely. In 1920 muscarine was reported as the main toxin in I. then compiled for taxa present in our phylogenetic data set (Table rimosa using physiological tests on the heart of a frog [28]. S2) in Mesquite 2.73 [35]. Later, muscarine was isolated as a tetrachloraurate salt from I. Taxa from the phylogenetic data set were scored for muscarine- patouillardii [29], and then again later from I. fastigata and I. psilocybin presence/absence (1/0 data) according to geographic umbrina [30]. A paper chromatographic method was used in the proximity of assayed species, where sequence data were lacking early 1960s [5] to determine muscarine concentrations in from assayed collections. We employed this strategy to take into various species of Inocybe. About the same time rat lacrimation account taxonomic uncertainties, whereby taxa were scored as bioassays were also explored [9]. Later, chemotaxonomic tests ambiguous. For example, Stijve et al. [13] reported presence of were employed to assay the presence of muscarine in selected muscarine in a European sample of I. flocculosa; our molecular data species of Inocybe [11]. During the 1980s and 1990s significant set contains a sequence of I. flocculosa from Norway, so this tip was advances were made that discovered stereoisomers of muscarine scored as positive (1) for muscarine. However, Gurevich et al. [7] and the presence of psilocybin and other psychotropic report the presence of muscarine in Eurasian I. umbratica.We compounds in species of Inocybe that lacked muscarine scored the presence of muscarine as positive (1) in our European [3,4,7,12,13,24,25,27,31]. These differences in detection meth- sample of I. umbratica but scored our North American sample as ods produced some conflicting information about presence/ ambiguous because we lack muscarine data for North American absence of muscarine in various species of Inocybaceae. materials of this species or species group. In another example, both Malone et al. [9] and Robbers et al. [11] report the presence of Few studies, mostly of the genus Inocybe, have examined the muscarine in I. cinnamomea, a species endemic to the Pacific distribution of muscarine within a systematic framework to Northwest. Our phylogenetic
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