Aquatic Mammals 2011, 37(3), 397-419, DOI 10.1578/AM.37.3.2011.397 Recovery of the Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monachus schauinslandi): A Review of Conservation Efforts, 1972 to 2010, and Thoughts for the Future Lloyd F. Lowry,1 David W. Laist,2 William G. Gilmartin,3 and George A. Antonelis4 1University of Alaska Fairbanks and Hawaiian Monk Seal Recovery Team, 73-4388 Paiaha Street, Kailua Kona, HI 96740, USA; E-mail:
[email protected] 2U.S. Marine Mammal Commission, 4340 East-West Highway, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA 3Hawaii Wildlife Fund and Hawaiian Monk Seal Recovery Team, PO Box 70, Volcano, HI 96785, USA 4National Marine Fisheries Service, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center (retired), 1601 Kapiolani Boulevard, Honolulu, HI 96814, USA Abstract extinction and recover the population sufficiently so that it can be removed from the Endangered The Hawaiian monk seal is one of the world’s Species Act’s list of endangered species. rarest marine mammal species and is listed as depleted, endangered, and critically endangered Key Words: Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus based on national and international criteria. schauinslandi, Endangered Species Act, extinc- Although its precarious status was already rec- tion, recovery, marine mammal conservation, ognized by the 1950s, it was not until the 1970s Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, main Hawaiian that direct protection was afforded to monk seals Islands by U.S. legislation. Many important actions were taken to try and recover the population during Introduction the following four decades, including develop- ing a population monitoring program; controlling Monk seals are an ancient lineage of pinnipeds that impacts of military facilities in the Northwestern appeared in the warm waters of the eastern North Hawaiian Islands (NWHI); managing fisheries Atlantic Ocean about 15 million years ago (Berta to reduce their impacts; removing marine debris; et al., 2006).