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Identidades Sin Frontera: Rupturas Y Continuidades En View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by ETD - Electronic Theses & Dissertations IDENTIDADES SIN FRONTERA: RUPTURAS Y CONTINUIDADES EN LA LITERATURA DE LA ONDA Y LA NARRATIVA CHICANA By Mayra Fortes Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in SPANISH August, 2009 Nashville, Tennessee Approved: Professor William Luis Professor René Prieto Professor Jason Borge Professor Edward Wright-Rios Copyright © 2009 by Mayra Fortes All Rights Reserved ii Para mis padres, ya que sin su amor y apoyo incondicional hubiera sido imposible llegar al final de tan largo camino Para mi hermana, Nelly, que compartió conmigo algunas horas de comunicación cibernética durante este proceso iii TABLA DE CONTENIDOS PÁGINA DEDICATORIA ..............................................................................................................iii INTRODUCCIÓN ........................................................................................................... vi Capítulo I. LOS AÑOS SESENTA: CONTACTOS CULTURALES Y (RE) DEFINICIONES NACIONALES......................................................................................................... 1 Una presencia incómoda: el pachuco................................................................... 17 La frontera en la capital: la Onda y la literatura de la Onda................................ 30 “¿México se acaba donde empieza el olor a carne?”: el devenir de la frontera... 45 II. DEBATES DEL SER: POCHO Y LA PROBLEMÁTICA DE LA IDENTIDAD CHICANA .............................................................................................................. 58 País del padre, ¿herencia del hijo?....................................................................... 62 El otro en mí: la madre y el espacio materno como símbolos de fractura........... 72 En busca del ser: conocimiento, individualidad y diferencia .............................. 81 La voz del otro ..................................................................................................... 97 III. ENTRE LA DISIDENCIA Y LA TRADICIÓN: LA REBELDÍA ENMASCARADA EN LAS NOVELAS DE JOSÉ AGUSTÍN........................................................... 108 Movimientos del ser: en busca de un lugar propio ............................................. 112 Mentira y recreación; escritura y salvación ........................................................ 129 Moviendo fronteras: cultura de masas e identidad ............................................. 144 IV. ¿HIJOS DE LA NADA?: RUPTURA, AUTORIDAD Y REBELDÍA EN CARAS VIEJAS Y VINO NUEVO ...................................................................................... 161 Seducción, atracción y rechazo: la búsqueda y la diferencia como base de la identidad chicana .............................................................................................. 164 Autoridad y rebeldía: identidad juvenil y problemática paterna....................... 174 La Llorona y el barrio como espacio femenino ................................................ 190 La continuidad como problema: fragmentación y la experiencia chicana........ 199 iv V. LOS EXILIOS DEL SER: NACIÓN, SOLEDAD Y LENGUAJE EN PASTO VERDE................................................................................................................. 211 Rolando la Onda: el movimiento como vehículo de búsqueda......................... 216 ¿Chicano yo?: la presencia del inglés en Pasto verde ...................................... 230 Las discontinuidades del yo: lenguaje, escritura e identidad............................ 237 CONCLUSIÓN............................................................................................................. 249 APÉNDICE................................................................................................................... 261 Entrevista con José Agustín.............................................................................. 261 OBRAS CITADAS....................................................................................................... 272 v INTRODUCCIÓN La pregunta sobre nosotros se revela siempre como una pregunta sobre los otros Octavio Paz, Posdata. …de acuerdo con la onda, si hay una correlación entre los hombres y los astros, ¿por qué demonios no va a existir una correlación entre los hombres y las naciones, las naciones y las naciones? Parménides García Saldaña, En la ruta de la onda Los epígrafes anteriores hacen referencia a dos temas centrales de esta disertación: la identidad individual y nacional. El interés por estos temas surgió a raíz del ambiente social y económico que permeaban la ciudad donde transcurrió mi infancia: Atlixco, en el estado de Puebla, en México. Esta ciudad enclavada entre dos imponentes volcanes y rodeada de pequeños pueblos cuya actividad principal es la agricultura, ha sido testigo de las mayores olas migratorias hacia Estados Unidos. Buena parte de sus habitantes ha emigrado al estado de Nueva York.1 Este movimiento cambió la cotidianidad de la ciudad: se volvió común ver mujeres originarias de estos pueblos sacando dólares de sus bolsillos para cambiarlos por pesos en los comercios, y, más recientemente en las numerosas casas de cambio. Esta imagen se complementaba con jóvenes usando baggie pants, cargados de cadenas de “oro” (el bling bling), con 1 Cerca de un millón de poblanos habitan la región de Nueva York/Nueva Jersey, que ya se le conoce como “Puebla York.” Así, cerca de la mitad de los inmigrantes mexicanos en este estado norteamericano provienen de Puebla, de acuerdo con el Consulado General de México en Nueva York. La emigración comenzó en los años ochenta, a raíz de la caída de los precios del maíz, el frijol, la jamaica y el cacahuate (Relea s/p). vi camisetas con la virgen de Guadalupe en medio de las banderas norteamericana y mexicana, hablando español con acento inglés o spanglish. Las reacciones de los habitantes de la ciudad hacia ellos no eran positivas. Se escuchaban comentarios como “son pochos,” “nada más vienen a presumir que viven en Estados Unidos,” “no hablan español porque son unos payasos,” reacciones muy similares a las que Agustín Yañez describe sobre el regreso de los inmigrantes en su novela Al filo del agua (1947). Lo que llamaba la atención de estos jóvenes era precisamente su diferencia. Resultaba chocante ver en una comunidad pequeña y no muy cosmopolita este tipo de personas diferentes del resto. Ellos hacían evidente la existencia de un movimiento que traspasaba las fronteras atlixquenses y que evidentemente alteraba su configuración social, cultural y económica. Irónicamente, el movimiento migratorio era aceptado pero no las alteraciones que pudiera acarrear en la configuración social y cultural de Atlixco (los dólares siempre fueron bienvenidos). Como muchas otras ciudades de México, esta localidad ha sido testigo del movimiento hacia el norte. Sin embargo, como revela la presencia de estos jóvenes inmigrantes, este movimiento no ha sido exclusivamente en dirección norte sino también de regreso. En este momento los lectores probablemente se estarán preguntando ¿qué tiene que ver Atlixco en esta disertación? Pues bien, el hecho de que un lugar tan pequeño como Atlixco haya experimentado cambios (y siga experimentando pero actualmente en términos de crisis) en su configuración social y económica es una muestra palpable del fuerte impacto que Estados Unidos ha tenido en México. Aún en el centro del país, que siempre se ha esforzado por distinguirse del norte que sí “está agringado,” el vecino se deja sentir con fuerza. ¿Cómo entonces comprender esas diferencias que vii emergen en el territorio nacional? Y ¿cómo un estudio de la narrativa de la Onda y chicana puede aproximar esas diferencias? Tanto la narrativa de la Onda como la narrativa chicana surgieron en un momento de crisis nacional y mundial. En Estados Unidos los movimientos de los grupos minoritarios por la afirmación de la identidad y los derechos civiles, como el afroamericano y el chicano, cuestionaron la idea de identidad nacional. En México los disturbios sociales, entre ellos el movimiento estudiantil, retaron al Estado posrevolucionario. El campo literario en ambas naciones no permaneció inmune ante las turbulencias. La etiqueta “literatura de la Onda” asociaba directamente a las narrativas identificadas bajo este rubro con el movimiento de rebeldía juvenil que tuvo lugar en México hacia la mitad de los sesenta y principios del setenta. Las novelas que conformaron esta categoría literaria generaron reacciones diversas: algunos las elogiaron porque marcaban un cambio en el campo literario mexicano; otros las repudiaron pues las consideraron una amenaza a la literatura nacional dado su lenguaje híbrido, coloquial y las referencias a la cultura de masas, particularmente la norteamericana. Hasta hoy, estas novelas se han estudiado desde varias perspectivas: 1) la testimonial, como el ensayo de Margo Glantz, “Onda y Escritura en México. Jóvenes de 20 a 33.” De este ensayo surgió el controversial término, “literatura de la Onda” como contrapropuesta a las novelas de la Escritura, es decir las novelas experimentales como por ejemplo Farabeuf (1965); 2) la literaria, como el trabajo de Susan Schaffer Prose Fiction of the Onda Generation in Mexico (1981); 3) la socio cultural, como el artículo de Jorge Ruffinelli “Sainz y Agustín: literatura y contexto social”, y, en
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