Notes

1 Religion and the Northern Conflict

1. For the purposes of this section, when the word ‘nationalism’ is used without a qualifier, it refers to both Unionism and , not solely Irish nationalism. Ulster Unionism is treated here as a form of nationalism. 2. For example, Akenson (1992) has demonstrated how the extraordinary histories and virulent nationalisms of the Ulster Scots, Afrikaners, and Israelis have been moulded by the idea that they are latter-day Israelites, or covenanted peoples chosen by God. However, Smith (1999) has identi- fied covenantal election myths also among the Armenians, the Copts, the Amharic Monophysites, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Christians, Irish Roman Catholics, and New England Protestants, while other versions of the religious election myth were present in ancient Sumer, Egypt, Greece, , and Babylon; medieval Christian peoples, including the French, Swiss, English, Welsh, Spanish, Catalans, Poles, and Hungarians; and in non- Christian traditions, among Arabs and Persians, Sikhs, Sinhalese, Burmans, Chinese, and Japanese. Smith argues that the ideas of national mission and destiny characteristic of nationalism represent secular expressions – ‘lineal descendants’ – of these earlier religious notions of ethnic ‘chosen peoples’. 3. The political philosopher John Gray has written of how the teleological view of history (as a narrative that will culminate in a coming age of liberation and justice), which has been fundamental to so many nationalisms and a range of secular political projects from National Socialism to communism to American neo-conservatism, was borrowed from Christianity (Gray, 2007). 4. This identification of Catholicism with oppressive politics is still the basis for much Unionist thinking today; on ‘secular anti-Catholicism’, see Brewer and Higgins (1998: 151–64). 5. Describing quasi-religion, Wolffe looks to theologian Paul Tillich’s charac- terisation of religion as ‘being grasped by an ultimate concern’, and ‘taking something with ultimate seriousness, unconditional seriousness’. This then includes causes like nationalism and communism which have a cultural power and ideological structure which is similar to those of traditional reli- gion, and arouse a similarly totalising degree of commitment. Tillich calls these causes ‘quasi-religions’ or ‘secular faiths’ (Wolffe, 1994: 8). Sociologists tend to use the term ‘civic religions’. 6. The 2010 Life and Times Survey (see http://www.ark.ac.uk/ nilt) showed that 55 per cent of people attended religious services at least once a month, with 32 per cent attending weekly. This compares with the 23 per cent attending monthly and 14 per cent attending weekly services in Britain, according to the 2011–12 British Social Attitudes Survey. Only 13 per cent in Northern Ireland said they had no religious affiliation at all; the figure for Britain was 50 per cent.

177 178 Notes

7. Racial contrasts have never been a significant feature of the Ireland conflict. Describing pre-partition Unionist discourse, Hempton and Hill stress that Catholics were regarded as inferior, not because they were Irish Celts, but because their religion made them inferior (Hempton and Hill, 1992: 183). On the similarities and dissimilarities between racism and , see Brewer (1992). 8. Protestants, of course, also turned to religion to interpret events, but found opposite analogies. The Gazette had this to say about ’s election to Westminster: ‘The people of Fermanagh-South Tyrone certainly chose Barabbas and they well and truly re-crucified Christ’ (cited in O’Malley, 1990: 165). 9. And the continued faction fighting within Loyalism and the emergence of dissident Republicanism is a useful reminder of this significance. 10. The collapse of the Combined Loyalist Military Command meant the UDA was reluctant to join the peace process – they are understood to have been dragged into the ceasefire by the UVF kicking and screaming. The UDA’s political party, the UDP, has folded. The UVF’s return to violence (particularly the murder of Bobby Moffett and the East riots in 2010) has caused oneleaderofthePUPtoresignindisgust(DawnPurvis)andthePUPtolose its only seat in the devolved assembly in Stormont.

2 The Personal Faith of Ex-Combatants

1. ‘God protected me, claims Loyalist Adair’, Newsletter, 6 September 2011.

3 Religion and Motivations for Violence

1. This is not quite right. For example, ‘crab suas’ means ‘fuck up’. He is refer- ring to the tendency to use expletives in their English version (as so often happens in other languages too, so universal has the f-word become in its English form). 2. This siege mentality is captured well in two books on Northern , one which refers to them as having a ‘precarious belonging’ (Dunlop, 1995), the other of them being an ‘unsettled people’ (McKay, 2000). 3. Perceptions of ‘’ are full of mythology, on all sides, and we feel it is necessary to point out here that Protestants were not ‘put out’ of New Barnsley. They were persuaded to leave in an exodus orchestrated by , and in a famous TV interview Brian Faulkner, the then prime min- ister, pleaded with them to stay, but to no avail. They were not so much put out as led out. Perceptions, however, are what matters for it is perceptions that link to emotions and then to behaviour.

4 Religion and Prison

1. Prison Fellowship is a worldwide evangelical ministry which promotes Christianity within prisons, provides practical care for prisoners and their families, and campaigns on criminal justice and penal reform issues. It was Notes 179

founded in the United States by Watergate conspirator and Christian convert Charles Colson (see Colson, 1979). 2. McClinton was infamous for once suggesting that Catholics should be beheaded and their heads left on the railings at Woodvale Park in North Belfast, but he underwent a religious conversion in prison to an extreme form of conservative . He was later pastor to the UVF and to the , whose most infamous member was , also known as King Rat, notorious for the murder of innocent Catholics. McClinton’s religious beliefs and his relationship with Wright are discussed in Brewer and Higgins (1998). 3. The issue of shorter sentences for those with religious conversions is not mythology and we return to it again below. Gerry Fitt, Member of Parlia- ment for Catholic West Belfast, protested about it several times in the House of Commons, since only Loyalists got this remission. The argument raged at the time. The prison authorities were Protestant and they did not think that Catholics were real Christians and therefore could not be born again in their conversion experience. Basher Bates, for example, was one of the Shankill Butcher gang and was sentenced to multiple life sentences in jail. The judge said he should never be released again. But within a few years he became born again and got out on Christmas and summer parole before being released. The reason given was that he was a serious Christian and had turned his life around. He was shot dead by fellow UDA people because he had shot a UDA man’s son.

5 Ex-Combatants and the Churches

1. A small number of clerics were responsible for public pronouncements on Republican and state violence over the course of ‘the Troubles’. These included Cardinal William Conway, Cardinal Tomás Ó Fiaich, Bishop Edward Daly, Car- dinal Cathal Daly and Monsignor Denis Faul. On their personal styles and emphases, see O’Connor (1993: 272–333) and Brewer et al. (2011). None sup- ported the IRA, although Cardinal Ó Fiaich, in 1978, voiced the Republican demand that the British should withdraw from Northern Ireland. 2. Some of these are well known. Fr Des Wilson, Fr Pat Buckley, and Fr Jim McVeigh were critical of the church hierarchy’s focus on IRA violence over violence by the security forces (O’Connor, 1993: 283–4). Several priests were involved in setting up vigilante groups to protect Catholic areas in 1969–70 (O’Connor, 1993: 276). Two Cistercians, Fr Thomas O’Neill and Brother Patrick Skehan, were arrested and convicted of attempting to drive escaped IRA prisoners across the border in 1971–72 (McElroy, 1991: 144). The most notorious case of clerical support for the IRA is that of Fr James Chesney who is believed to have been an IRA leader and involved in the in which nine people were killed. According to a report by the Police Ombudsman published in October 2010, the police, British government and colluded at the time to keep the priest’s role secret, probably in order to avoid inflaming community tensions (see Brewer et al., 2011: 3, 156–63). 180 Notes

3. The Evangelical Contribution on Northern Ireland was a ‘think and do tank’ that was active from the late 1980s until it morphed into the Centre for Contemporary in 2005. ECONI eschewed both dis- engaged evangelical pietism and Paisley-style religious nationalism in favour of active peacebuilding based on biblical, evangelical principles. It comple- mented research, publication and conference activities with behind the scenes ‘Track II’ diplomacy. For a description and assessment, see Mitchel (2003), Ganiel (2008) and Brewer et al. (2011). 4. The Greek word ‘kenosis’ is a Christian theological term which means ‘empty- ing’. It is used to refer to the emptying of one’s own will in order to surrender to God, and God’s emptying of Himself in order to become fully human in Jesus.

6 Perspectives on the Past: Religion in the Personal and the Political

1. It is impossible to leave this point without drawing attention to the many superficial parallels with slavery. Black Americans saw in religion a refuge from a hostile (White) world as well as a source of identity and affirmation of their human dignity. But it was also a way of transcending the powerlessness of the slave situation and taking back psychological control from the slave mas- ter. Other slaves, of course, responded to the same situation through political resistance. Of course, some forms of Black religion were highly politicised themselves but other forms, while far from passive or acquiescent, sought to transcend racism rather than confront it. On the variety of Black religious experiences in the United States, including under slavery, see Peck (1982) and Wilmore (1983). Interestingly, these differences within Black Christianity in the United States reflected in variations in the slave spiritual songs and music they each adopted (see Southern, 1983).

Conclusion: Religion and Transitional Justice in Northern Ireland

1. Mohammad Khatami, former president of Iran, for example, at a speech to the United Nations in 2000, urged dialogue, arguing for the potential of the Islamic faith to be part of conflict resolution, based on its respect for uni- versal human equality, justice, and freedom (cited in Durward and Marsden, 2009: 11). 2. Although not an example of interfaith dialogue between the Abrahamic faiths, Wijesinghe (2013) looks at the importance of local spaces of peacemaking between Tamils (mostly Hindu) and Sinhalese (mostly Buddhist) in Sri Lanka, particularly the role of Catholic priests in bringing Tamil and Sinhalese farmers together in one particular conflict zone around the shared need to grow and harvest rice. 3. Husain’s parallels with the former Loyalist paramilitary David Hamilton are worthy of more serious reflection than can be given here, see Hamilton (2008). The attention Dearey (2010) gives to radicalisation amongst Sinn Notes 181

Féin political prisoners is also countered by the many Republican activists who emerged from prison committed to peace. Some of the Sinn Féin pris- oners whose life writings she reports are now their opponents and have expressed support in public for Republican dissident groups in opposition to Sinn Féin. Radicalisation exists, in other words, but is only part of the prison experience. Bibliography

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Abrahamic faiths, 157, 160, 168, 169, Britishness, feelings of among 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 180 Protestants, 55, 56–7, 58, 60, 70, Adair, Johnny, 38, 86, 178 121, 130–1, 142, 145 Adams, Gerry, 20, 31, 32, 47, 100, British presence in Ireland, x, 40, 49, 101 50, 52, 60, 61, 73, 85, 92, 94, 97, African National Congress, 23 115, 116, 119–20, 124, 127, 129, Akenson, Donald, 177 143, 146, 147, 161, 166, 179 Alliance Party, 67, 107, 144 Bruce, Steve, 16, 17, 37, 38, 58, 63 Anglo Irish Agreement, 40 Buckley, Fr. Pat, 179 anti-Catholicism, 7, 56, 130, 145, 146, Byrne,Gay,32 177 antichrist, 40, 102 charismatic religion, 43, 71, 72, 90, anti-Protestantism, 51, 58, 130–1 150 women’s prison, 73 Chesney, Fr. James, 179 Christian Brothers schools, 48, 50 Barth, Karl, 77 Church of Ireland, 91, 108, 178 Bates, ‘Basher’, 179 civic religion, 12, 13, 14, 177 Begley, Thomas, 94 Clonard Monastery, 99 , 1, 2, 14, 18, 32, 35, 37, 39, 40, Cold War, vii 42, 52, 53, 60, 61, 69, 70, 72, 75, collusion, 62, 66, 147 77, 79, 82, 100, 107, 111, 134, Colson, Charles, 179 144, 169 Combined Loyalist Military , 59 Command, 23, 178 , 48 conversions, prison, 31, 42, 66, 67, 71, Bonhoeffer, Dietrich, 77 72, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, born again, religious experience of, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 106, 37, 38, 39, 42, 52, 58, 67, 71, 72, 117, 149, 151, 165, 166, 167, 179 78, 84, 87, 106, 133, 137, 138, Conway, Cardinal William, 179 139, 144, 150, 151, 179 Corrymeela, 106, 126, 127 and back sliding from, 39, 41, 151 Daly, Bishop Edward, 32, 179 see also conversions Daly, Cardinal Cahal, 92, 179 Boston College affair, x, 22 Dawe, Gerald, 28 Brewer, John, x, 15, 17, 21, 23, 67, 91, Democratic Unionist Party, 65, 66, 92, 93, 97, 106, 110, 118, 154, 105, 134 155, 158, 177, 179 De Valera, Eamon, 93 /security forces, 36, 37, Devine, Mickey, 32 48, 49, 51, 54, 61, 65, 68, 93, 94, Dillon, Martin, 40, 76, 84, 87 98, 122, 123, 126, 127, 132, 138, 179 ecumenism, 67, 77, 106, 134 British-Irish relations, 2, 43 Elster, Jon, 155 British Israelism, 40 Enniskillen bombing, 123, 139, 147

189 190 Index

Ervine, David, 26, 59, 122 Hunger Strikes, 11, 19, 20, 32, 34, 36, Evangelical Contribution on Northern 42, 69, 74, 75, 81, 97, 101 Ireland, 105, 114, 180 Hutchinson, Billy, 122 evangelicalism, 2, 16, 18, 19, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 55, 58, 67, 71, identity, religion and, 3, 8–9, 12, 20 72, 76, 77, 79, 81, 88, 90, 105, In Northern Ireland, viii, 8, 9–18, 106, 107, 113, 114, 116, 117, 129, 20–1, 27, 29, 46, 47, 50, 56–8, 135, 137, 144, 145, 146, 149, 150, 59, 60; religious ideology and 151, 164, 165, 167, 178, 179, 180 identity in, 18–19 institutional church/churches, ix, 2, 5, Faul, Fr. Denis, 32, 33, 84, 97, 19, 33, 91–117, 130, 154, 161, 179 162, 166, 167, 176 Faulkner, Brian, 178 Irish National Liberation Army, 32, 40, Fitt, Gerry, 87, 179 72 forgiveness, 118, 125, 130, 134, 138, Irish Republic, 46, 55, 59, 133, 145 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 148, Irish Republican Brotherhood, 15 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 161, 169, 170, 172, Jamieson, Ruth, 27, 149 173 Justice, x, 1, 3, 48, 50, 51, 53, 54, 70, Free Presbyterian Church, 16, 66, 77, 75, 94, 101, 131, 155, 156, 174, 88, 107, 111, 144 177, 180 see also Paisley, Rev. Ian fundamentalism, 10, 77 Kelly, Gerry, 141 funerals, paramilitary style, 90, 93–4, Kelly, Tom, 72, 77 96, 97, 112 Khatami, Mohammad, 180

Gaelic Athletic Association, 47 liberation theology, 35, 54, 101, 102, Ganiel Gladys, 114, 180 158 gender, 4, 6, 14, 32, 33–4, 73, 95 Little, Alistair, 133 Giles, Billy, 133 Long Kesh internment camp, 32, 46, , 22, 23, 26, 78, 86 105, 106, 141, 142 Loyalism, 5, 10, 11, 16, 24, 25, 26, 38, Gray, John, 177 65, 67, 85, 86, 91, 105, 106, 111, guilt, 51, 79, 84, 85, 104, 118, 119, 113, 114, 116, 132, 138, 142, 144, 120, 121, 122, 123–4, 125, 134, 146, 178 135, 138, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, new Loyalism, 65, 133, 146, 178 153, 175 Loyalist Volunteer Force, 40, 179 Lundy, Patricia, 161 Hamilton, David, 72, 77, 80, 82, 86, Luther, Martin, 132 180 Lynch, Kevin, 32 Hayes, Bernie, 118, 155 Hempton, David, 178 MacDermot, Sean, 15 Higgins, Gareth, 17, 177, 179 MacStiofain, Sean, 31 Hill, Myrtle, 178 Maghabbery prison, 78 Historical Enquiries Team, Police Mallie, Eamonn, 32 Service of Northern Ireland, x, 22, Martin, Thomas, 82 141 Marxism, 32, 72 human rights, 74, 92, 157, 161–2, 170, Maze prison/H-Blocks, 40, 62, 72, 86, 171, 172, 173 88 Index 191

McCann, Eamon, 28 Peeples, Clifford, 40, 41 McClean, Hugh, 63 Philpott, Daniel, 156, 158, 160, 161, McClinton, Kenny, 77, 179 162 McCloskey, Liam, 72 Presbyterian Church in Ireland, 43, McDowell, Anthony, 93 67, 77, 91, 107, 145 McGarry, John, 10, 11, 17 Progressive Unionist Party, 26, 41, 65, McGrath, William, 40, 41 133, 178 McGuinness, Martin, 31, 101, 113, Provisional Irish Republican Army, 1, 122, 132, 133 2, 5, 6, 9, 32, 35, 46, 48, 50, 52, McIntyre, Anthony, 119 53, 54, 59, 64, 73, 85, 92, 93, 98, McKee, Billy, 31, 73 100, 104, 106, 119, 120, 121, 123, McSweeney, Terence, 15 124, 127, 131, 133, 138, 146, 148 McVeigh, Fr. Jim, 179 Purvis, Dawn, 178 mental health issues, and ex-combatants, x, 22, 23, 27, 137, qualitative research, 5–7, 29–30 153 and managing guilty knowledge, 7 Methodist Church in Ireland, 34, 77, 90, 91, 114 Reid, Fr. Alec, 99 Mitchell, Billy, 77, 105, 114, 133 religiosity, in Northern Ireland, 1, 15, Mitchell, Claire, 16, 17, 91 16–18 Mitchel, Patrick, 18 religious peacebuilding, viii, ix, 4, 92, Moffet, Bobby, 178 94, 154, 155, 156, 161, 168, 169, Monaghan, Paddy, 77 175 Morrow, Duncan, 20, 21 Republicanism, 10, 14, 19, 24, 25, 32, Murray, Fr. Raymond, 99 35, 36, 44, 46, 48, 50, 54, 67, 71, 73, 75, 85, 86, 91, 93, 95, 96, 97, nationalism, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 98, 99, 101, 103, 113, 119, 120, 19, 20, 21, 45, 46, 49, 89, 177, 180 122, 123, 125, 129, 130, 132, 133, Northern Ireland Association of 143, 146, 149, 150, 178 Mental Health, ix, x Roman Catholic Church, 16, 17, 18, 19, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 46, 52, 56, O’Bradaigh, Ruairi, 31 73, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, O’Brien, Conor Cruise, 20 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, Official Irish Republican Army, 5, 33, 106, 111, 112, 115, 128, 132, 145, 48, 72, 73, 103, 123 148, 150, 158, 166, 167, 179 O’Fiaich, Cardinal Tomas, 99 Rossa, O’Donovan, 19 O’Hara, Patsy, 32 O’Leary, Brendan, 10, 11, 17 Sands, Bobby, 20, 32, 33, 175, 178 O’Malley, Padraig, 19, 20 sectarianism, 3, 46, 59, 61, 62, 67, 99, O’Neill, Fr. Thomas, 179 107, 119, 124, 130, 131, 132, 138, , 8, 16, 18, 40, 55, 57, 58, 146–7, 178 111, 131, 145 secularisation, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 21, 46, 154, 158 Paisleyism, 38, 105 Shirlow, Pete, 23, 24, 28, 122 see also Paisley, Rev. Ian Sinn Féin, 19, 26, 46, 92, 116, 119, Paisley, Rev. Ian, 18, 19, 38, 40, 55, 63, 123, 124, 125, 127, 133, 142, 146, 64, 65, 66, 67, 77, 88, 96, 109, 147, 149, 150, 166, 181 178, 180 Skehan, Brother Patrick, 179 Pearse, Patrick, 14, 46, 75 Smith, Anthony, 177 192 Index

Smithey, Lee, 114 Ulster Defence Association (UDA), 6, social class, 4, 12, 16, 23, 25, 40, 58, 23, 26, 37, 38, 42, 58, 63, 75, 76, 59, 65, 91, 92, 100, 103, 105, 106, 86, 96, 178, 179 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, (UDR), 68, 116, 117, 125, 133, 141, 142, 144, 69 146, 162, 167 Ulster Democratic Unionist Party Social Democratic and Labour Party, (UDP), 26, 65, 133, 178 93, 116, 166 (UVF), 6, 13, Somme, 60 26, 37, 39, 40, 41, 62, 63, 64, 65, South Africa, 23, 127, 157, 160, 171 67, 68, 72, 75, 76, 86, 87, 88, 138, Spence, Gusty, 39, 63, 133 178 Unionism, 10, 13, 15, 18, 55, 66, 105, , 40 107, 109, 111, 129, 133, 134, 142, Teeney, Francis, x, 21, 154 145, 177 Thatcher, Margaret, 61 United Irishmen, 46, 96, 107 Tillich, Paul, 177 United States Institute for Peace, 155, Torres, Camilo, 101 157, 160, 168, 169, 170, 175 transitional justice, vii, viii, xi, 3, 4, 5, United States of America, vii, viii, 12, 139, 153–76 154, 155, 156, 168, 170, 179, 180 applied to the Abrahamic faiths, 168–75 Victims, ix, xi, 4, 20, 21, 22, 26, 50, 84, applied to Northern Ireland, 160–8, 93, 118, 122, 139, 140, 152, 155, 175–6 156, 157, 158, 161, 173, 174, 176 human rights approach to, vii, 2, 3, 22–9, 155, 156 religious approaches to, 4, 154–60, Warrenpoint bombing, 127 157, 161–2 Wijesinghe, Shirley, 180 theorising the link with religion, Wilson, Fr. Des, 99, 179 model for, 4–5, 159–60 Wilson, Gordon, 139 truth recovery, 80, 118, 128, 143, 144, Wolffe, John, 13, 177 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 171, Wolterstorff, Nicholas, 1 172 Wright, Billy, 40, 41, 77, 179 Twomey, Seamus, 31 Wright, Frank, 20