Volume 5, Issue 9(3), September 2016 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Vice Chancellor Founder and President Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Research Lima Peru Mumbai Prof. Igor Kondrashin Prof.Y.C. Simhadri The Member of The Russian Philosophical Vice Chancellor, Patna University Society Former Director The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Rector Nagarjuna University, Patna University St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute
Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater
Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr. N.S. Dhanam Russian Philosophical Society Department of Philosophy Moscow, Russia Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Dr.T.V.Ramana Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Economics GITAM University Andhra University Campus, Kakinada Visakhapatnam Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education Coordinator University of Education, VNU, Hanoi A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science Dr.S.Kannan University of Pune,Pune Department of History Annamalai University Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Department of Pharmacology Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur
Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Department of Education Department of English North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong GITAM University Hyderabad Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Prof.Francesco Massoni Nanjing University of Science and Department of Public Health Sciences Technology University of Sapienza, Rome People’s Republic of China Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Dr.Merina Islam Al-Mustansiriyah University Department of Philosophy College of Education Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics, Iraq
Dr. Bipasha Sinha Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Department of Mathematics University of Calcutta, Calcutta University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines
Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Librarian Dravidian University, Kuppam Kalasalingam University Andhra Pradesh Krishnankovil Tamilnadu
Dr. K. John Babu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Assistant Professor Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. C O N T E N T S
Volume 5 Issue 9(3) September 2016
S. Page
No No 1. New Historicism in Thomas Keneally’s Daughters of 1 Mars G. Chenna Reddy and N. Vineela
2. The Effect of using Cartoons as A Teaching Strategy on 13 the Interest of 3rd Standard Children in Arithmetic Sr. T. A. F. Chandra
3. Self- Esteem of Girls in Late Adolescence 26 S. Sumathi and G. Mettilda Bhuvaneswari
4. Thematic Concern in Amitav Ghosh’s Fiction ‘The 52 Hungry Tide’ Raju Brahma
5. Improved Active Power Filter Performance for 64 Renewable Power Generation Systems T.Venkatesh,Ch.Kiran Kumar and K.Srinivas
6. Role of Indian Dairy Sector in Creation of Rural 79 Employment Mukku Syam Babu
7. Torque Ripple Minimization of A BLDC Motor Drive by 93 using Electronic Commutation and Speed, Current Controllers K.Srinivas and G.Raju
8. Attitude toward Persons with Disabilities among 106 Employees of A Manufacturing Industry Madhusudanan.S and R.Nalini
9. Mental Health of B.Ed. Students in Relation to Their 113 Parent Child Relationship Manisha 10. Improved Boost Chopper Converter for AC Photovoltaic 122 Module Application J.Naresh,A.Vandana and K.Srinivas
11. Time Orient Based Spanning Tree for Efficient Data 134 Collection in Wireless Sensor Network S.Rajeswari and S.Hemalatha
12. 145 वैखानसभगव छा ो ो सव वशेषाः
ट. ाचायु लु 13. The History of Alexander The Great 153 Y.Ramachandra Reddy
14. Financial Performance of Regional Rural Banks in India 185 – An Analyses D.Balamuniswamy and D.Krishnamoorthy
15. Intangible Assets Reporting Practices: Glimpses of 198 Literature Kirtika Sharma
16. Truth and Knowledge: A Philosophical 213 Enquiry Sajnesh. E. V
17. Power Factor Correction and Efficiency Improvement of 227 A Boost and Buck-Boost Converter with Enabling Window Control and Active Input Bridge by Using Two Stage Approach Goutham Madarapu, Aman Sofiya and K.Srinivas
18. A Study on the Relationship Between Student 252 Engagement and Institutional Climate Based on Selected Demographic Variables among the B.Ed Students Sreelatha.K and Amruth G Kumar
Dr. K. VICTOR BABU ISSN : 2277 – 7881 M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Impact Factor :3.318(2015) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
You will be happy to know that we have entered the fifth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.
We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharitha Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor –in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
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NEW HISTORICISM IN THOMAS KENEALLY’S DAUGHTERS OF MARS
Dr. G. Chenna Reddy N. Vineela Assistant Professor Ph. D (Part-time) Scholar Department of English Department of English Acharya Nagarjuna University Acharya Nagarjuna University Nagarjuna Nagar, Guntur, A.P. Nagarjuna Nagar, Guntur, A.P.
Abstract
Historicism is a theory that cultural and social phenomena are determines by history. Writing a historical novel is a challenge to the novelist to compile both history and fiction together with an exact balance. Thomas Keneally is a recognized historical novelist in Australian Literature. His Daughters of Mars is a historical novel which reconstructs its past. The history of Australia and its participation in the Gallipoli Campaign includes the future of Australia. Historical writer Keneally has drawn an inspiration from the actual wartime’s dairies, historical hospital and the real hospital ships. An Australian living treasure Thomas Keneally’s 29th novel is Daughters of Mars which revisits the World War I from the perspective of two sisters who are the nurses who see the blood of this conflict on hospital ships and operating theatres. The writer has placed his readers between the fact and fiction. The main source of this novel is from the dairies of the nurses. The novel is shortlisted for the Walter Scott Prize in 2013.
Key Words: Historicism, phenomena, wartime’s dairies, World War I, 606 solutions, Archimedes, Gallipoli champion, Agony.
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INTRODUCTION:
The writer, historical novelist who has taken the Australian literature far beyond the country is Thomas Keneally. Taking Australian literature to every country is his vastness, winning many awards like Booker prize and Miles Franklin Award is his endowment, being the author of 26 works of fiction and 8 works of non-fiction is his credit, appealing to the audience worldwide through his writings each his style. He is none other than Thomas Michael Keneally. He worked as television commentator, an actor, has been the president of Australian society of authors and is a leading steal wart of the Australian republican movement. His way of dealing with historical aspects of Australia any other countries had inspired me to do my research on Keneally and also to know well about the history of Australian literature. All though modern in their psychology and style, many of his novels are reflections of historical material. Born in Sydney in 1935, Thomas Keneally became a famous prolific writer, novelist, playwright, author of fiction. Before he success as novelist, he worked as a school teacher and was a lecturer of University of New English (1968- 70). He is called a living Treasure of Australia.
This heart-rending new novel by Keneally is a narration of two characters Naomi Durance and Sally Durance who were the daughters of South Wales dairy farmer Mr. Durance. . It remained as the unforgettable story of two sisters whose lives were turned completely by the advent of World War I. These two spirited sisters were from Australia. They have joined in the war efforts as nurses. This long book of Daughters of Mars is an abundant extent for multiple characters of doctors, nurses, orderlies and wounded soldiers who will accompany the readers throughout the course of the novel. Before their decision to sail off to the Dardanelless, the government appeals for the medical volunteers to serve the wounded soldiers in World War I. The guilt of their mother’s death was being overwhelmed in their hearts. They
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started bounded together in activities by what they themselves called it as a ‘crime’. “Mama’ s gone. She said, I’m sorry Mama’s gone. “Did I do it because I was tired and fed up with all day working and all night working? (11)
The author has dwelled in the subjects of grand historical scope. The bloody Battle fields of Europe appeared throughout the novel. By the time when they have taken the decision to move away , they were unaware of the conditions and effects of World War I. Their knowledge about war and its weapons was very poor. The bloody land, the historical incidents, patriotism to one’s country, the effects of the war in every individual lives, the loss of war, its defects, celebrations of victory, a search for identity and peace are the major points which were well discussed in the historical novel Daughters of Mars. Keneally is truly a war novelist. In the words of Jake Kerridge “Australian novelist Keneally is much given to quoting Stalin’s chilling Aphorism: one death is a tragedy. A million death is a statistic.”
The battle was in Europe. Nurses started their unlimited services. Different people with different injuries joined in the civil hospital. Few injured were also suffering from pneumonia. The patients were advised to receive the injections of Novarsonobilton. The nurses were ordered to divide into two teams. Sally along with Freud took their trays with syringes, needles and even 606 solution which is also known as Salvarsan or compound 606, a drug that was introduced at the beginning of the 1910’s as the first effective treatment for Syphilis and was also used to treat Trypanosomiasis.
The novel is about the Australian military nursing history during the World War I. It provides the overview of the emerging historical field. It also discusses how the Nations are transforming its identities. The specific type of gas was just being unleashed upon the soldiers. There happened the millions of flu deaths during the wartime. The two sisters
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were now commencing their duties in the Mediterranean on board a hospital ship called Archimedes. The tours shift dramatically between the periods of the unlimited nursing work. Later, Naomi went home with shiploads of invalids. She promised Sally that she would return soon. Keneally placed the Durance sisters on the great stage of European events in the grim setting of war. Everything about the war is seen through the eyes of Durances. The author encourages the local idea that War’s chief duty was to lightly mar the brave. The nurses not only extended their services to the survivors from the Gallipoli campaign the Charnel house of the West Front.
At its heart the novel is all about the relationship between the two sisters who learnt to accept the differences of each other. Taking her sister by the chin, Naomi commands Sally in a lowered voice. “There are only two choices. You know. Either die or live well. We live on behalf of thousands who don’t. So let’s not worry ant it eh.”(85)
Sally engaged herself dutifully in the horrors of the world. First in Egypt and then posted to Archimedes, the hospital ship which receives the injured from the 1915 Dardanelles campaign on the Gallipoli Peninsula. The novel can be called as one of the triumphs in the relentless description of the war wounded.
Keneally writes “on the cot before them lay a man whose wound once unbandaged showed a face that was half steak and no eyes. We also soon learn a great deal more about missing limbs, amputations and diseases. Human bodies were savaged by shells bullets, shrapnel, trench foot, mustard gas, typhoid and shell shock.”
The characterization of tom is always complex. His works reflects the aspects of every society. Keneally’s Daughters of Mars seems that he wants to add the attitude of his own Daughters to add colors to his portrayal of Durances. Though the author’s characterization was complex, it was wonderful and touch the hearts of the readers.
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Sally said...“Will you be my friend? And don’t say that of course you will be. You are my sister. That’s not the issue. Will you be my friend?”(121). The feel of guilty started dominating again. They both felt very sorry for their mother’s demise always. They have taken Mrs. Durance to that mortal quietness. Later Naomi starting giving explanations of coming out of the village which forcedly let Sally to stay back in the village like a country mouse. There she says...“I know very well said Naomi that I should not dumped you to that farm. I don’t know that I wanted so badly to get away. Why can a person hate a place where every love and every kindness has been shown to her? It’s a great flaw of character.”“No”, said Sally . Or else I have got the same flaw. Anyhow you stayed there. I didn’t give you a chance. Tell me to sling my hook if you want”.(121)
Amid the carnage, the two sisters became a very good friends now. They were not the same when they were at home. They stood as a remarkable women for their bravery, humor and compassion. They were even called the most spirited sisters who dared to join the war escaping the confines of their father’s farm. They even became the true meaning of Sisterhood.
Meanwhile, Naomi amazed sally by walking to a broad- shouldered captain named Ellis Hoyle who was an infantry soldier left behind. Sally thought Naomi was trying to show her something that Sally had not known before which looks lightness and a social grace. Sally was too fascinated to realize that her sister could balance the death of her mother and this new person who is an officer above the ocean. On the other side Sally wanted to deny humbleness , away from the normal shocks of womanhood, household unpleasantness, husband, children yet relentlessly careful inside and outside above life. Sally knows well that she was disqualified from the disrespectful levity because of her serious part in ending her mother’s life. She even failed to apply
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herself to the job. But not like sally, Naomi is most selfish and confident girl and was good to the outside world..
Like the modern women, the durance sisters are courageous enough. They are good at taking the self- decisions.. They were remarked as an example of modern thoughts when they have decided to go away from their place. They were bold to handle the misery of Archimedes. They managed to be humbled in all the critical circumstances. Their broad mindedness is proven when they accepted the marriage of their father to Mrs. Sorley. Women are shown as strong, bold and courageous through the characters of Durances. In spite of their busy schedules also they managed to write the dairies which were the primary sources of the novel. The other aspect of the novel was that women were placed on the battlefields. They were called the female soldiers. Moreover , it was not a surprise that they were displeased and unrecognized and included in the ANZAC legend.
Hidden wounds were at the heart of this old-fashioned tale of the two nurses who faced the horrors of Gallipoli and Somme Battle. The strong women caught in the great mill of history. The first part of the novel is taken up with the horrors of Gallipoli. Gallipoli campaign was the battle of Gallipoli and was a campaign of First World War that have taken place on the Gallipoli Peninsula in Modern Turkey in the Ottoman Empire between 1915 and 1916. This campaign was one of the greater victories during the Great War. It was also defined as the moment in the national history of Turkey. It was a naval campaign. This campaign is often considered as the birth of national consciousness in Australia and New Zealand and the date of the landing April 25 is known as the ANZAC day.
Australian imperial Force which was comprised of 5 divisions and more than 120,000 soldiers, held off a major German offensive in early 1918 and contributed to the allied victory. Later they gain the
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experience of inhumanity of war through the gas. April 25 is a day of remembrance both in Australia and New Zealand army corps in Gallipoli as the anniversary of the landing. There were hellish and brutal conditions. The dead bodies and some living bodies were arriving to the hospital like waves. Their happened a millions of flu deaths during the war. The war has wounded many lives. The woman were gaining courage. Gallipoli has an almost mystic place in our minds Keneally says with an utmost amusement.
According to Paul Hamilton Historicism is “Being here and being there.” To the historical imagination, history is the past or perhaps the past seen in through the present. And the historical task is to re- attempt the past. But the cantos reminds us that the history includes the future and the historical task involves the construction of what shall be possible.-(Mc Gann 1989: 105).
The writer made the young sisters in a painful and distressed circumstance. War itself is a great art. War is the major aspect discussed in New Historicism. It covers all the aspects the modern life including society, business, politics and human behavior. A kingdom that has once destroyed can never take back its original shape. History can be horrible. Wars in the 20th century were the most horrible of all. First World War is the war that ends all wars. One evening everyone could sense the thunder sound made by the Turkish guns. Gallipoli was near.
The next day morning the battle was arrived. For the first time Sally has experienced the wounded soldier whose elbow has been shot off. They started treating the waves of tattered and butchered men. They have nursed those injured in the war and had suffered their own emotional wounds. In fact, they found their bonds while facing the atrocities of war. They have discovered the world beyond their
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imaginations. They may not be a part of war but their doings and needful tasks towards the soldiers made them the daughters of Mars.
Keneally made the Durances as the real daughters of Mars. The whole novel is about a major point i.e., War. Even though the Roman god was not blessed with daughters, the author titled it as ‘Daughters of Mars’ because the Durance Daughters enacted as a brave soldiers on the battle fields of WWI. They neither participated in War nor a Campaign but was affected by the consequences of the war. They suffered being a part of a WWI even it was Offstage. At Archimedes their experience of World War I had started. This was a hospital ship which was two miles off from the Gallipoli. All the wards were quickly filled with the wounded and the dying diggers. A huge metal shrieks and thumps could be heard within the ship and unearthly lament went on.
All the doctors and the nurses had necessarily had to engage themselves to the operations and treatments. Human bodies savaged by Shells , bullets, shrapnel, trench foot, mastrad gas and shell shock were seen. Missing limbs, amputations, infections and diseases were highly observed. On Archimedes they have witnessed Mars in all his ferocity. The author had written much about World War I and about the Australian history. For the first time, he has tackled Gallipoli, his own country’s great founding myth. With a great hilarity he says, “Gallipoli has an almost mystic place in our minds”
April 25, 1915 was marked as a remarkable day in the history of Australia. An attempt to seize the Dardanelles and open a sea route to Constantinople made the Allied to land on the Gallipoli Peninsula. That would enable the British and its Allies to establish a southern Front during the World War I . This battle remains as the most important campaign of the War. The significance of the battle is more about the controlling of sea route from Europe to Russia. Allied had
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planned to gain control of the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, capture Constantinople and to open a black sea supply route to Russia.
This idea was promoted by the lord Winston Churchill. The campaign fails to open the straits, Australian and the New Zealand in March, 1915. As the allied lacked the proper co-ordination between the naval and the forces, there happened a premature naval attack. This attack made the Turks to reinforce their troops. In 1911, Churchill had return ironically, “It should be remembered that that it is no longer possible to force the Dandanelles and nobody would expose a modern fleet to such peril.”
Military General and commander of the newly created Mediterranean Expeditionary force have under estimated the powers of Turkeys. The fighting capability of Turks was 92,000. On the other side, Gallipoli mean so much to Australians. It has become a symbol of Australian National Identity. In the event of landing of Military disaster, the allied failed to meet its primary objectives. It was declared by the Australian official correspondent Charles Bean that the landing on Gallipoli, a sense of Australian nationhood was born. Thus every nation creates its own history. The history presents not only the aspects of victory but also the points of failure. In fact, this Gallipoli campaign was a costly failure to the allies. Many soldiers were the part of this campaign.
While women were not allowed to participate in the campaign right from the commencement of it , they were there to work as nurses on the board hospital ships. By then when the government gave a call to the postings of nurses especially to serve the wounded. Durances were appointed and reached their places of appointment. Unexpectedly they were caught struck there and became a part of Gallipoli campaign.
They became the part if World War I even though it was off stage. The sisters and the other nurses did their own resourcefulness even if the
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available equipment was inadequate. The ships often sailed to the general hospitals on Green Islands and to Egypt. They were not free from danger completely. They even experienced the hit of bullets to their ships. In such circumstances women need a great courage. Sisters for awhile worried about their safety but nationhood made them to remain there in the midst of the war.
Like the soldiers of every war, Naomi heroism was noticed during the disastrous events in the Aegean Sea. Sally observes, “Naomi was in the water but superior to it. It was a grateful wonder. It was a light shining through ice”. (151) Naomi remarked that the war has acted as “A machine to make us true sisters”.
First World War is also known as a Great War or a Global War. The war was begun on July 1914 and ended November 1918. The war has resulted the death of 17 million men and 20 Million wounded. As a part of war, Gallipoli campaign and Somme battle were discussed in the novel. The second part of the novel runs around the Somme Battle. This battle was started in July 1916 and lasted up to Nov 1916. In the World War I, this battle was remarked as the most horrific battle . On the first day alone, the British Army suffered the loss of 420,000. This war was between the British and the German Armed Forces. They used the poisonous gases as their weapons. Also they used the Rifles, Machine Guns, Tanks and Mines as their weapons. The wounded were being admitted to Lady Kaltron hospital.
History is defined as a materialistic theory. The events of past are highly related to the present. Historicism is being tempted as New in the literary theory. It deals about the first principles of truths in the history and discusses how people are obliged to organize themselves socially and politically. Daughters of Mars speaks about the truths of the World War I and speaks about the sufferings of the victims who were affected by the war.
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According to Aristotle, history is required to accredit the philosophical use of fiction to explain the nature of knowledge and morality. The leading author Keneally authorize the fiction the novel Daughters of Mars by adding the mythological character Mars. He fictionally moulded the daughters of Eric Durance as the Daughters of Mars. Actually the Roman God Mars was not blessed with Daughters in his life. The author had balanced truth to the facts against the need to make the sense.
The principle source of historical author is its appeal to those of its readers who accept it as a ‘realistic’ or ‘objective’ account of what had actually happened in the past. New Historicism, like any other form of thinking about the human kind should therefore take its bearings from its foundation. The possibility of universal history loomed large. In the novel Daughters of Mars, “there (in the state of nature) is the reign of the passions, there is war, far, poverty, nastiness, solitude, barbarity, ignorance, slavery, here is the reign of reason, here there is peace, security, wealth, splendor, society, taste, knowledge, benevolence.” (Pufendorf 1991: 118)
CONCLUSION:
The author described the events of the war through the characters. There was a psychological impact on every character in the novel. The writing about the war contextualizes the development of the writers thought. He laments not only the human causalities of the war but also the loss of the common, civilized standards. His New Historicism has problematised the modernity. He claimed to achieve the tradition of modernity to post modernity. The modernism can itself be defined as the break from the past. New Historicism tends helpfully to isolate the problems from which take off and when it goes further, itself mutates into one or the other. Criticism simply get the better with the history adding to the original story by bringing it up to date.
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The incomprehensible horrors and terrors of the war filled many souls with pain. The vastness of the war was captured in the writings of Keneally. The ending of the novel was disappointing because it moves back to the post war. Daughters of Mars for the first time placed the women on the battlefields. War is not always about the men. It is also about the women. The author has shared this belief in short in his novel Daughters of Mars. The incomprehensible horrors and terrors of the war filled many souls with pain. The vastness of the war was captured in the writings of Keneally. The ending of the novel was disappointing because it moves back to the post War.
References
1. The Sydney Morning Herald, "The Daughters of Mars" by Eleanor Limprecht, 1 July 2012 The Telegraph
2. "The Daughters of Mars by Thomas Keneally: review" by James Walton, 1 November 2012
3. "Tom Keneally". Talking Heads. ABC. 30 July 2007. Archived from the original on 19 March 2011. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
4. "Interview - Thomas Keneally". januarymagazine.com.
5. The Guardian, The Daughters of Mars by Thomas Keneally - review" by Jay Parini, 10 November 2012
6. The Daughters of Mars by Thomas Keneally: review" by James Wa Erickson.
7. Edward (2001a) [2000]. Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing. lton, 1 November 2012
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THE EFFECT OF USING CARTOONS AS A TEACHING STRATEGY ON THE INTEREST OF 3rd STANDARD CHILDREN IN ARITHMETIC
Sr. T. A. F. Chandra Principal St. Joseph’s College of D.Ed for Women Guntur
Introduction
Mathematics is a subject of great educational values and makes a major contribution to the aims of education to develop an individual in such a way that he becomes a contributory member of the society. Mathematics has many practical applications in life. It is needed at every step or stage in life. People can go along without their mother tongue but not without mathematical calculations. A person has to make use the knowledge of Mathematics in one form or the other. We make use of fundamental processes of Mathematics daily, (e.g.) counting, measuring, selling, buying, etc. It has wide applications in all walks of life.
“Mathematics is the gateway and key to all science” - Bacon
According to National Committee (1972):
“The primary purpose of teaching mathematics should be to develop those powers of understanding and of analyzing relationships of quantity and apace which are necessary to have an insight into and a control over an environment and to have and appreciation of the progress of civilization in its various aspects and to develop habits of thought and of action which make these powers effective in the life of the individual.”
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According to National Policy on Education (1986):
“Mathematics is an expression of the human mind, reflects the active will, the contemplative reason and the desire for aesthetic perfection. Its basic elements are of logic and intuition, analysis and construction, generality and individuality” - Courant & Robbins
“Mathematics is the subject which provides an opportunity for the training of the mind to close thinking, stirring up a sleeping and uninstructed spirit.” - Plato
Therefore Mathematics is the subject which needs to be given more attention, to attain the benefit of studying Mathematics. As the subject aims at accuracy, it needs greater care and logic on the part of the learner to solve the mathematical problems. It is a known fact that many pupils develop fear of mathematics and ultimately leads to mathematical phobia. In order to make mathematics learning a more interesting, thinking and joyful, ‘Using of Cartoons’ in teaching mathematics is found to be more significant and remarkable.
Need and Significance of the study: Mathematics is generally regarded by students as a dry and dreary subject. They find nothing interesting in it. Recreational activities in Mathematics counteract this impression and present lively and interesting pictures of Mathematics. They bring variety and develop taste for the subject. In the earlier days, mathematics was studied mainly for its recreational value, as leisure time activity. People used to enjoy solving mathematical problems or playing with members. Riddles in mathematics present fun, wit and recreation. It provides aesthetic enjoyment too.
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Statement of the Problem: The input programme of using cartoon in teaching arithmetic will usually arrest the children’s attention, interest and motivates them to have a joyful experience of learning ‘Fractions’. The following questions are raised to answer the problem through an empirical study.
1. How to prepare a teaching strategy using cartoons in the unit ‘fractions’?
2. How can we organize and conduct an experiment?
3. What is the level of interest raised after the input programme?
4. What is the impact of input programme on the interest and achievement of low, moderate and high achievers?
Title of the Study: “The Effect of Using Cartoons as a Teaching Strategy on the Interest of 3rd Standard Children in Arithmetic’.
Operational Definitions of Key Terms:
Cartoon: A cartoon is a drawing representational or symbolic that makes a satirical, witty, or humorous point. In its original meaning, in the fine arts, a cartoon (from Italian cartone, meaning ‘paper’) is a preliminary sketch for a large canvas or fresco painting, for an architectural drawing, for a tapestry design, or for pictures in mosaic or glass. “Cartoon” acquired its present meaning in 1843, when a great exhibition of cartoons was given for a competition devised by Queen Victoria’s consort Prince Albert to get design for frescoes for the walls of the new Houses of Parliament. Here using cartoons as teaching strategy involves teaching arithmetic (i.e) Fractions through games, activities conducted through cartoon displayed.
Interest: Arousing interest to learn or do something and to give more attention in a particular aspect. The pupils interest in learning
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arithmetic (i.e.) Fraction will be observed and assessed through a questionnaire.
Objectives of the Study:
1. To prepare a modified version of ‘Teaching Strategy Using Cartoons’ in the Unit-Fraction will be prepared based on cartoon package developed by ‘Azim Premji Foundation’ in the year 2001.
2. To organise an input programme of teaching arithmetic using cartoons.
3. To find out the effect of teaching arithmetic using cartoons on the academic achievement and interest of children.
4. To find out the effect of input programme in the interest levels of low, moderate and high interests Groups in Arithmetic.
Hypotheses of the Study:
1. There would be no significant gain in the interest of the pupils taught by using cartoons as a teaching strategy in teaching arithmetic.
2. There would be no significant difference between the interest of the pupils taught by using cartoons as a teaching strategy and those taught in the traditional method in arithmetic.
3. There would be no significant difference in the interest of pupils towards arithmetic in terms of low, moderate and high interest groups.
Tools used for the study were
1. Package:
To realize 1st objective a package on selected unit - fraction from cartoon displayed by ‘Azim Premji Foundation’ is modified to the local conditions and the needs of children and classroom which is based on
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the principle of play and joyful learning games activities and oral worked is also introduced.
2. Achievement Tests:
i) Pre test on Arithmetic: A Pre-test is prepared in general based on the blueprint on the units taught to them. The test consists of objective type, very short and problem solving items, conducted for 25 marks.
ii) Post test on Fractions for 3rd standard pupils: A Post-test is prepared on the selected unit-Fractions. The question paper will be same for both the groups’ i.e. experimental group and control groups. The test consists of objective type, very short and problem solving items. The test is conducted for 25 marks consisting of 18 items as any unit test conducted in the schools.
3. Questionnaire on pupils’ interest in Arithmetic:
On pupil’s interest in arithmetic is assessed based on the Mathematical Interest Inventory developed by L. N. Dubey, College of Advanced Psychology and Guidance, Jabalpur, which consists of 15 closed end items.
Plan and Procedure: In the light the studies reviewed, it is felt that experimental method was founded to be the relevant to study the effect of using cartoons as a teaching strategy in learning mathematics. For the experiment proper, Quasi Pre-post Experimental Vs Control group Design was used to find out the effect of ‘Teaching Fractions Using Cartoons’ over traditional method of teaching arithmetic. Intact above classrooms were taken from the different schools, randomly decided experimental and control groups.
Selection of Sample:
As the study requires two groups of pupils of the same class, two sections of Class III in two different schools are decided randomly by
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tossing the coin, to be the experimental group and the other the control group. Whatever may be the strength present in both the classes becomes the sample.
Details of the experimental and controlled groups: The schools under experimental and control groups are selected on the basis of similarity of management. Both the schools are managed by Nuns of Roman catholic. That is how the school environment is matched. The location and details of the schools are given below.
S. Class/S Stren N Group Name of the School Method ection gth o.
1. Experime S. Joseph’s High School, Cartoon CD III C 39 ntal Guntur Package
2. Control St. Ignatius High School, Traditional III A 29 Guntur
The input programme, CD Package of Cartoons on ‘Fraction’ included
1. Activities that happens usually in our daily life.
2. Games those are interesting for the children.
3. Cartoons and its animation which provides practical experiences.
4. The sceneries which attract the children’s attention and interests are included.
5. Audio and visual effect keeps the children motivated throughout the period.
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RESULTS
Comparison between pre and post tests in mathematical interest of the Experimental group
S.No Comparison N Mean S.D SED ‘t’ Value
1. Pre-Test 39 11.33 1.325 0.255 11.68**
2. Post-Test 39 14.31 0.893
Therefore it can be concluded that using cartoons in teaching Arithmetic i.e. Fractions, significantly influenced and improved the level of pupils’ interest in Arithmetic.
Comparison between pre and post tests in mathematical interest of the Control group
S.No Comparison N Mean S.D SED ‘t’ Value
1. Pre-Test 29 11.00 2.204 0.52 2.46**
2. Post-Test 29 12.28 1.730
Therefore it was confirmed that the pupils’ interest in arithmetic significantly increased because of teaching arithmetic using Cartoons.
Comparison between the mathematical interest scores of Experimental Vs Control group in post tests
S.No Group N Mean S.D SED ‘t’ Value
1. Experimental - 39 14.31 0.893 Using Cartoons 0.351 5.78**
2. Control - 39 12.28 1.730 Traditional
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Therefore it can be concluded that using cartoons in teaching arithmetic improved significantly pupils’ interest levels in arithmetic over the traditional method.
Comparison between the mean gain scores of interest between the Experimental and Control groups
S.No Groups N Mean S.D SED ‘t’ Value
1. Experimental - 39 3.012 1.412 Using Cartoons 0.304 5.26** 2. Control - 39 1.396 1.124 Traditional
Hence it can be concluded that teaching arithmetic through cartoons caught the interest of pupils more significantly than that of traditional method.
Comparison of experimental and control groups in gain scores of interest
Gain Experimental Control Group Scores N % of N N % of N 0 0 - 11 37.93 1 5 12.80 6 20.68 2 10 25.64 6 2068 3 10 25.64 5 17.24 4 11 28.20 1 2.56 5 2 5.10 0 - 6 0 - 0 - 7 1 2.56 0 -
Comparatively there is a vast difference in the percentage of pupils who gained a score of 4 in experimental and groups i.e., 28.20%
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and 2.56% respectively. On the whole it is confirmed that due to input programme i.e using of cartoons as teaching strategy, the pupils improved their level of interest minimum 1 score and maximum 7 scores. No single individual is there remaining without any increase in their interest scores.
Comparison between interest levels of low, moderate and high interest groups in post test of experimental group
‘F’ S.N Mea Compariso SE ‘t’ Interest N SD valu o n n D value e
Low and 1.16N. 1. Low 1-7 1 14 0 0.17 Moderate S
Moderat 3 0.9 Moderate 1.27 2. 14.2 0.22 2.41 * e 9-12 0 4 and High N.S
High 13- 0.4 Low and 3. 8 14.7 0.14 5.01 ** 15 2 High
Therefore it can be concluded that pupils belonging to low, moderate and high groups significantly affected by the input programme and raised their interest levels significantly.
1. Pupils belonging to low and moderate interest groups could not differentiate themselves in their level of interest significantly after the input programme.
2. Though there is uniform gain in their level of interest after the input programme comparatively there is a significant improvement in the interest levels of pupils belonging to high interest group.
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Comparison of mean gain scores of
low, moderate and high interest groups of experimental group
Mean of Mean of Mean gain S.No Comparison N pre test post test Scores
1. Low (7-9) 1 7.00 14.00 7.00
Moderate (10- 2. 30 10.96 14.20 3.24 12)
3. High (13-15) 8 13.75 14.75 1.00
Hence it can be inferred that the input programme of using cartoons in teaching arithmetic affected the interest levels of low, moderate and high interest groups. There is a significant gradual progressive improvement of their interest.
The Mean, SD and‘t’ values of the levels of achievement among low, moderate and high interest levels after teaching using cartoons
S.No Interest N Mean SD Comparison SED ‘t’ value
1. Low (7-9) 1 20 0 Low and 0.729 0.233 Moderate N.S
2 Moderate 30 20.17 3.277 Moderate 0.854 2.295* (10-12) and High
3. High (13- 8 22.13 2.088 Low and 0.444 4.797 15) High **
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Pupils with high level of interest exhibited significantly better achievement than that of pupils with low level of interest.
Low, moderate and high level of interest affected significantly the academic achievement of pupils due to teaching through cartoons. Interest groups as a whole affected the academic achievement of pupils due to input programme.
Conclusions
1. Third standard children significantly increased their level of interest in arithmetic due to use of cartoons while teaching Fractions.
2. Though traditional method also significantly improved children’s interest but the gain is less, compared to teaching through cartoons.
3. Children who are taught using cartoons showed significant improvement in their interest than that of traditional method.
4. Children’s interest is positively affected by the input programme than the traditional method.
5. Children exposed to cartoons gained more in their interest towards arithmetic compared to traditional method.
6. No single individual is there remaining without any increase in their interest scores after the input programme.
Educational Implications:
1. The findings of a present study can be incorporated in theory methods of teaching at primary level in T.T.C./D.Ed. In teaching practice at least few lessons need to be taught using cartoons both at primary and secondary level.
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2. At least one lesson need to be taught in teaching practice using cartoons in arithmetic as the CD packages are available.
3. Workshops on remedial teaching can be conducted making use of cartoons. In service and Pre service teacher training programmes both at primary and secondary school should incorporate cartoons as a teaching strategy.
4. Awareness orientation and training programmes on using cartoon as a teaching strategy need to be conducted for in service heads of institutions, teachers and parents also.
The present study focuses on the effect of using cartoons as a teaching strategy in arithmetic on the interest of pupils in ‘Fractions’ at 3rd standard level. Low and moderate achievers got benefited out of this method. All children invariably developed enthusiasm in learning the concept. CD packages animated and developed by Azim Premji Foundation are also available not only in arithmetic but also in other subjects may be used.
References
1. Agarwal, S.M. (1990): ‘Teaching of modern mathematics’. Delhi: Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
2. Thomas, J.H. et al. (1960): ‘ The Teaching of Arithmetics in Primary Schools’. New York: Mac Millin & Co. Ltd.
3. John W. Best and James V. Khan, (1992): ‘Research in Education’ (Sixth edition). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
4. Happy Moses, P. (2000): ‘Effect of play way method in teaching arithmetic on interest and academic achievement of III Grade children’. M.Ed., Dissertation of Nagarjuna University, Guntur.
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5. Roger Manvell, (1955): ‘The Animated Film’, New York: Published in ‘The Encyclopedia Americana’ - Burma To Cathay: Vol.5, International Edition Grolier incorporated, International Head quarters, Danbury, (1984). Pp.740-743.
6. Das, R.C and Barua, A.P. (1968): ‘Effect of remedial teaching in arithmetic’, A study with Grade IV Pupils, SIR, Assam. P.699.
7. Vyas, C.S. (1983): ‘Development of symbol picture logic programme and to study its effect on mathematics achievement - A system approach’, Ph.D. Edu., SPU, Pp, 709.
8. Natesen, N. (2001): ‘Teaching Concepts in Mathematics through Video Cassette - An experiment’. Reader and head, department of Educatin DDE. An abstract from Fifth Survey of Educational Research, Vol.I., NCERT, New Delhi, Buch., M.B.,ed.
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SELF- ESTEEM OF GIRLS IN LATE ADOLESCENCE
S. Sumathi Dr. G. Mettilda Bhuvaneswari Research Scholar Assistant Professor Assistant Professor & Head Department of Social Work Department of Social Work Cauveri College for Women Thanthai Hans Roever College Trichy Perambalur
Abstract
Adolescent’s overall evaluation of his or her own worth as a self such as how people feel about their physical appearance, skills, academic performance, and so on is reflected in their self-esteem. This present study was undertaken to find out the level of self- esteem of the girls who are in their late adolescence. The aim of the study is to know the self- esteem among the late adolescent girls studying first and second year in the Roever College of Engineering and Technology, Perambalur. The researcher have undertaken descriptive research and used Dr. S. Karunanidhi’s Self Esteem Questionnaire to assess self- esteem level of late adolescent girls. Census method was adopted and data was collected from 69 late adolescent girls. The findings of this study reveals that half of the respondents have low level of self- esteem in the dimensions of competency, global, moral & self control, social, family, body & physical appearance and lie scale. With regard to overall self-esteem, 100 percentage of the respondents have moderate self- esteem, but they need to improve it.
Key Words: Late Adolescence, Girls, Self-Esteem.
Introduction
In late adolescence, the psycho social developments like acceptance of body image, consolidation of personal identity, further steps to emancipation, re-establishment of relationship with parents,
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increased emphasis on individual friendships happen. Many social evils like academic failure, violence, drug addiction, teenage pregnancy, suicide, and crime are believed to be caused by low self- esteem. A common belief is that positive view of the self provides more benefits to those who possess it which means they feel good about themselves, cope with challenges effectively and negative feedback, and they believe that people respect them in the social world where they live. By contrast, people with low self esteem general dislike for themselves gives different perceptions of everything around them. Self-esteem is important for psychological health. Although social ills are not caused by low self-esteem, the emotional consequences of the negative self-view is of great concern to the policy makers and educators. Low self-esteem is problematic for those who have it and this paper examines the self-esteem of especially girls in late adolescence.
Review of Literature
A number of studies suggested that boys and girls differ in their source of self-esteem, with girls more influenced by relationships and boys by objective success. The study of Josephs RA, Markus HR, and Tafarodi RW (1992) exposed men and women to false feedback indicating that they had deficits either on performance dimension or on a social dimension. Overall, the results suggest that men’s self- esteem emphasized one’s personal distinguishing achievements whereas females gain self-esteem from getting along.
The article of Kearney-Cooke A, (1999) Gender differences and self-esteem, gave information that the transition between childhood and adulthood-is usually accompanied by difficult changes in the life of a young person. An adolescent’s personal development and self- esteem are influenced by biological, cognitive, social and environmental factors. Studies have shown that adolescent girls tend
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to have lower self-esteem and more negative assessments of their intellectual abilities and physical features than boys have. These findings explain the higher incidence of suicide attempts, depression, and eating disorders in girls.
The comparative study of Dr. Gaurav Agarwal, Dr. Abhishek Kumar Bhardwaj, (2014) about Gender differences in self-esteem among college students they studied the level of self-esteem and the gender differences between 32 students (16 males and 16 females), with ages between 18 and 22 years. The study was a onetime assessment of students who were enrolled for a medical graduate program in a college in the north India and it was a cross-sectional design. There was gender differences found in the overall self-esteem and personal security in the college students.
The study of Ozmen D, Ozmen E, Ergin D, Cetinkaya AC, Sen N, Dundar PE,… Taskin EO, (2007) on “The association of self- esteem, depression and body satisfaction with obesity among Turkish adolescents”, used Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and Children’s Depression Inventory to measure the self-esteem and depression of 2101 tenth-grade Turkish adolescents aged 15-18 in a cross-sectional survey. The relationship among variables was analyzed through Logistic regression and they found out that body dissatisfaction of female was related to low self-esteem and depression, though perceived overweight was related only to low self-esteem, actual overweight was not related to low self-esteem and depression in adolescents. They concluded that adolescent’s psychological well- being is more related to body satisfaction rather than perceived weight status.
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Methods and Materials
Objectives
1. To study the socio-demographic details of the late adolescent girls
2. To assess their level of self esteem
3. To study the relationship between socio demographic details and level of self esteem
Research Hypotheses
1. There is significant association between respondents’ age and various dimensions of self-esteem
2. There is significant difference between respondents’year of study and various dimensions self- esteem
3. There is significant difference between respondents’ educational group and various dimensions self- esteem
4. There is significant difference between respondents’ type of family and various dimensions of self- esteem
5. There is significant difference between respondents’ domicile and various dimensions of self- esteem
6. There is significant difference between respondents’ father’s occupation and various dimensions of self- esteem
7. There is significant relationship between respondents’ birth order and various dimensions of self- esteem
Research Design
The researcher adopted descriptive design and the study was undertaken to measure the level of self esteem among the late adolescent girls. The researcher used census method and collected
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data from 69 late adolescent girls studying in the first and second year of Roever College of Engineering and Technology, Perambalur.
Tools of Data Collection
The researcher used a self prepared questionnaire to understand the demographic data and Self Esteem Questionnaire of Dr. S. Karunanidhi, Professor & Head, Department of Psychology, University of Madras, to assess the level of self esteem on various dimensions.
Results and Discussion
TABLE 1: Distribution of Respondents by their Socio-Demographic variables
S. Socio-Demographic Number of Percentage of No Variables Respondents Respondents 1 Age 17 to 18 43 62 19 to 20 24 35 21 to 22 2 3 2 Religion Hindu 65 94 Christian 1 2 Muslim 3 4 3 Community SC/ST 21 30 BC 19 28 MBC 26 38 DNC 2 3 OC 1 1 4 Educational Status I BE 30 43 II BE 39 57 5 Educational Group Civil 17 25 CSE 15 22
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EEE 10 14 ECE 27 39 6 Type of family Joint 19 28 Nuclear 50 72 7 Domicile Urban 20 29 Rural 49 71 8 Father’s Education Illiterate 6 9 Elementary 7 10 Middle 17 25 High School 12 17 Higher Secondary 16 23 UG 5 7 PG 1 2 Professional 5 7 9 Mother’s Education Illiterate 4 6 Elementary 1 2 Middle 23 32 High School 20 28 Higher Secondary 11 16 UG 8 12 PG 1 2 Professional 1 2 10 Father’s Occupation 38 55 Farmer 5 7 Coolie 12 17 Government 7 10 Private 1 2 Professional 6 9 Self Employed 11 Mother’s Occupation 16 23 Farmer 3 4 Coolie 7 10 Government 5 7
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Private 1 2 Professional 37 54 Not working
12 Family Monthly income 14 20 Above 12,000 11 16 Rs. 10,000 – 12,000 10 15 Rs. 8,000 – 10,000 11 16 Rs. 6,000 – 8,000 7 10 Rs. 4,000 – 6,000 9 13 Rs. 2,000 – 4,000 7 10 Below 2,000 13 Birth Order Single Child 6 9 1 16 23 2 28 40 3 17 25 4 2 3
The above table indicates that 62 percentage of the respondents belong to the age group of 17 to 18 years, 35 percentage of them to 19 to 20 years and only 3 percentage of the respondents belong to 21 to 22 years.
In regard to religion vast majority (94 percentage) of the respondents are Hindus, 4 percentage of the respondents are Muslims and 2 percentage of them are Christians.
As far as the community is concerned more than one third (38 percentage) of the respondents belong to MBC community, 30 percentage to SC/ST community, 28 percentage to BC community, 2 percentage to DNC and 1 percentage to OC community.
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Regarding the educational status more than half (57 percentage) of the respondents are studying first year BE and nearly half (43 percentage) of the respondents are studying second year BE.
With regard to the educational group 39 percentage of the respondents are studying ECE, 25 percentage of them are studying Civil engineering, 22 percentage are studying CSE and 14 percentage are studying EEE.
Regarding the type of family of the respondents, majority (72 percentage) of the respondents are living in nuclear family and 28 percentage of the respondents are living in joint family.
As far as domicile of the respondents is concerned, majority (71 percentage) of the respondents are from rural area and 29 percentage of the respondents are from urban area.
Regarding the educational status of the respondents fathers, 25 percentage of the respondents fathers have studied middle school education, 23 percentage of them have studied higher secondary education, 17 percentage of the respondents fathers have studied high school education, 10 percentage of the respondents fathers have studied elementary education, 9 percentage of respondents fathers are illiterate, 7 percentage of them have studied Under Graduation, 7 percentage of the respondents fathers have studied professional and 2 percentage of the respondents fathers have studied Post Graduation.
Regarding the educational status of the respondents mothers, 32 percentage of the respondents mothers have studied middle school education, 28 percentage of them have studied high school education, 16 percentage of the respondents mothers have studied higher secondary education, 12 percentage of the respondents mothers have studied Under Graduation, 6 percentage of respondents mothers are illiterate, 2 percentage of them have studied elementary education, 2
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percentage of the respondents mothers have studied professional and 2 percentage of the respondents mothers have studied Post Graduation.
Regarding the fathers occupation of the respondents, more than half (55 percentage) of the respondents fathers are farmers, 17 percentage of the respondents fathers are government employees, 10 percentage of the respondents fathers are private employees, 9 percentage of the respondents fathers are self employed, 7 percentage of the respondents fathers are involved in coolie work and 2 percentage of the respondents fathers are professionals.
Regarding the mothers occupation of the respondents, more than half (54 percentage) of the respondents mothers are not working, 23 percentage of the respondents mothers are farmers, 10 percentage of the respondents mothers are government employees, 7 percentage of the respondents mothers are private employees, 4 percentage of the respondents mothers are involved in coolie work and 2 percentage of the respondents mothers are professionals.
As far as the respondents family monthly income, 20 percentage of the respondents family monthly income is above Rs.12,000, 16 percentage of the respondents family monthly income is between Rs. 10,000 to 12,000, 16 percentage of the respondents family monthly income is between Rs.6,000 to 8,000, 15 percentage of the respondents family monthly income is between Rs 8,000 to 10,000, 13 percentage of the respondents family monthly income is between Rs.2,000 to 4,000, 10 percentage of the respondents family monthly income is Rs.4,000 to 6,000 and 10 percentage of the respondents family monthly income is below Rs.2,000.
With regard to the birth order of the respondents, 40 percentage of the respondents are second child, 25 percentage of the respondents are third child in the family, 23 percentage of them are first child, 9
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percentage of the respondents are single child and 3 percentage of the respondents are fourth child.
TABLE 2: Distribution of Respondents by Various Dimensions of Self- Esteem
S.No. Various Dimensions of No. of Percentage of Self- Esteem Respondents Respondents 1 Competency Low 40 58 High 29 42 2 Global Low 38 55 High 31 45 3 Moral & Self Control 35 51 Low 34 49 High 4 Social Low 35 51 High 34 49 5 Family Low 35 51 High 34 49 6 Body & Physical Appearance 37 54 Low 32 46 High 7 Lie Scale Low 40 58 High 29 42 8 Overall Self- Esteem 69 100 Have Self- Esteem, but need to improve With regard to the competency dimension, 58 percentage of the respondents have low level of self- esteem in competency and 42
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percentage of the respondents have high level of self- esteem in competency.
As far as global dimension is concerned, 55 percentage of the respondents have low level of self- esteem in global and 45 percentage of the respondents have high level of self- esteem in global.
Regarding moral and self control dimension, 51 percentage of the respondents have low level of self- esteem in moral and self control and 49 percentage of the respondents have high level of self- esteem in moral and self control.
With regard to social, 51 percentage of the respondents have low level of self- esteem in social and 49 percentage of the respondents have high level of self- esteem in social.
As far as family dimension is concerned, 51 percentage of the respondents have low level of self- esteem in family and 49 percentage of the respondents have high level of self- esteem in family.
Regarding body and physical appearance dimension, 54 percentage of the respondents have low level of self- esteem in body and physical appearance and 46 percentage of the respondents have high level of self- esteem in body and physical appearance.
With regard to the dimension of lie scale, 58 percentage of the respondents have low level of self- esteem in lie scale and 42 percentage of the respondents have high level of self -esteem in lie scale.
With regard to overall self- esteem, 100 percentage of the respondents have moderate self -esteem, but need to improve it.
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TABLE 3:Association between the Respondents Age and Various Dimensions of Self- Esteem
S. Age of the Respondents Various Dimensions of Self- Statistical No Esteem Inferences Low High 1 Competency x2 = 4.552 17-18 21 22 df = 2 19-20 17 7 P > 0.05 21-22 2 0 Not Significant 2 Global x2 = 2.000 17-18 22 21 df = 2 19-20 14 10 P > 0.05 21-22 2 0 Not Significant 3 Moral & Self Control x2 = 6.037 17-18 17 26 df = 2 19-20 17 7 P < 0.05 21-22 1 1 Significant 4 Social x2 = 2.362 17-18 20 23 df = 2 19-20 13 11 P > 0.05 21-22 2 0 Not Significant 5 Family x2 = 6.537 17-18 17 26 df = 2 19-20 16 8 P < 0.05 21-22 2 0 Significant
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6 Body & Physical x2 = 1.837 Appearance df = 2 17-18 22 21 P > 0.05 19-20 13 11 Not Significant 21-22 2 0 7 Lie Scale x2 = 4.552 17-18 21 22 df = 2 19-20 17 7 P > 0.05 21-22 2 0 Not Significant
The above table reveals that there is significant association between the age of the respondents and the level of self- esteem in the dimensions of moral and self control (x2 = 6.037, P < 0.05) and family (x2 = 6.537, P < 0.05).
There is no significant association between the age of the respondents and the level of self- esteem in the dimensions of competency, global, social, body and physical appearance and lie scale.
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TABLE 4: T’ Test between the Respondents Year of study and Various Dimensions of Self- Esteem
S. No Respondents’ Year of study N Mean SD Statistical Inferences
1 Competency t = 1.306 I BE 30 47.23 6.69 P > 0.05 II BE 39 43.58 5.47 Not Significant 2 Global t = .498 I BE 30 46.90 6.46 P > 0.05 II BE 39 43.41 6.09 Not Significant 3 Moral & Self Control t = .724 I BE 30 37.66 5.74 P > 0.05 II BE 39 36.25 5.29 Not Significant 4 Social t = .702 I BE 30 32.40 5.27 P > 0.05 II BE 39 32.00 4.48 Not Significant 5 Family t = .096 I BE 30 36.13 6.65 P > 0.05 II BE 39 33.12 6.46 Not Significant 6 Body & Physical Appearance t = 1.522 I BE 30 25.80 3.19 P > 0.05 II BE 39 25.00 4.00 Not Significant 7 Lie Scale t = 2.275 I BE 30 16.90 2.86 P < 0.05 II BE 39 15.48 2.38 Significant
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The table shows that there is no significant difference between the respondents’ year of study and the level of self- esteem in the dimensions of competency, global, moral and self control, family, body and physical appearance.
There is significant difference between the respondents’ year of study and the level of self -esteem in the dimension of lie scale.
TABLE 5: One Way Analysis of Variance among Respondents Educational Group with regard to Various Dimensions of Self- Esteem
S. No Educational Group of Df SS MS Mean Statistical the Respondents Inferences 1 Competency 3 347.44 115.81 G1= 46.18 F =3.250 Between Groups 65 2316.47 35.64 G2= 41.53 P < 0.05 Within Groups G3= 48.80 Significant G4= 45.22 2 Global 3 291.09 97.03 G1= 47.00 F = 2.483 Between Groups 65 2539.55 39.07 G2= 41.40 P > 0.05 Within Groups G3= 46.70 Not Significant G4= 44.93 3 Moral & Self Control G1= 38.65 F = 2.931 Between Groups 3 244.94 81.65 G2= 33.67 P < 0.05 Within Groups 65 1810.89 27.86 G3= 38.80 Significant G4= 36.82 4 Social G1= 32.88 F = 2.666 Between Groups 3 172.69 57.56 G2= 29.27 P > 0.05
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Within Groups 65 1403.23 21.59 G3= 33.90 Not Significant G4= 32.70 5 Family G1= 37.18 F = 4.574 Between Groups 3 527.61 175.87 G2= 29.47 P < 0.05 Within Groups 65 2499.35 38.45 G3= 34.40 Significant G4= 35.48 6 Body & Physical G1= 26.12 F = 2.906 Appearance G2= 23.13 P < 0.05 Between Groups 3 108.51 36.17 G3= 26.90 Significant Within Groups 65 809.14 12.45 G4= 25.52 \ Lie Scale G1= 16.29 F = 4.978 7 Between Groups 3 28.45 9.48 G2= 15.47 P < 0.05 Within Groups 65 459.84 7.07 G3= 17.50 Significant G4= 15.82 G1 - Civil, G2 - CSE, G3 - EEE, G4 - ECE
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It is inferred from the above table that there is significant difference among the various educational group of the respondents with regard to self-esteem in the dimensions of competency (F =3.250, P < 0.05), moral and self control (F =2.931, P < 0.05), family (F =4.574, P < 0.05), body and physical appearance (F =2.906, P < 0.05) and lie scale (F =4.978, P < 0.05). Further the mean value reveals that the respondents who is in EEE group have high level of self- esteem in the dimensions of competency, moral and self control, body and physical appearance and lie scale and the respondents who is in Civil group have high level of self- esteem in the dimension of family.
There is no significant difference among the educational group of the respondents with regard to self- esteem in the dimensions of global (F =2.483, P > 0.05) and social (F =2.666, P > 0.05).
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TABLE 6: ‘T’ Test between the Respondents Type of Family and Various Dimensions of Self- Esteem
S. No Type of family of the Respondents N Mean SD Statistical Inferences 1 Competency F =2.483 Joint 19 45.05 5.55 P < 0.05 Nuclear 50 45.22 6.56 Significant 2 Global F = .070 Joint 19 44.84 6.69 P > 0.05 Nuclear 50 44.96 6.43 Not Significant 3 Moral & Self Control F =.170 Joint 19 37.26 5.14 P > 0.05 Nuclear 50 36.72 5.67 Not Significant 4 Social F = .193 Joint 19 31.63 4.84 P > 0.05 Nuclear 50 32.38 4.84 Not Significant 5 Family F = 3.495 Joint 19 34.47 7.63 P < 0.05 Nuclear 50 34.42 6.35 Significant 6 Body & Physical Appearance F = 3.413 Joint 19 26.31 2.75 P < 0.05 Nuclear 50 24.98 3.93 Significant 7 Lie Scale F = .074 Joint 19 15.95 2.76 P > 0.05 Nuclear 50 16.18 2.68 Not Significant
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The table shows that there is significant difference between the respondents who hail from joint and nuclear family type and the level of self-esteem in the dimension of competency (F = 2.483, P<0.05), family (F = 3.495, P<0.05) and body and physical appearance (F = 3.413, P<0.05).
Further the mean value reveals that the respondents who hail from nuclear family have high level of self- esteem in the dimension of competency and the respondents hailing from joint family have high level of self- esteem in the dimensions of family and body and physical appearance.
There is no significant difference between the respondents who hail from joint and nuclear family type and the level of self- esteem in the dimensions of global, moral and self control, social and lie scale.
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TABLE 7: ‘T’ Test between the Respondents Domicile and Various Dimensions of Self- Esteem
S. No Domicile of the Respondents N Mean SD Statistical Inferences 1 Competency F = .814 Urban 20 46.35 5.60 P > 0.05 Rural 49 44.89 6.50 Not Significant 2 Global F = .434 Urban 20 45.00 6.15 P > 0.05 Rural 49 44.90 6.63 Not Significant 3 Moral & Self Control F = .001 Urban 20 37.50 5.59 P > 0.05 Rural 49 36.61 5.50 Not Significant 4 Social F = .853 Urban 20 32.80 4.09 P > 0.05 Rural 49 31.91 5.10 Not Significant 5 Family F = .271 Urban 20 35.85 6.63 P > 0.05 Rural 49 33.86 6.67 Not Significant 6 Body & Physical Appearance F = .235 Urban 20 26.30 3.94 P > 0.05 Rural 49 24.96 3.53 Not Significant 7 Lie Scale F = 5.371 Urban 20 15.65 1.90 P < 0.05 Rural 49 16.29 2.94 Significant
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It is inferred from the above table that there is significant difference between urban and rural background of the respondents with regard to the level of self- esteem in the dimension of lie scale (F = 5.371, P<0.05).
Further the mean value reveals that the respondents hailing from rural area have high level of self- esteem in the dimension of lie scale.
There is no significant difference between urban and rural background of the respondents with regard to the level of self- esteem in the dimensions of competency (F=.814, P>0.05), global (F=.434, P>0.05), moral and self control (F=.001, P>0.05), social(F=.853, P>0.05), family (F=.271, P>0.05), body and physical appearance(F=.235, P>0.05) .
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TABLE 8: One Way Analysis of Variance among the Respondents Fathers Occupation and Various Dimensions of Self- Esteem
S. No Fathers occupation of df SS MS Mean Statistical the Respondents Inferences 1 Competency G1=44.26 Between Groups 5 231.53 46.31 G2=45.00 F = 1.199 Within Groups 63 2432.38 38.61 G3=46.25 P > 0.05 G4=48.71 Not Significant G5=54.00 G6=43.33 2 Global G1=45.08 Between Groups 5 252.90 50.58 G2=46.40 F = 1.236 Within Groups 63 2577.74 40.92 G3=46.92 P > 0.05 G4=43.14 Not Significant G5=50.00 G6=40.00 3 Moral & Self G1=37.16 Control G2=36.60 F = 1.659 Between Groups 5 239.22 47.84 G3=38.67 P > 0.05 Within Groups 63 1816.61 28.84 G4=35.86 Not Significant G5=43.00 G6=31.83 4 Social G1=32.05 Between Groups 5 174.97 35.00 G2=27.60 F = 1.574 Within Groups 63 1400.94 22.24 G3=33.58 P > 0.05 G4=31.71 Not Significant G5=38.00 www.ijmer.in 47 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
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G6=33.50 5 Family G1=34.05 Between Groups 5 430.18 86.04 G2=31.60 F = 2.087 Within Groups 63 2596.77 41.22 G3=38.58 P > 0.05 G4=33.71 Not Significant G5=43.00 G6=30.33 6 Body & Physical G1=25.24 Appearance G2=24.60 F = .381 Between Groups 5 26.95 5.39 G3=26.58 P > 0.05 Within Groups 63 890.70 14.14 G4=24.57 Not Significant G5=26.00 G6=25.00 7 Lie Scale G1=16.08 Between Groups 5 47.20 9.44 G2=18.80 F = 1.348 Within Groups 63 441.09 7.00 G3=15.67 P > 0.05 G4=15.86 Not Significant G5=17.00 G6=15.00 G1 – Farmer, G2 - Coolie, G3 - Government, G4 – Private, G5 – Professional, G6 – Self Employed
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It is inferred from the above table that there is no significant difference among the various occupation of the respondents fathers with regard to self-esteem in the dimensions of competency (F =1.199, P > 0.05), global (F =1.236, P > 0.05), moral and self control (F =1.659, P > 0.05), social (F =1.574, P > 0.05), family (F =2.087, P > 0.05), body and physical appearance (F =.381, P > 0.05) and lie scale (F =1.348, P > 0.05).
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TABLE 9: Karl Pearson’s Co-Efficient of Correlations between the Respondents Birth Order and Various Dimensions of Self- Esteem
S. No Birth order of the Respondents Correlation Value Statistical Inference 1 Birth order and Competency P > 0.05 -.032 Not Significant 2 Birth order and Global P > 0.05 .004 Not Significant 3 Birth order and Moral & Self Control P > 0.05 -.047 Not Significant 4 Birth order and Social -.077 P > 0.05 Not Significant 5 Birth order and Family -.137 P > 0.05 Not Significant 6 Birth order and Body & Physical P > 0.05 Appearance .007 Not Significant 7 Birth order and Lie Scale P > 0.05 -.063 Not Significant
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The above table indicates that there is no significant relationship between the birth order of the respondents and the level of self- esteem in the dimensions of competency, global, moral and self control, social, family, body and physical appearance and lie scale.
Conclusion
Self-esteem is an attitude related to personal beliefs about skills, abilities, social relationships, and future outcomes about the self. It is the emotional response that people experience as they contemplate and evaluate different things about themselves. A positive view of the self allows a person to be happy and face life’s challenges. The research study found out that half of the respondents have low level of self- esteem in the dimensions of competency, global, moral & self control, social, family, body & physical appearance and lie scale. The late adolescent girls overall self-esteem is in moderate level and they need to improve it. Future research on methods for promoting self- esteem and applying the direct methods of social work in the Engineering Colleges may help reduce the negative feelings of late adolescent girls, and the problems that arise from them.
References
1. Agarwal Gaurav, Dr. Bhardwaj Kumar Abhishek, (2014). Gender differences in self-esteem among college students: a comparative study, SENSE, Vol.4 (4), Pp.94-100.
2. Josephs, Markus, and Tafarodi (1992), Gender and self-esteem, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 63(3), Sep 1992, 391-402.
3. Kearney-Cooke A, Gender differences and self-esteem, J Gend Spec if Med. 1999 May-Jun,2(3), 46-52.
4. Ozmen D, Ozmen E, Ergin D, Cetinkaya AC, Sen N, Dundar PE,… Taskin EO, (2007) The association of self-esteem, depression and body satisfaction with obesity among Turkish adolescents, BMC, Public Health, doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-7-80
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THEMATIC CONCERN IN AMITAV GHOSH’S FICTION ‘THE HUNGRY TIDE’
Raju Brahma Assistant Professor Dept. of English Cachar College, Silchar INTRODUCTION:
Amitav Ghosh is one of the most prominent voices in the field of post colonial English fiction. His stories travel throughout time and space, creating an account that has an asymmetrical flow. The mighty Ganges River flows from the Himalayan Mountains across northern India, empting into the Bay of Bengal. The river delta has created a vast archipelago of island, the Sundarbans, where the mangrove jungles grow quickly on land. The tidal charge from the sea constantly reshapes or devours the islands with just tops of the jungles often visible at high tide. This tide country is the home to the Bengal tigers, huge crocodiles, sharks, snakes, impenetrable forests and a few people trying to scratch out a living. At the beginning of the 20th century, Sir Daniel Hamilton decided to create a utopian society there, offering free land to those willing to work as they accepted the others as equals, regardless of caste or ethnicity. It’s a difficult life that leaves most women widowed at a young age and land barely cultivable if the salt water of the tide country is kept from flooding their fields. In the Hungry Tide, he shuttles between the Morichjhanpi incident from Nirmal’s point of view and the present day travels of Piya, Kanai and Fokir. This time travel is vital to the story and has created an intricate of sub-topics and plots. Another trait of Amitav Ghosh that is continued in the Hungry Tide is the scrupulous research that allows a mixture of fiction and fact to the extent that they stand undifferentiated. Touching upon various topics from refugees, freedom and war to life in the Sundarbans, the
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absence of language in communication, development, women trafficking and much more, he takes the reader through a whirlwind of events and emotions.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY:
The main objective of this article is to discuss and analyse the themes highlighted in Amitav Ghosh’s novel The Hungry Tide. The researcher realises that underneath the storyline The Hungry Tide draws our attention to Cultural theme, theme of backwardness and rural India, theme of Primitiveness, Political theme, theme of Egalitarianism or Globalization, theme of Violence and marginalized woman.
METHODOLOGY AND COLLECTION OF DATA:
The research article is mainly analytical in nature. The study is mainly based on primary data i.e. The Hungry Tide and secondary data collected from various other relevant sources, periodicals, journals, websites etc.
DISCUSSION:
The novel is told from the perspective of its two main characters, Kanai Dutta, a Delhi businessman and Piyali Roy alias Piya, an American scientist who has come to study the rare Irrawaddy dolphin which lives in the rivers of the tide country. Kanai has been to Lusibari as a teenager, sent by his parents to be ‘rusticated’ for his pride and arrogance. He is now being summoned by Nilima because of a package left to Kanai by her late husband, Nirmal, which has just been found some twenty years after his death. Nirmal and Nilima came to the Sundarbans when his revolutionary ideas became too dangerous in Calcutta. Nilima founded a co- operative which brought help, medicine and ultimately a hospital to Lusibari, while Nirmal spent his career as a headmaster of the local
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school. For a short time in 1970 while Kanai was visiting, a young woman named Kusum passed through their lives. The package now left to Kanai contains an account of the events at the end of Nirmal’s life, which revolves around Kusum, her son Fokir and the catastrophic struggle of the dispossessed to form a new society on the island of Morichjhanpi.
Piyali Roy is the daughter of Bengali parents who had immigrated to Seatle. She is a woman used to the solitude and rigors of the life of a scientist working in the field. Piya often works in areas where she knows neither the customs nor the language and can survive for days on just energy burs and Ovaltine as she studies river dolphins. She has come to the Sundarbans to find rare creatures, but her trip doesn’t begin well. With an official permit, she is forced to use government approved guide and guard, but she finds herself at their whims until events lend her in the small boat belonging to Fokir. Fokir helps Piya to reach her destination i.e. the dolphin habitat and then guides her to Lusibari where the paths of Piya, Kanai and Fokir all merge.
Setting the Hungry Tide in the Sundarbans allows Amitav Ghosh to create a setting where everyone is on an even footing. It seems that it is not just the legacy of Sir Daniel Hamilton, but the hostile environment erases all societal strata because everyone is an equal in the struggle to survive in the hostile environment. These theme runs continuously through the novels. Nirmal, a poet at heart who constantly invokes Rilke, approaches retirement feeling like his life was poorly spent because he never lived up to revolution ideas. Nilima is the practical side of their marriage, building a co-operative trust which brings hope to many lives. However, she is unwilling to do anything that might upset the government whose favours she needs. They are middle classes upbringing and college education brings them no luxury, just the gratitude and respect from the locals
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in the tide country for the services they provide. This is a life Kanai doesn’t understand. In the Sundarbans, his wealth, servants and pride have no value. While he feels himself to be superior to Fokir, on the river he needs Fokir’s skill to provide for his survival. Piya needs Kanai’s translation skills and Fokir’s local knowledge of the river and wildlife in her research work.
In the Sundarbans where the tide changes the environment daily, nothing is certain and everything in life is a shade of grey. It is a place where tigers kill hundreds of people a year, but since they are protected species, killing a tiger that has been preying on a village brings in the government authorities to mete out punishment. In an environment where life is fragile, the essence of any person is broken down to its core. Amitav Ghosh allows the tide country break down the barriers of both society and his characters.
The Hungry Tide seems to be the story of struggle for each person to find their place in the world; it is not a novel of constant action and suspense. Yet it doesn’t slow the pace of the novel. Amitav Ghosh keeps the pages turning with the history of the tide country, the stories of the local deities, scientific information, the back stories of each character and Nirmal’s journal of what happened to Kusum and her son. At times, the history and scientific information start to overwhelm the story and these carry on for a bit long before the final voyage up the river begins. The Hungry Tide is a compelling book about ordinary people bound together in an exotic place that can consume them all. It is the basest of human emotions, love, jealousy, pride and trust that will make the difference as we follow Piya, Kanai and Fokir into the heart of tide country.
Amitav Ghosh has presented the Sundarbans as being borderless, a “utopia” in its original meaning of no place, where one’s familiar markers for identity are constantly shifting. In the eyes of
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Sir Daniel Hamilton, “it was impossible to tell who was who and what their castes and religions and beliefs were”. Then from a natural point of view, “There [were] no borders here to divide fresh water from salt, river from sea.” It seems that Amitav Ghosh liked researching his novels more than the actual writing. Amitav Ghosh spoke about the writing and research that went into his novel The Hungry Tide as well. The author himself said that The Hungry Tide took him four years of pretty continuous research. It is based on his visits to the Mekong River in Cambodia and the Sundarbans in Southern Bengal.
Underneath the storyline there are several themes that have intermingled and sometimes dissipated too by the deft touches of the artistry in Amitav Ghosh. The Hungry Tide has a lot of theme. Among these the following are the dominant.
i) Cultural Theme
ii) Theme of backwardness and rural India
iii) Theme of Primitiveness Progression
iv) Political Theme
v) Theme of Egalitarianism (or Globalization)
vi) Theme of Violence and marginalized woman
(i) Cultural Theme:
At the very outset at Dhakuria Railway station it may be seen that Piya has drawn the attention of the people around including Kanai. She was wearing loose cotton pants and an oversized white shirt like a teenaged boy. There was no bindi on her forehead and her arms were free of bangles and bracelets, but on one of her ears was a silver studs. She has come from America in order to visit the Sundarbans. She was a foreigner; it was stamped in her posture, in
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the way she stood, balancing on her heels like a fly weight boxer with her feet planted apart.
Piya is often reminded of her childhood days particularly the relation between her parents. The gamcha that Fokir used remined her of the one that her father used. Again, the language that the people of the tide country used is the one that her parents used while talking among themselves. Idol worship performed by Fokir and his son Tutul at Garjontola reminds Piya of her mother’s way of performing pooja. ii) Theme of backwardness and rural India:
Theme of backwardness looms large in the novel from the beginning to the end. The sight of Lusibari and neighbouring other tide country reminds us of the backwardness of rural India. There is no school except one in Lusibari. In the name of medicine and healthcare there is only one small hospital there with very limited medical facilities. Communication with the mainland seems to be very limited. Economic condition of the settlers seems to be no satisfactory. Their principal source of income is cultivation and fishing. Majority of them lives a life of hand to mouth.
Through Piya’s voyage on a small fishing boat one can have a glimpse of rural India. Fokir, the poor fisherman seems to be a very simple and easy going rustic. Unlike the forest guard and his partner the launch-man, Fokir had neither greed nor any hidden agenda in him. iii) Theme of Primitiveness:
The people of the Sundarbans and Lusibari in particular live in Nature and it seems to be everything for them. They worship Nature as Mother Goddess and to them; to satisfy Her should be one’s motive in life. As Kanai accompanied by his aunt and some others were
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waiting on the bank of the river for the launch, a man wearing loongie comes towards them. When asked, he informs that he has come after offering pooja to Bon-Bibi. And as Kanai laughs, his aunt intervenes and asks Kanai not to behave like a stupid. At this the man is proud enough to announce that he can correct Kanai if he stays with him for some days.
The island of Garjontola is a place of significance for the settlers as it is the dwelling place of Bon-Bibi and her brother Shah- Jongoli. Once, Piya on her way to the dolphin habitats accompanied Fokir and Tutul to Garjontola. There was a large eyed female figure in a sari and beside it a slightly smaller figure of a man. Crouching between them was a tiger. Often Piya has noticed Fokir singing the glory of Bon-Bibi. However she could understand the meaning of his song only when Kanai translated it into English. The settlers believed that once Dakkhin Rai (tiger) had a deal with Dhona. Dakkhin Rai agrees to load all the boats of Dhona with honey and woods in exchange of Dukhye left alone in the island. It was Bon-Bibi who saved the life of Dukhye and Shah Jongoli chased Dakkhin Rai (tiger) away. Thus to the settlers Bon-Bibi and Shah Jongoli are the gods and savior of them all.
The cult of Bon-Bibi, peculiar to the community in which Kanai finds himself, has been handed down through the generations, through the oral tradition of story and song: the tale, appears to have been written down at one point and at other is staged as a theatre play, ‘The Glory of Bon-Bibi’, but its transmission remains essentially oral. It may fairly be seen as representative of a certain strand of Hindu-Muslim syncretism.
iv) Political Theme:
Sir Daniel Hamilton’s project is actually a vision for ushering change in the traditional caste and community ridden Bengali society.
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Piya’s plight and the native women’s sufferings—though there is difference in degree, yet there are certain commonalities. There are all margins in the narrative, gagged and made speechless by the powerful patriarchy in the operation.
It seems that on certain occasion the characters in the novel are carried away by politics. Nirmal had attended the Conference convened in Calcutta of the Socialist International; he had been teaching at Ashutosh College at that time. On the contrary Nilima’s grandfather had been a founding leader of the Congress Party. Even after his marriage with Nilima, Nirmal took keen interest in party politics. As the involvement threatened his life, they decided to leave the mainland and left for Lusibari. Again, in the name of relief and rehabilitation hundreds and thousands of people were transported to Morichjhanpi. But then the political establishment errant remained callous and indifferent to their plight. Government considered them to be immigrants. Against this Nirmal and Nilima’s efforts are definitely the silver linings. v) Theme of Egalitarianism:
During the British period one Scotsman, Mr. Daniel Hamilton purchased some of the tiny islands in the Bay of Bengal. Lusibari was one of them. At that time that was an uninhabited island. Mr. Hamilton wanted to make his island a different land. He welcomed everyone who wanted to live there, with a condition—there must be no distinction, nothing so called Brahmins or untouchables, no distinction whether Oriya or Bengali etc. In one sense, he wanted to make a society free from all kinds of distinctions and narrow mindedness.
People migrated to this island in 1938 as Daniel Hamilton purchased it from the then British government. It is a free land where there is no harassment from the zamindars as well as from the taxes
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imposed by the British rulers. In 1947 people migrated there after the partition of India and again in1971 after violent movement East Pakistan became Bangladesh.
In this tide country people suffered from poverty and Nilima took the initiative to establish the Badabon Trust in order to help them. Nirmal too becomes a teacher and dedicates his time by teaching the children of the island. The world here seems to be ‘a melting pot’ or ‘a salad bowl’ on account of the simultaneous presence of numberless communities and groups, belonging to different religions, castes and nationalities.
vi) Theme of violence and marginalized woman:
Cruelty in Nature: Amitav Ghosh’s musings on language, on translatability, on the forgotten massacre of Morichjhanpi, in which dominant cultures forcibly wipe out movements from below, are deftly woven into the interactions between the characters. Yet the most dominant theme is of great sweep away by water, the flood on land, the revolution in the mind. As the reigning deity of the tide country Bon-Bibi, in Amitav Ghosh’s vision a plural syncretic local cult, presides over this flood; she is a goddess of hope but also of vengeance. Amitv Ghosh presents nature as hungry of human blood. Hungry tide stands for all the disastrous aspects of nature.
The settlers of the tide country lived in fear and were afraid of animals i.e. tiger. It is a taboo to utter the name of the animal for it might bring misfortune to them. Again in Morichjhanpi, it seems that they were afraid of the government forces. The inhabitants of Morichjhanpi were humiliated and even killed in huge number by government forces.
It seems that the settlers of the tide country always lived in fear; fear from high tide and cyclone as well. Horen speaks about his experience in 1970s as there arouse a fierce cyclone from the Bay of
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Bengal. At that time there was no warning system for cyclone. All of a sudden fierce wind started blowing as Horen with his uncle and another man were on their fishing boat. Everything changed within a very few moment. The fierce cyclone accompanied by high tide dashed their fishing boat to a huge tree and quickly Horen and his uncle managed to tie themselves on the upper branches of the tree. In the later part it is noticed that Piya and Fokir too experiences the catastrophe of the tide country. While out into the sea they comes across a cyclone accompanied with high tide and somehow manages to save them from impending death. But Fokir was not fortunate enough to save himself from death in the second lot of high tide which followed minutes later after the first one.
Piya had previous experience of falling into trouble while travelling alone. Often taking advantage of her loneliness into a river or jungle she faced humiliation and her virginity was threatened. Here too, Piya was humiliated and could smell molestation by the forest guard and crew of the launch.
Womenfolk in Lusibari always suffered from a great sense of violence and insecurity. They used to put on white saries, a sign of widowhood as soon as their husbands went out for fishing into the river or to bring firewood from the jungle. They knew that there is no guarantee of their safe return. No single day passed without the news of someone’s death. Someone killed by crocodiles, snakes, tigers and some other wild animals.
Kusum’s mother seems to be a victim of poverty and various other social causes. She was tricked into working at a brothel in Calcutta by an agent. Fortunately enough in her mother’s absence the Women’s Union headed by Nilima rescues her from the ill fate.
Kusum’s life too highlights the livelihood of women’s suffering in the tide country. Kusum came to Nilima begging medical help for
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the settlers in Morichjhanpi. But Nilima declined for the Government warned not to provide any helping hand to the people of Morichjhanpi. Later on she was killed in the Morichjhanpi massacre perpetrated by the Government against the ‘squatters’.
The Hungry Tide exhibits Amitav Ghosh’s concern for the individual against a broader historical or even geographical backdrop. The book is divided into two sections—the Ebb and the Flood and is set in the Sundarbans. The term Sundarbans means beautiful forest. It is the home of the Bengal tigers, which has killed tens of thousands of people. Because the tiger is an endangered species, the government has taken steps to preserve its natural environment. This, however, has resulted in confrontations with the local populace and that conflict is the history behind this novel. The tide comes in twice daily, resulting in a constant reshaping of the land and an uprooting of anything permanent. Such ebb and flow of history and the uprooting of population seems to have been noticed by Amitav Ghosh as dominant themes.
Bibliography:
1. Ghosh, Amitav. The Hungry Tide. London: Harper Collins, 2004
2. Bhargava, Rajul. (ed.) Indian Writing in English: The Last Decade. New Delhi: Rawat, 2002.
3. Bose, Brinda. (ed.) Amitav Ghosh: Critical Perspectives. Delhi: Pencraft International, 2003.
4. Chambers, Clare. The Relationship Between Knowledge and Power in the Works of Amitav Ghosh. Leeds, 2003.
5. Damor, Nutan. ‘Roots of Alienation’ in Indira Bhatt and Indira Nityanandam (ed.) The Fiction of Amitav Ghosh: 125-32.
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6. Dhawan, R.K. (ed.) The Novels of Amitav Ghosh. New Delhi: Prestige, 1999.
7. Ghose, Sagarika. ‘The Shadow Links: A Review of The Hungry Tide’. The Indian Express. 27th June 2004. http://www._indianexpress ._com/_ful_story.ph p?co ntent_id =49600
8. Greer, W.R. ‘The Tide of Emotion’: Amitav Ghosh’s The Hungry Tide.
9. Harlow, Barbara and Mia Carter. (ed.) Imperialism and Orientalism: A Documentary Sourcebook Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1999.
10. Howley, John C. Contemporary Indian Writers in English— Amitav Ghosh. Cambridge University Press India Pvt. Ltd. 2008.
11. Khair, Tabish. (ed.) Amitav Ghosh: A Critical Companion. Delhi: Permanent Black, 2003.
12. Sandall, Simon. Amitav Ghosh talks about researching his novel The Hungry Tide, November 7, 2004.
13. Tiwari, Shubha. Amitav Ghosh: A Critical Study New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 2003.
14. Trivedi, Darshana. ‘Footprints of History’ in Indra Bhatt and Indra Nityanandam (ed.) The Fiction of Amitav Ghosh.
15. Weisbord, Merrily. ‘Amitav Ghosh’. College English Review. 1.4 (1997):4-5.
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IMPROVED ACTIVE POWER FILTER PERFORMANCE FOR RENEWABLE POWER GENERATION SYSTEMS
T.Venkatesh Ch.Kiran Kumar Assistant Professor M.Tech in PE WITS WITS Warangal, Telangana Warangal, Telangana
K.Srinivas Head & Assistant Professor WITS Warangal, Telangana
Abstract—An active power filter implemented with a four-leg voltage-source inverter using a predictive control scheme is presented. The use of a four-leg voltage-source inverter allows the compensation of current harmonic components, as well as unbalanced current generated by single-phase nonlinear loads. A detailed yet simple mathematical model of the active power filter, including the effect of the equivalent power system impedance, is derived and used to design the predictive control algorithm. The compensation performance of the proposed active power filter and the associated control scheme under steady state and transient operating conditions is demonstrated through simulations and experimental results.
Index Terms—Active Power Filter, Current Control, Four-Leg Converters, Predictive Control.
Introduction RENEWABLE generation affects power quality due to its nonlinearity, since solar generation plants and wind power generators must be connected to the grid through high-power static PWM converters [1]. The non uniform nature of power generation directly affects voltage regulation and creates voltage
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distortion in power systems. This new scenario in power distribution systems will require more sophisticated compensation techniques. Although active power filters implemented with three-phase four-leg voltage-source inverters (4L-VSI) have already been presented in the technical literature [2]–[6], the primary contribution of this paper is a predictive control algorithm designed and implemented specifically for this application. Traditionally, active power filters have been controlled using pre tuned controllers, such as PI-type or adaptive, for the current as well as for the dc-voltage loops [7], [8]. PI controllers must be designed based on the equivalent linear model, while predictive controllers use the nonlinear model, which is closer to real operating conditions. An accurate model obtained using predictive controllers improves the performance of the active power filter, especially during transient operating conditions, because it can quickly follow the current-reference signal while maintaining a constant dc-voltage. This paper presents the mathematical model of the 4L-VSI and the principles of operation of the proposed predictive control scheme, including the design procedure. The complete description of the selected current reference generator implemented in the active power filter is also presented. Finally, the proposed active power filter and the effectiveness of the associated control scheme compensation are demonstrated through simulation and validated with experimental results obtained in a 2 kVA laboratory prototype Stand-alone hybrid power generation system with a shunt active power filter.
Fig. 2. Three-phase equivalent circuit of the proposed shunt active power filter.
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II.FOUR-LEGCONVERTER MODEL Fig. 1 shows the configuration of a typical power distribution system with renewable power generation. It consists of various types of power generation units and different types of loads. Renewable sources, such as wind and sunlight, are typically used to generate electricity for residential users and small industries. Both types of power generation use ac/ac and dc/ac static PWM converters for voltage conversion and battery banks for long term energy storage. These converters perform maximum power point tracking to extract the m aximum energy possible from wind and sun. The electrical energy consumption behavior is random and unpredictable, and therefore, it may be single- or three-phase, balanced or unbalanced, and linear or nonlinear. An active power filter is connected in parallel at the point of common coupling to compensate current harmonics, current unbalance, and reactive power. It is composed by an electrolytic capacitor, a four-leg PWM converter, and a first- order output ripple filter, as shown in Fig. 2. This circuit considers the power system equivalent impedance Zs, the converter output ripple filter impedance Zf , and the load impedance ZL .The four-leg PWM converter topology is shown in Fig. 3. This converter topology is similar to the conventional three-phase converter with the fourth leg connected to the neutral bus of the system. The fourth leg increases switching states from 8 (23) to 16 (24), improving control flexibility and output voltage quality, and is suitable for current unbalanced compensation.
Fig. 3. Two-level four-leg PWM-VSI topology.
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The voltage in any leg x of the converter, measured from the neutral point (n), can be expressed in terms of switching states, as follows:
The mathematical model of the filter derived from the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 2 is
where Req and Leq are the 4L-VSI output parameters expressed as Thevenin impedances at the converter output terminals Zeq. Therefore, the Thevenin equivalent impedance is determined by a series connection of the ripple filter impedance Zf and a parallel arrangement between the system equivalent impedance Zs and the load impedance Z
For this model, it is assumed that ZL »Zs, that the resistive part of the system’s equivalent impedance is neglected, and that the series reactance is in the range of 3–7% p.u., which is an acceptable approximation of the real system. Finally, in (2) Req = Rf and Leq = Ls + Lf. III. DIGITAL PREDICTIVE CURRENT CONTROL
Fig. 4. Proposed predictive digital current control block diagram.
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The main characteristic of predictive control is the use of the system model to predict the future behavior of the variables to be controlled. The controller uses this information to select the optimum switching state that will be applied to the power converter, according to predefined optimization criteria. The predictive control algorithm is easy to implement and to understand, and it can be implemented with three main blocks, as shown in Fig. 4. 1) Current Reference Generator: This unit is designed to generate the required current reference that is used to compensate the undesirable load current components. In this case, the system voltages, the load currents, and the dc-voltage converter are measured, while the neutral output current and neutral load current are generated directly from these signals (IV). 2) Prediction Model: The converter model is used to predict the output converter current. Since the controller operates in discrete time, both the controller and the system model must be represented in a discrete time domain [22]. The discrete time model consists of a recursive matrix equation that represents this prediction system. This means that for a given sampling time Ts, knowing the converter switching states and control variables at instant kTs , it is possible to predict the next states at any instant [k + 1]Ts .Due to the first-order nature of the state equations that describe the model in (1)– (2), a sufficiently accurate first-order approximation of the derivative is considered in this paper
The 16 possible output current predicted values can be obtained from (2) and (4) as
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As shown in (5), in order to predict the output current io at the instant (k + 1), the input voltage value vo and the converter output voltage vxN, are required. The algorithm calculates all 16 values associated with the possible combinations that the state variables can achieve. 3) Cost Function Optimization: In order to select the optimal switching state that must be applied to the power converter, the 16 predicted values obtained for io[k + 1] are compared with the reference using a cost function g, as follows:
The output current (io) is equal to the reference (i*o) when g = 0. Therefore, the optimization goal of the cost function is to achieve a g value close to zero. The voltage vector vxN that minimizes the cost function is chosen and then applied at the next sampling state. During each sampling state, the switching state that generates the minimum value of g is selected from the 16 possible function values. The algorithm selects the switching state that produces this minimal value and applies it to the converter during the k + 1 state. IV. CURRENT REFERENCE GENERATION A dq-based current reference generator scheme is used to obtain the active power filter current reference signals. This scheme presents a fast and accurate signal tracking capability. This characteristic avoids voltage fluctuations that deteriorate the current reference signal affecting compensation performance [28]. The current reference signals are obtained from the corresponding load currents as shown in Fig. 5. This module calculates the reference signal currents required by the converter to compensate reactive power, current harmonic, and current imbalance. The
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displacement power factor (sinφ(L) ) and the maximum total harmonic distortion of the load (THD(L)) defines the relationships between the apparent power required by the active power filter, with respect to the load, as shown
where the value of THD(L) includes the maximum compensable harmonic current, defined as double the sampling frequency fs. The frequency of the maximum current harmonic component that can be compensated is equal to one half of the converter switching frequency. The dq-based scheme operates in a rotating reference frame; therefore, the measured currents must be multiplied by the sin(wt) and cos(wt) signals. By using dq-transformation, the d current component is synchronized with the corresponding phase-to-neutral system voltage, and the q current component is phase-shifted by 90◦. The sin(wt) and cos(wt) synchronized reference signals are obtained from a synchronous reference frame (SRF) PLL [29]. The SRF-PLL generates a pure sinusoidal waveform even when the system voltage is severely
Fig. 5. dq-based current reference generator block diagram. distorted. Tracking errors are eliminated, since SRF-PLLs are designed to avoid phase voltage unbalancing, harmonics (i.e., less than 5% and 3% in fifth and seventh, respectively), and offset caused by the nonlinear load
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conditions and measurement errors Equation (8) shows the relationship between the real currents iLx(t) (x = u, v,w) and the associated dq components (id and iq )
A low-pass filter (LFP) extracts the dc component of the phase currents id to generate the harmonic reference components −~id. The reactive reference components of the phase-currents are obtained by phase- shifting the corresponding ac and dc components of iq by 180◦. In order to keep the dc-voltage constant, the amplitude of the converter reference current must be modified by adding an active power reference signal ie with the d- component, as will be explained in Section IV-A. The resulting signals i*d and i*q are transformed back to a three-phase system by applying the inverse Park and Clark transformation, as shown in (9). The cutoff frequency of the LPF used in this paper is 20 Hz
The current that flows through the neutral of the load is compensated by injecting the same instantaneous value obtained from the phase-currents, phase-shifted by 180◦, as shown next
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One of the major advantages of the dq-based current reference generator scheme is that it allows the implementation of a linear controller in the dc-voltage control loop. However, one important disadvantage of the dq- based current reference frame algorithm used to generate the current reference is that a secondorder harmonic component is generated in id and iq under unbalanced operating conditions. The amplitude of this harmonic depends on the percent of unbalanced load current (expressed as the relationship between the negative sequence current iL,2 and the positive sequence current iL,1 ). The second-order harmonic cannot be removed from id and iq , and therefore generates a third harmonic in the reference current when it is converted back to abc frame Fig.7 shows the percent of system current imbalance and the percent of third harmonic system current, in function of the percent of load current imbalance. Since the load current does not have a third harmonic, the one generated by the active power filter flows to the power system
Fig. 6. DC-voltage control block diagram.
A. DC-Voltage Control The dc-voltage converter is controlled with a traditional PI controller. This is an important issue in the evaluation, since the cost function (6) is designed using only current references, in order to avoid the use of weighting factors. Generally, these weighting factors are obtained experimentally, and they are not well defined when different operating conditions are required. Additionally, the slow dynamic response of the voltage across the electrolytic capacitor does not affect the current transient response. For this reason, the PI controller represents a simple and effective alternative for the dc-voltage control.
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The dc-voltage remains constant (with a minimum value of √6vs(rms) ) until the active power absorbed by the converter decreases to a level where it is unable to compensate for its losses. The active power absorbed by the converter is controlled by adjusting the amplitude of the active power reference signal ie, which is in phase with each phase voltage. In the block diagram shown in Fig. 5, the dc-voltage vdc is measured and then compared with a constant reference value v*dc. The error (e) is processed by a PI controller, with two gains, Kp and Ti .Both gains are calculated according to the dynamic response requirement. Fig. 7 shows that the output of the PI controller is fed to the dc-voltage transfer function Gs, which is represented by a first-order system (11)
The equivalent closed-loop transfer function of the given system with a PI controller (12) is shown in (13)
Since the time response of the dc-voltage control loop does not need to be fast, a damping factor ζ = 1and a natural angular speed ωn = 2π · 100 rad/s are used to obtain a critically damped response with minimal voltage oscillation. The corresponding integral time Ti = 1/a (13) and proportional gain Kp can be calculated as
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V. SIMULATED RESULTS A simulation model for the three-phase four-leg PWM converter with the parameters shown in Table I has been developed using MATLAB-Simulink. The objective is to verify the current harmonic compensation effectiveness of the proposed control scheme under different operating conditions. A six-pulse rectifier was used as a nonlinear load. The proposed predictive control algorithm was programmed using an S-function block that allows simulation of a discrete model that can be easily implemented in a real-time interface (RTI) on the dSPACE DS1103 R&D control board. Simulations were performed considering a 20 [μs] of
sample time. In the simulated results shown in Fig. 8, the active filter starts to compensate at t = t1. At this time, the active power filter injects an output current iou to compensate current harmonic components, current unbalanced, and neutral current simultaneously. During compensation, the system currents is show sinusoidal waveform, with low total
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harmonic distortion (THD = 3.93%). At t = t2, a three-phase balanced load step change is generated from 0.6 to 1.0 p.u. The compensated system currents remain sinusoidal despite the change in the load current magnitude.
Finally, at t = t3, a single-phase load step change is introduced in phase u from 1.0 to 1.3 p.u., which is equivalent to an 11% current imbalance. As expected on the load side, a neutral current flows through the neutral conductor (iLn), but on the source side, no neutral current is observed (isn). Simulated results show that the proposed control scheme effectively eliminates unbalanced currents. Additionally, Fig. 8 shows that the dc-voltage remains stable throughout the whole active power filter operation.
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VII. CONCLUSION Improved dynamic current harmonics and a reactive power compensation scheme for power distribution systems with generation from renewable sources has been proposed to improve the current quality of the distribution system. Advantages of the proposed scheme are related to its simplicity, modeling, and implementation. The use of a predictive control algorithm for the converter current loop proved to be an effective solution for active power filter applications, improving current tracking capability, and transient response. Simulated and experimental results have proved that the proposed predictive control algorithm is a good alternative to classical linear control methods. The predictive current control algorithm is a stable and robust solution. Simulated and experimental results have shown the compensation effectiveness of the proposed active power filter.
REFERENCES 1. J. Rocabert, A. Luna, F. Blaabjerg, and P. Rodriguez, “Control of power converters in AC microgrids,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27, no. 11, pp. 4734–4749, Nov. 2012. 2. M. Aredes, J. Hafner, and K. Heumann, “Three-phase four-wire shunt active filter control strategies,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 12,no. 2, pp. 311–318, Mar. 1997. 3. S. Naidu and D. Fernandes, “Dynamic voltage restorer based on a fourleg voltage source converter,” Gener. Transm. Distrib., IET, vol. 3, no.5, pp. 437–447, May 2009. 4. N. Prabhakar and M. Mishra, “Dynamic hysteresis current control to minimize switching for three-phase four-leg VSI topology to compensatenonlinear load,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 8, pp. 1935– 1942, Aug. 2010. 5. V. Khadkikar, A. Chandra, and B. Singh, “Digital signal processor implementation and performance evaluation of split capacitor, four-
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leg and three h-bridge-based three-phase four-wire shunt active filters,” Power Electron., IET, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 463–470, Apr. 2011. 6. F. Wang, J. Duarte, and M. Hendrix, “Grid-interfacing converter systems with enhanced voltage quality for microgrid application;concept andimplementation,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 26, no. 12, pp. 3501– 3513, Dec. 2011. 7. X.Wei, “Study on digital pi control of current loop in active power filter,” in Proc. 2010 Int. Conf. Electr. Control Eng., Jun. 2010, pp. 4287–4290. 8. R. de Araujo Ribeiro, C. de Azevedo, and R. de Sousa, “A robust adaptive control strategy of active power filt ers for power-factor correction,harmonic compensation, and balancing of nonlinear loads,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 718–730, Feb. 2012.
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ROLE OF INDIAN DAIRY SECTOR IN CREATION OF RURAL EMPLOYMENT
Dr.Mukku Syam Babu Lecturer in Commerce Govt.Degree College Razole East Godavari Dist. Abstract:
Milk dairy sector provides secondary source of income for millions of rural families and has assumed the most important role in providing employment and income generating opportunities particularly for women and marginal farmers. In this paper, the role dairy sector in creation of rural employment is studied.
Introduction:
Milk is a complete food which contains high quality proteins, vitamins and other quality ingredients. Milk is regarded as nectar. India is the largest producer of milk and milk products followed by the United States, China, Germany, Brazil, and Russia. Milk and Milk products are come under dairy sector. The importance of dairy sector can be compared with a coin. On one side, the dairy sector provides employment opportunities for people and on other side; it provides protein-rich diet to the population. The milk Dairy sector in India shows substantial growth rate over the years. India is ranked first in milk production in the world with its prudent policy intervention. The annual output reached to 142.48 tonnes during 2014-15 compared to 137.68 million tonnes of milk during the year 2013-14 with a growth of 3.49%. This represents a sustained growth in the availability of milk and milk products for growing population. The country has the largest stocks of cattle and buffaloes, more than 50 percent of the world's buffaloes and 20 percent of its cattle. The Indian dairy sector contributes a larger share of the agricultural gross domestic product
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(GDP). Although the contribution of agriculture and allied sectors to the National GDP has declined during the past few decades, the contribution of the livestock sector has increased from less than 5 percent in the early 1980s to over 8 percent at present. This sector reported a market size of Rs. 3,25,700 cr during 2014 with a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 16 percent. It will be doubled by 2019. The per capita availability of milk in India stands at 289.4 grams per day. Backed by strong domestic demand, the per capita availability of milk is anticipated to reach 336 grams per day by the year 2017. Milk dairy sector provides secondary source of income for millions of rural families and has assumed the most important role in providing employment and income generating opportunities particularly for women and marginal farmers. In this paper, the role dairy sector in creation of rural employment is studied.
Review of Literature:
Mahak Malik (1989) made an economic evaluation of organized milk procurement in Haryana Dairy Development Cooperative Federation. Milk procurement is described as the life-line of a dairy plant. It also points out that proper utilization of the installed capacities of the dairy plants for processing milk and manufacturing various milk products are heavily dependent on the total quantity of milk procured by it. Moreover, it is said that the dairy plants found it very difficult to utilize the given capacity during lean season. The study concluded that there was a plenty of scope for the milk collected per society and per member by effectively linking the milk procurement programme of the union with the volume of milk procured by each member.
Kale et al (2000) studied the financial position working and operational efficiency of 23 dairy cooperatives in Raigad district of Maharashtra. They studied the economic efficiency through income expenditure ratio, expenditure income ratio, rate of return on capital and rate of turnover.
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They concluded that (i) the societies had low owned capital and were dependent on borrowing from financial institutions (ii) even though the working capital of the dairy cooperatives was low, their turnover was high because dairy cooperative did not make payment to milk producers from their own funds. Therefore, dairy cooperatives were able to carry on business with limited capital and (iii) majority of the societies was trading profit organizations.
Ramakrishnappa. V. and Jagannatha Rao. R. (2006) opined that the dairy enterprise is an established sector in rural India and is playing a vital role in generating additional income and employment. In Karnataka, dairy development is a positive and significant as state contributes towards milk production, marketing, and processing of various dairy products in India. The implementation of New Swarnima Scheme, one of the most popular microfinance schemes in the state to promote dairy among backward communities, was assessed at micro level by selecting 18 beneficiaries belonging to landless labourers, marginal and small farmers in Kolar district in Karnataka state. The study found that the microfinance scheme has positive impact on income and employment generation, and has improved the natural resource management options. Islam. S., Goswami. A. and Mazumdar. D. (2008) have analysed Tehatta-II block of Nadia district in West Bengal. There were 17 blocks in the Nadia district of which Tehatta-II block was selected purposely. The block consisted of 7 gram panchayats and 2 gram panchayats namely Palsunda-I and Barnia were selected randomly. Fifty dairy farmers were selected from each gram panchayats based on judgement sampling. The study area was more or less homogenous with respect to animal husbandry practices, socio-cultural conditions, facilities for service and critical inputs. Most of the dairy farmers in study areas were unorganized in milk production. Relevant information from the individual milk producers has been collected through personal
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interrogation method with the help of a structured interview schedule prepared for the study. The study revealed that crossbred cows were more economical and gave higher yield than the indigenous cows and inclusion of a few crossbred cows can increase the income of a dairy entrepreneur and provide gainful and round the year employment. Family labour work was carried out in the Marathwada region. About 59 percent of the dairy farmers belong to general (unreserved) category, 25 percent were backward class and only 8 percent each of SC and ST. The landless dairymen equally contributed with dairymen having land; 13 landless dairymen reported comparable lactation yield as the number of milch animals increased, the herd lactation performance decreased. The animals maintained by joint family were not properly cared for while they were cared for properly by singly family. The objectives of the study are:
To study the working status of milk producers’ cooperatives;
To study the status of rural employment; and
To find the correlation between the performance of Dairies and rural employment.
The hypotheses of the study are:
There is no specific factor that influences the performance of milk producers’ cooperatives;
The rural employment depends on rural development. and
There is no correlation between the performance of milk producers’ cooperatives and rural employment.
Working status of milk producers’ cooperatives:
Milk dairy sector provides secondary source of income for millions of rural families and has assumed the most important role in providing
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employment and income generating opportunities particularly for women and marginal farmers.
India’s milk supply comes from millions of small producers, dispersed throughout the rural areas. These farmers maintain an average herd of one or two milch animals, comprising cows and/or buffaloes. Ample labour and a small land base encourage farmers to practice dairying as an occupation subsidiary to agriculture. While income from crop production is seasonal, dairying provides a stable, year-round income, which is an important economic incentive for the small farmer. Over the past two decades, the demand for services related to animal breeding, health care and marketing support have increased manifold. There is a considerable shift in dairying in the past two decades. Introduction of cross-bred cattle and improved buffaloes; a shift from grazing to partial or complete stall feeding systems; new animal health challenges; changes in the mode of delivery of livestock services; new marketing arrangements; and liberalized trade policies have all made dairying sector more challenging. Against this background of change, access to relevant information on all aspects of dairying is ever more essential for effective decision making by today’s dairy farmers. In the case of dairying, the producer organisations (POs), which are organised as dairy cooperatives (DCS) to primarily market milk, are playing an important role in empowering farmer members with appropriate technological knowledge and skills.
The Indian dairy development programme “Operation Flood” has been a successful model of dairy development through capacity enhancement of milk producer co-operatives. The Kaira District Co-operative Milk Producers Union at Anand (AMUL) was the first producer oriented milk union formed in 1946 and this constituted an important landmark in the development of the dairy cooperative movement. The Anand Pattern of cooperative envisages an integrated cooperative structure that procures, processes and markets produce. Supported by
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professional management, producers decide their own business policies, adopt modern production and marketing techniques and receive services that they can individually neither afford nor manage. The Anand Pattern succeeded, as it involved people in their own development through cooperatives where professionals are accountable to leaders elected by producers.
The institutional infrastructure under the pattern which includes village cooperative, dairy and cattle feed plants; state and national marketing is owned and controlled by milk producer members.
About 15.4 million farmers have been brought under the ambit of 1,62,600 village level dairy corporative societies up to March, 2015. The cooperative milk unions have procured an average of 34.2 million kgs of milk per day during the year 2014-15 as compared to 33.5 million kgs in the previous year recording a growth of about 2.1%. The sale of liquid milk by cooperative sector has reached 29.4 million litres per day during the year 2014-15 registering a growth of 5.8% over the previous year.
During April – December 2015, the average milk procurement by dairy cooperatives was around 353 lakh kg per day (provisional) as compared to around 325 lakh kg per day during the same period last year, registering an increase of 6.8%. During the same period, the cooperatives marketed an average of around 309 lakh litres of milk per day (provisional) as against around 293 lakh litres per day, registering a rise of about 5.5% over the corresponding period last year.
The “SWOT” analysis of Indian Dairy sector:
Strengths:
Dairy farming helps directly in increasing crop production by making available draught power, manure and cash income on day- today basis.
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Provide employment to rural population mainly women
Regular income to the farmer.
Crop residues and by-products fed to the cattle form the basis of “grain-saving” dairying, appropriate to the mixed farming system.
Buffalo is India’s milking machine, accounting for more than half of the country’s milk production.
Whitening property of buffalo milk make it more suitable for manufacture of some dairy products and its acceptance as fluid milk is high.
Cooperative dairying has increased milk production.
Additional income improves the quality of life in rural areas. Weakness:
Feed availability to cattle throughout the year is not adequate.
Artificial insemination service for breeding better cattle has limited coverage
Animal health care activities are not adequate.
Limited marketing support handicaps rural milk producers seriously.
Dairy producers in remote areas are neglected.
Limited investment or delay in the availability of funds in setting up or expansion of milk procurement.
Poor infrastructure in many areas for transporting rurally- produced milk to major processing centers.
Farmers access to training in modern cattle management is limited.
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Opportunities:
Cost of milk production in India is low.
- more opportunities for export of quality milk products at competitive price in international market.
Scope exists for higher milk yield through
- better use of crop residues and other feeds
- upgrading cattle.
- improving availability of animal health care facilities
Better returns because of increased awareness in consumers about Quality.
Threats:
Competency between organized and un-organized sectors resulting in unhealthy business practices / lowering values (quality/service/ethics).
Inadequate Regulatory staff to monitor quality of imported / indigenous products.
Possibility of importing, substandard or low-priced milk products that can destabilize dairy sector because of corrupt regulatory staff.
Natural calamities like floods, drought, diseases that can affect feed to cattle/cattle population.
Seasonal fluctuations in milk production Testing of the hypotheses:
The first null hypothesis that “there is no specific factor that influences the performance of milk producers’ cooperatives” is accepted. There are so many factors influence the performance of dairy forms. Mainly there
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is feeding Problem for animals. In the country in general, the animals are fed mainly by crops residues, so mainly agricultural farmers and people of small size of landholding are involved in dairy farming. This resulted in the imbalance diet and lack of proper nutrients in animal feed which ultimately led to weakening of animals and makes them unproductive.
The Status of rural employment:
Employment generation is India’s biggest challenge today. Despite an average economic growth of 8% in the last decade, the rate of employment growth was less than 1%. The participation rate too has declined despite additions to the young work age population. A large percentage of Indian workforce is in the unorganized sector. Transition of economy from unorganized to an organized one is our foremost challenge. 48.9% of India’s employment is in agriculture sector, which is seasonal in nature. Last few years have seen a marked shift of mass labour from agriculture; however the shift has remained confined to primarily construction and other low paid, low productivity jobs. A further characteristic feature of Indian labour market is low end self- employment. Therefore, underemployment and low earnings and not open unemployment is a major policy challenge for India. India has a unique 20-25 years’ window of opportunity called ‘demographic dividend’, having world’s youngest work force with a median age well below most other G20 countries. To reap the benefit of this ‘demographic dividend’ is also our priority concern.
Indian agriculture is an economic symbiosis of crop and cattle production. Small and marginal farmers own almost 80% of the total land holdings. About 67% of the workforce of 118 millions is engaged in agriculture either as cultivators or as farm labourers3. In a normal year, crop production can generate employment for this workforce for only 90 to 120 days. For the remaining period, they are virtually
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unemployed. In this milieu, dairying sets right this imbalance in employment. The dairy sector today provides some 70 million farm families the triple benefit of nutritious food, supplementary income and productive employment for family labour, mainly for women. Indian dairying has been successful because it has evolved deliberately in a way that is complimentary and not in competition with agriculture4.
Dairying is an important contributor to the agriculture output of our nation. Milk production is an important rural activity in India. Today, milk is India’s largest ‘Crop’ in terms of its output value, surpassing even major cereals like rice and wheat. India at present is the largest producer of milk in the world and it was 121.8 million tons in the year 2010-115. This happened because Indian dairy farmers have played a pivotal and pioneering role in enhancing the milk production in the country which has leapfrogged from a low of around 20 million tones of milk in the 1960’s to the present 121.8 million tons of milk with a consistent growth rate of 4.5%, which is substantially higher than the world average growth rate of 1.5%. It is very pertinent to note that Goldman and Sachs have predicted that India will be the 3rd largest economy in the world by the year 2035 after China and the USA in that order. The country has now achieved self reliance in milk production and is geared for substantial value of added milk products beyond its seashores. It has not only conserved the valuable foreign exchange by almost eliminating the import of milk and milk products but also has started exporting to African and middle-East countries. Now 60% of the rural households, 80% of the rural farmers and 36% of the rural landless class have already adopted dairying as their important and sustainable profession in rural India6.
Dairying is a significant source of generating rural income and employment. To support it, seasonal agriculture income must be there. A regular alternative source of income is needed and the solution is “Income from milk”. Dairying generates direct as well as indirect
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employment with its comprehensive potentiality. And for many it is the sole source of livelihood by bringing cash to their hands twice in a day in some places and weekly once in other places.
Testing of the hypotheses:
The second null hypothesis that “the rural employment depends on rural development” is accepted. Overall development of rural economy provides good employment opportunities for rural families. Development of infrastructure in rural area, create good employment opportunities in rural area and minimize the migration to urban area.
The correlation between the performance of Dairies and rural employment:
The Indian Dairy Cooperatives are organized as a three-tier structure with Primary Milk Producers' Cooperative Societies at the village level followed by the District Cooperative Milk Producers’ Union at the district level. A state level Cooperative Milk Producers’ Federation supports and guides district unions. All the unions in a state are normally members of a federation whose prime responsibility is the marketing of milk and milk products outside the state. There is also a fourth tier, the National Cooperative Dairy Federation of India Ltd. (NCDFI), which is a national-level body that formulates policies and programmes designed to safeguard the interests of milk producers. With the increasing demand for the milk, private players are also running dairy firms. But all these private dairy firms are under unorganized sector.
Small farmers and landless labourers usually maintain 1 to 3 milk animals. Widespread production of small quantities of milk
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makes the task of milk collection difficult. For organizing an efficient milk procurement system, the focus should be on good microbiological quality of raw milk. The farmers should know the way to safeguard milk against post-secretion contamination under all conditions. For continuous monitoring of milk quality at the farm, facilities like mobile kits, and rapid microbiological testing must be available at farmer’s doorstep. For a systematic approach to rural milk collection, the first step is to undertake extensive surveys in the milk shed area where a dairy plant is to be established. Availability of milk at various collection points is ascertained, based on the number of animals, future potential of milk availability, and the presence of competitors. The second phase involves “route planning” taking into account milk availability, road access to collection points and their distance from the dairy plant. The third phase calls for planning the location of primary collection and chilling centres.
As private enterprises began operating, they were accused of poaching into cooperative territory. Moreover, the misconduct of private traders prompted need for some control over the market. Consequently, the Government of India promulgated the Milk and Milk Products Orders (MMPO) in June 1992. MMPO prescribed certain provisions for the orderly development of the dairy industry. Its key feature is that all plants handling milk quantity between 10,000 and 75,000 litres per day or producing milk products of the quantity between 500 and 3,750 tons per annum are required to be registered with state authorities, while those processing over 75,000 litres per day or more than 3,750 tons of milk solids per annum require registration with the central government. This would lead the country to achieve a common goal of higher milk production and productivity, greater efficiency in milk handling, processing and marketing
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and an increased quantity and quality of milk to the public at reasonable prices.
The organized dairy sector (both cooperative and private) has a common potential opponent, the innumerable small milk vendors, which not only supply un-hygienic and adulterated milk but also add adulterants to preserve the freshness of milk, which affects the quality of end products of milk as well. A major part of marketable surplus milk is still handled by them throughout the length and breadth of the country.
These vendors are the most formidable threat to the organized sector, which should be countered by bringing more and more milk into the organized sector; at the same time, consumers are to be educated about the dangers of un-hygienic and adulterated milk. The traditional traders who share more than 70 per cent market should be, in the long run, replaced. The product cost has to be controlled by minimizing the overheads. Again, on the export front, strict quality control will have to be applied to every gram of dairy product exported from India. A single bad shipment can and will be used to tarnish the image of Indian dairy products.
Attractive packing should keep product fresh, without affecting quality for the full-length time. Product should be more than the money’s worth. A single co-operative brand should be promoted to maintain the highest standard and quality of Indian products. Various options such as collaboration, sole selling agency agreements, forming subsidiary and joint venture companies would be available to co-operatives, but never at the cost of sacrificing interest of milk producers. However, producers-consumers interest can be inter-linked.
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Dairying is a significant source of generating rural income and employment. To support it, seasonal agricultural income must be there. A regular alternative source of income is needed and the solution is “Income from milk”. Dairying generates direct as well as indirect employment with its comprehensive potentiality. And for many it is the sole source of livelihood by bringing cash to their hands twice in a day in some places and weekly once in other places.
Testing of the hypotheses:
The last null hypothesis that “there is no correlation between the performance of milk producers’ cooperatives and rural employment” is rejected. By getting awareness about the good performance of milk producers, cooperatives, the rural unemployed youth tern on milk production and harvesting of animals. But unorganized private players show more effect on the success of dairy.
Conclusion:
Dairy farming is a high-value agricultural activity of which the production process is relatively labour-intensive. This sector is operated through three-tier structure with Primary Milk Producers' Cooperative Societies at the village level followed by the District Cooperative Milk Producers’ Union at the district level. A state level Cooperative Milk Producers’ Federation supports and guides district unions. This structure proves the stability in marketing of Milk and promotes employment opportunities in rural India.
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TORQUE RIPPLE MINIMIZATION OF A BLDC MOTOR DRIVE BY USING ELECTRONIC COMMUTATION AND SPEED, CURRENT CONTROLLERS
K.Srinivas G.Raju Assistant Professor M.Tech in PE WITS WITS Warangal, Telangana Warangal, Telangana
Abstract:
Brushless DC motors are having a major problem with harmonics in torque. The variations in speed and production of noise should be minimized by using proper topologies. BLDC motors have been gaining attention from different Industrial and domestic appliance manufacturers, because of their high efficiency, high power density and easy maintenance and low cost. This paper presents a three phase BLDC motor with low cost drive to be driven without DC link capacitor. The proposed technique uses an electronic commutation and operates the machine exclusive of the intermediate DC link capacitor. The designing of Brushless DC motor drive system along with control system for torque ripple minimization, speed controller and current controllers are presented using MATLAB / SIMULINK and results are evaluated.
Key words: Brushless machines, Torque ripple compensation, six-phase voltage source inverter (VSI), harmonics suppression, pulse width modulation (PWM).
I. INTRODUCTION Permanent Magnet Synchronous (PMS) motors and Brushless DC (BLDC) motors are becoming more useful in industrial applications and home appliance because of their high reliability, efficiency and low cost and maintenance compared to other motors. By using rotor position BLDC motors are commutated electronically and the rotor position
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information can be obtained by using position sensors. BLDC and PMS motors are now designed with high power densities, these causes the increasing their popularity in applications such as airspace applications and mobile coolers.
PMS motors needs continuous rotor position information for their operation and a significant computational time is required to improve the motor performance by controlling the rotor.
Hall Effect sensors or back emf sensing technique is used to obtain the rotor position of BLDC motor for every 60 electrical degrees. Therefore, BLDC motors have becoming more popular for industrial applications where efficiency, compact and cost effective factors are considered.
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The motor drive consists of a diode bridge rectifier and a large electrolytic capacitor with a converter fed rotor for rotor position information. The main function includes, bus voltage stabilization, ripple current conduction due to switching events, etc. In automotive applications, one of the major problems is the exuberant and barbarous temperatures they have to withstand, under hood, which during the summer months would reduce their life.
The intermediate DC link capacitor used in indirect conversion topologies, requires a large space for its installation which results in increasing its weight and occupying place. Usually, a large electrolytic capacitor is employed to support the intermediate DC link voltage. The lifetime and properties associated with the capacitor are affected by the ambient temperature. Furthermore, the type of dielectric material, the ambient temperature and the storage temperature are the most significant aging factors for an electrolytic capacitor mainly in hot or cold environments viz. heating, ventilation and air conditioning applications. So the inclusion of the capacitor in the circuit decreases the overall converter reliability, as it is the most vulnerable component amongst the other in the circuit.
Without the DC link capacitor, the rectified mains supply is directly applied to the drive. The absence of DC link capacitor causes to reduce the overall cost of the motor drive but at the expense of harmonics in torque, which are inevitable and expected to be around zero crossing points of the supply.
II. MATHEMATICAL MODEL In three-phase BLDC motor drives trapezoidal back emf can be obtained by energizing only two phases and the third one remains in off state at any instant of time. As such, only two switches of the inverter are in conduction at any instant. Usually, these two switches are controlled using PWM or a micro controller is used to generate the
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hysteretic control signals, either in torque control or speed control mode. This switching approach is not suitable for motor drives with no DC link capacitor because there is no continuation path for the phase current when the controlled switches are in off state. In the projected BLDC motor drive, a switching algorithm, which is based on solitary switch control while keeping the other switch in ON state for the complete switching interval, is employed. The switch that remains in ON state provides a freewheeling path to the inductive current whereas the controlled switch in OFF state.
In a position sensor less BLDC motor drive, the commutation points of the inverter can be obtained by knowing the back EMF zero-cross- points (ZCP) and a period of time delay of speed dependent. The phase back-EMF is trapezoidal which is induced in the stator windings of a BLDC motor, so that the Zero Crossing Point of the back-EMF can be detected by monitoring the terminal voltage waveform of a silent phase. The case in point when the terminal voltage of the silent phase equivalent with the half dc link voltage, during which point switching devices are turned ON is the zero crossing point of the back-EMF. The estimation processes of commutated points are shown in fig.
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Two different methods for reducing the commutation torque ripple when a single current sensor is used in the dc link of the inverter to regulate the current flowing through two phases in series. These methods are inappropriate to apply to various trapezoidal BLDC motors, because they are open loop in nature.
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The introduction of independent current sensors in the motor phases provides a great approach for reducing commutation torque ripple, because the current regulation of each phase is possible during commutation periods. The commutation torque ripple can be minimized during low speed by the introduction of direct current sensing with hysteresis current controller.
The commutation torque ripple can be reduced by the introduction of feed-forward term in current controller to compensate for the average voltage variation of the non-commutated phase due to commutation in bipolar pulse width modulation (PWM) inverter-fed BLDC motor drives. However, this method cannot be applied to unipolar PWM which is an appropriate low cost application, because the voltage between the neutral point of the inverter and the neutral point of the machine varies with the ON-OFF position of the switching device of the inverter.
In the voltage disturbance rejection method, the input for compensation should be applied to the inverter only during the commutation. So that the voltage disturbance rejection method uses a commutation interval that can be measured or estimated from phase current. However, using current sensors increases the cost of a motor driver.
Table 1 Switching Algorithm Hall sensor output Step Switch is on state Controlled switch Ha Hb Hc 1 1 0 0 A1 C2 2 1 1 0 C2 B1 3 0 1 0 B1 A2 4 0 1 1 A2 C1
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5 0 0 1 C1 B2 6 1 0 1 B2 A1
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if R is assumed to be small.
di V (t)2(L M) m e(t) ( ) in dt
di 0 2 (L M ) m e(t) ( ) dt
-1 Let the aped of the rotor is ω in rads . Then the torque produced by the motor Te (Nm), is given as
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eti t T m ( ) e d(t) T T J F (t) () e m dt Where J is the combined inertia (kgm2) of the rotor and load and F is the mechanical speed of the motor related by
d P r dt Where P is the number of pole pairs of the BLDC motor
Time T is the interval for Vin (t) to reach E from 0V and Tm is the period of the input mains voltage.
1 1 E T sin 2f VM
Where Vm is the peak value (V) and f is the frequency (Hz) of the supply.
Tm t1 t T 2
Tm t 2 t 2
Tm t3 t T 2
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III. COMPENSATION OF TORQUE RIPPLES
C. Measurement of Commutation Interval
To apply the voltage disturbance signal to the system, the commutation duration must be known. To know the commutation duration current sensors have been used.
The position senseless controller already uses the terminal voltages for obtaining the ZCP of phase back-EMF. For voltage disturbance signal, if the terminal voltage gives the information related to commutation interval, then the current sensors are not required. When using the out-going phase unipolar PWM scheme, the silent phase terminal voltages remains positive(or zero) dc bus voltage during
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commutation and has a different (lower or higher) value than half the dc bus voltage until silent phase back EMF reaches to zero. By measuring the comparator output transition time after starting the commutation,, the commutation duration can be known.
Torque ripple, defined as the difference between the minimum and maximum torque divided by the maximum torque, consists of two components: the electromagnetic torque fluctuation and the reluctance torque. Torque ripple in brushless dc motors is mainly due to the fluctuations of the field distribution and the armature MMF which depends on the motor structure and feed current waveform. At high speeds, torque ripple is usually filtered by system inertia. However at low speeds torque ripple produces noticeable effects that may not be tolerable in applications such as positioning and robotics. An idealized brushless DC motor has a trapezoidal back electromotive force (EMF) waveform. Zero torque ripples is produced for this waveform when the motor is fed by rectangular current. However for practical reasons, non-uniformity of magnetic material and design tradeoffs it is hard to produce the desired trapezoidal wave shape exactly. Therefore torque ripple appears even though rectangular current is fed in conventional control. Moreover, since the motor windings are inductive, the current controller has often no ability to produce the required di/dt in the commutation period owing to finite dc bus supply voltage, the resulting
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torque ripple is called commutation torque ripple. Torque ripple can create undesirable noise and vibration in speed applications, and can cause inaccuracies in motion control [3].
This paper proposes a method of minimization of torque ripple of the BLDC motor with un-ideal back EMF waveforms. The duty cycle of the pulses used to operate the inverter gates is calculated in the torque controller in both normal conduction period and commutation period. Simulation results show that compared with conventional control; there is an apparent reduction in ripple.
References:
1. R. Krishnan, Electric Motor Drives, Modeling, Analysis, and Control.Prentice Hall, 2001.
2. R. Krishnan, Permanent Magnet Synchronous and Brushless DC Motor Drives. CRC Press, 2010.
3. J. F. Gieras, Permanent Magnet Motor Technology - Design and Applications: CRC Press, 2010.
4. A Torque Ripple Compensation Technique for a Low Cost Brushless DC Motor Drive.Sankaran, F. Rees, and C. Avant, “Electrolytic capacitor life testing andprediction,” in Industry Applications Conference, 1997. Thirty-Second IAS Annual Meeting, IAS ’97., Conference Record of the 1997 IEEE, vol. 2, Oct. 1997, pp. 1058– 1065.
5. H. K. Samitha Ransara and U. K. Madawala, "A Low Cost Brushless DC Motor Drive,"in 6th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, (IEEE ICIEA), Jun.2011, pp. 2723- 2728.
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ATTITUDE TOWARD PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES AMONG EMPLOYEES OF A MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Madhusudanan.S Dr.R.Nalini Ph.D. Research Scholar(UGC- JRF) Associate Professor Department of Social Work Department of Social Work Pondicherry University Pondicherry University Puducherry Puducherry
Abstract
Attitudes are a complex collection of beliefs, feelings, values and dispositions which characterise the way we think or feel about certain people or situations. The attitude toward persons with disabilities is studied using Attitude toward disabled persons scale, Form O (Yukeret al., 1970). The scores are statistically tested with socio-demographic variables. Simple random sampling (n=30) is used to select participants form the administration section in the manufacturing industry.The educational level, place of residence, having a friend who is a person with disabilities (PWD)or having a colleague with disabilities are not related to the attitudes toward the PWD but age and gender have a significant relationship with the attitude. Overall the participants havemoderate attitude towardpersons with disabilities.
Key words:Age, Attitude,Gender, Employer, Relationship
Introduction
Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary defines attitude as the way you think and feel about somebody or something or the way that you behave towards somebody or something that shows how you think and feel (Hornby et al., 2005). Attitudes are a complex collection of beliefs, feelings, values and dispositions which characterise the way we think or feel about certain people or situations (Scope: About Disability, 2014). Thurstone (1946) defined an attitude as “theintensity of positive and
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negative affect for or against a psychological object” (as cited in Henry, 2006).
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health included attitude as one of the dimensions under environmental factors.The World Report on Disability (2011) outline lack of access, misconceptions about disability, discrimination and productivity differentials are the reasons for non-employment ofpersons with disabilities(PWDs) and said raising awareness and challenging negative attitudes are often first steps towards creating more accessible environments for persons with disabilities.The United Nation Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) Article 3 (General principles) stresses on non-discrimination, full and effective participation, inclusion in society and equality in opportunity. Article 27 (work and employment) urges to prohibit discrimination on the basis of disability with regard to all matters concerning all forms of employment opportunities. As a marginalized group, persons with disabilities often face discrimination and exclusion and understanding attitudestoward people with disabilities and learning how attitude can be changed may be a key factor in improvingthe lives of people with disabilities (Henry, 2006),hence attitude plays a major role in non- discrimination and effective participation. This study analyses the attitude toward persons with disabilities in a manufacturing industry.The manufacturing industry is a quasi- government sector.
Literature review
Bakheit & Shanmugalingam (1997) study on the attitudes of the rural community toward people withdisabilitiesfound that the attitudes were unrelated to the sex or educational status of the respondentsbut was influenced by the respondent’s age.
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Unger (2002) reported that employers who had previous experience with workers withdisabilities reported more favorable perceptions of persons with disabilities in the workforce.
World Report on Disability (2011) stated that negative attitudes and behaviours have an adverse effect on children and adults with dis- abilities, leading to negative consequences such as low self-esteem and reduced participation.
Methods&Materials
This study isdescriptive in nature. Simple random sampling is used to select the employees (n=30) fromthe administration section in the manufacturing industry. Sample size of 30 is selected from the Cohen’s sample size table (Cohen, 1988), keeping the effect size (d) as 0.5 (medium effect size), significance level (α) at 0.05 and power as 0.6. Attitude toward disabled persons scale (ATDP)- Form O, by Yuker, Block &Younng (1970) is used with slight modificationto collect the responses from the participants. The word ‘disabled people’ is substituted with ‘persons with disabilities’ (PWD). This scale has 20 items with 6 ratings such as agree very much (+3), agree pretty much (+2), agree a little (+1), disagree a little (-1), disagree pretty much (-2) and disagree very much (+3). Socio-demographic questionnaire is also used. The questionnaire is self-administered to the participants. After the collection of data, few items are reverse codedas per the scale’s instruction (Yukeret al, 1970)and final scoresare obtained from each participants. The mean age of the participants are 50.6 (SD = 5.01).
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Table 1 Socio- demographicprofile Description Frequency Per cent 40-45 5 16.7 45-50 10 33.3 Age (in years) 50-55 8 26.6 55-60 7 23.3
Male 25 83.3 Gender of the Participants Female 5 16.7
Rural 11 36.6 Type of Residence Urban 19 63.3
Hindu 29 96.7 Religion Muslim 1 3.3
Higher Secondary 4 13.3 Under Graduation 15 50 Education Post-Graduation 10 33.3 Diploma 1 3.3
Yes 2 6.7 Are you a PWD No 28 93.3
Disability in Family No 30 100
Yes 2 6.7 Disability in Relation No 28 93.3
Yes 18 60 Colleague who is a PWD No 12 40
Yes 11 36.6 Close Friend who is a PWD No 19 63.3
Yes 2 6.7 Attending Programmes on PWD No 28 93.3
Volunteered in disability related Yes 1 3.3 Programme No 29 96.7
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Statistical Analysis
Statistical Analysis was carried out using SPSS 22.0. Test of normality was performed using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, the data were normal and hence parametric tests were carried out to test the hypotheses.
Of the participants, 16.7 per cent (n=5) have low, 63.3 per cent (n=19) have moderate and 20 per cent (n=6) have high attitude toward persons with disabilities
67.8 per cent of the participants who are not a PWD (n=28) have moderate attitude.
There is a significant relationship between age and attitude towardpersons with disabilities,r = .97, p = .03
There is nosignificant difference between male (M = 43.36, SE = 1.74) and female (M = 48, SE = 6.01) in their attitude toward persons with disabilities, t (28) = -.996, p > 0.05. However it represented small effect size d = 0.18
There is nosignificantdifference between place of residence vizrural (M = 43.36, SE = 2.4) and urban(M = 44.7, SE = 2.34) and their attitude toward persons with disabilities, t (28) = - .455, p > 0.05. However it represented small effect size d = 0.08
One-way ANOVA is performed, the educational level of the participants and their attitudestowardpersons with disabilitiesis not significant, F (4, 25)= 0.705, p> 0.05
There is a significant association between gender and attitude 2 towardpersons with disabilitiesχ (2) = 7.543, p < 0.05. Based on Cramer’s V value (.501) the variables gender and attitude are strongly associated.
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There is no significant association between having colleague with disabilities and the attitude toward persons with
2 disabilitiesχ (2) = 1.023, p > 0.05. Based on Cramer’s V value (.185) the variables colleague with disabilities and attitude are weakly associated.
There is no significant association between having close friends with disabilities and the attitude toward persons with
2 disabilitiesχ (2) = 2.215, p > 0.05
Simple linear Regression predicted that age accounted for 12.7% in the attitude toward PWD with small effect size, f2 = .02
Conclusion
The study findings reveal that the participants have moderate attitude towards the PWD. The educational level, gender, having a close friend who is a PWD and having colleagues with disabilitiesare not related to the attitudes towards the PWD but age has a significant relationship with the attitude.The study has not covered the participant’s understanding of disability, rather focused on the attitudes towards PWD. Hence the relationship between understanding disability and attitude toward disability is not studied. This is a limitation of this study. This study findings are in agreement with the results of Bakheit&Shanmugalingam (1997). Moreoverprogrammes related to disability such as awareness orunderstanding of disability have not been conducted in the organization. The findings of the study urge for awareness creation programme, advocacy for non- discrimination, workshops for employees on understanding disability and celebrating International day for persons with disabilities in the organization for sensitisation.
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References
1. AMO, B., & Shanmugalingam, V. (1997). A Study of the attitudes of a rural community toward people with physical disabilities. clinical rehabilitation, 11, 329-334.
2. Cohen, J. (1998). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2 ed.). USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
3. Darlene, U. (Spring 2002). Employer's attitude toward persons with disabilities in th eworkforce: myth or realities? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(1), 2-10.
4. Henry, D. (2006). Attitudes. In G. L. Albrecht, Encylopedia of Disability (pp. 137-140). Thousand Oak. California: SAGE.
5. Hornby, A. (2005). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (6 ed.). UK: Oxford University Press.
6. Schulyler, H. (2012). Reading Statistics & Research (6 ed.). Boston: Pearson.
7. Scope: About Disability. (2014). Current attitudes towards disabled people. Retrieved August 10, 2015, from http://www.scope.org.uk/scope/media/images/publication%20dire ctory/current-attitudes-towards-disabled-people.pdf?ext=.pdf
8. World Health Organization (WHO). (2011). World Report on Disability. Geneva: WHO.
9. Yuker, H. (1970). The Measurement of Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons. New York: HUman Resource Center.
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MENTAL HEALTH OF B.Ed. STUDENTS IN RELATION TO THEIR PARENT CHILD RELATIONSHIP
Ms. Manisha Assistant Professor S.S.G.D.C.O.E. Panchkula, Haryana, India
Abstract
The Present investigation was to find out the relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of 200 B.Ed. students. Survey method of investigation was employed. The findings of the study showed that there exists a positive significant correlation between mental health and parent child relationship of rural B.Ed. college students. Also significant positive correlation was obtained between mental health and parent child relationship of urban B.Ed. college students. Also there exists a positive significant correlation between mental health and parent child relationship of male B.Ed. students. Significant positive correlation was also obtained between mental health and parent child relationship of female B.Ed. students.
Keywords:Mental Health and Parent Child relationship
INTRODUCTION
Mental Health is the ability of the person to think with a wholesome mental attitude and lack of mental disorder. A mentally healthy person can adjust properly to his environment and can make best efforts for his own progress as well as the progress of his society. A mentally unhealthy person is that who cannot perceive the world in a clear perception and needs the help of others for his activities and decisions. He also faces the problem of adjustment in his surroundings. According of World Health Organization (2001), “Mental health is the state of well being in which the individual realizes his or her own
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abilities, can cope up with normal stresses of life, can work productively & fruitfully and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.
Mental health of a person depends on a number of aspects. Among these, social aspect plays the most influential role in the mental health of an individual as mental health is the result of social forces playing on the individual. Social aspect includes various social relationships an individual has in his surroundings. Among these, relationship with the parents is the most important one as it is the first social relation that exists in the life of a child. Attitude of parents, their perception, behavior and habits etc. affects the mental health of an individual. In parent child relationship, the aspirations, attitude of parents, over protectiveness, discrimination among siblings, rejection, acceptance, submission, autocratic behavior, personal relationship between parents, dominance etc. affects the mental health of the individual.
Seers (1961) found that relation of early socialization experiences is positively correlated to aggression in middle childhood.
Becker (1974) found that there exists a positive correlation between parent child reciprocity and mental health development of the child.
Manjuvani (1990) studied Influence of Home and Social environment on mental status of children and found that home and social environment has a significant influence on the mental status of children.
Simran (2005) found a significant positive correlation between mental health and socio economic status of adolescents.
Sharma (2006) found that mental health of adolescents is positively correlated to their socio economic status.
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Morgan et. al. (2012) in their study found that there exists a significant effect of parent child relationship on later mental health status in two national birth cohorts.
METHODOLOGY
The present study is a survey type in nature. Here the data has been collected personally from the students. The method applied is of descriptive type. Purposive sampling method was used to select the colleges
SAMPLE
A sample of 200 B.Ed. students (100 boys and 100 girls) was selected randomly from 10 rural and urban B.Ed. colleges of Ludhiana district of Punjab state.
OBJECTIVES
1. To study the mental health of rural and urban B.Ed. students.
2. To study the mental health of male and female B.Ed. students.
3. To study the parent child relationship of rural and urban B.Ed. students.
4. To study the parent child relationship of male and female B.Ed. students.
HYPOTHESES
1. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of rural B.Ed. students.
2. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of urban B.Ed. students.
3. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of male B.Ed. students.
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4. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of female B.Ed. students.
TOOLS
1. Mental Health Battery by Singh and Gupta (2012).
2. Parent Child Relationship Scale by Rao (2011).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Table 1: Showing values of coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Parent Child Relationship of rural B.Ed. students (N=100).
Sr. No. Variable ‘r’ value
1. Mental health and Father factor 0.155
2. Mental health and mother factor 0.153
3. Mental health and parent child 0.155 relationship
Table reveals that the value of coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Father Factor dimension of Parent Child relationship is 0.155, coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Mother Factor dimension of Parent Child relationship is 0.153 and coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Parent Child relationship is 0.155. All these values are positive and significant. Therefore, hypothesis no. 1 i.e. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of rural B.Ed. students, is accepted.
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Table 2: Showing values of coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Parent Child Relationship of urban B.Ed. students (N=100).
Sr. No. Variable ‘r’ value
1. Mental health and Father factor 0.154
2. Mental health and mother factor 0.154
3. Mental health and parent child 0.153 relationship
Table reveals that the value of coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Father Factor dimension of Parent Child relationship is 0.154, coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Mother Factor dimension of Parent Child relationship is 0.154 and coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Parent Child relationship is 0.153. All these values are positive and significant. Therefore, hypothesis no. 2 i.e. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of urban B.Ed. students, is accepted.
Table 3: Showing values of coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Parent Child Relationship of male B.Ed. students (N=100).
Sr. No. Variable ‘r’ value
1. Mental health and Father factor 0.153
2. Mental health and mother factor 0.153
3. Mental health and parent child 0.154 relationship
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Table reveals that the value of coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Father Factor dimension of Parent Child relationship is 0.153, coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Mother Factor dimension of Parent Child relationship is 0.153 and coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Parent Child relationship is 0.154. All these values are positive and significant. Therefore, hypothesis no. 3 i.e. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of male B.Ed. students, is accepted.
Table 4: Showing values of coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Parent Child Relationship of female B.Ed. students (N=100).
Sr. No. Variable ‘r’ value
1. Mental health and Father factor 0.154
2. Mental health and mother factor 0.153
3. Mental health and parent child 0.155 relationship
Table reveals that the value of coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Father Factor dimension of Parent Child relationship is 0.154, coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Mother Factor dimension of Parent Child relationship is 0.153 and coefficient of correlation between Mental Health and Parent Child relationship is 0.155. All these values are positive and significant. Therefore, hypothesis no. 4 i.e. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of female B.Ed. students, is accepted.
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CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the present study the following conclusions have been drawn:
1. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of rural B.Ed. students.
2. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of urban B.Ed. students.
3. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of male B.Ed. students.
4. There exists a significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of female B.Ed. students.
IMPLICATIONS
This study has shown significant relationship between mental health and parent child relationship of B.Ed. students. It shows that when a student faces any disturbance in mental health, this can be due to disturbance of parent child relationship at home. In today’s world the parent child relationship is deteriorating day by day due to busy schedule of both parents. This affects the mental health of the children. It is, therefore, the sole responsibility of the parents to provide healthy environment to the students to make them self responsible and to adjust according to the circumstances. Hence this study will help the parents to provide a conducive environment at home and maintain a healthy relationship with students for their balanced mental health.
References
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2. Aggarwal, V.L. (2007). Social Maturity of adolescents in relation to Cognitive and Non- Cognitive variables, Ph.D. Education, Panjab University, Chandigarh.
3. Allport, G.W. (1961). Pattern and Growth in Personality. Mc Millan Company, New York.
4. Arati, C. (2004). Influence of Family Environment on Emotional Competence of adolescents. Journal of Community Guidance and Research, Vol. 21, No. 2, 213-222.
5. Baharudin, R. & Luster, T. (1998). Factors related to the Quality of the Home Environment and Children’s Achievement. Journal of Family issues, 19 (4), 370-375.
6. Basantia, J.M. & Mukhopadhaya, D. (2001). Effect of Environmental Factors on Achievement- A study on rural students. The Educational Review, 44 (11), 21-24.
7. Becker, M. W. (1974). The Relationship between Parent Child Reciprocity and the Child Mental Development, M.Ed., Panjab University, Chandigarh.
8. Best, J.W. (1959). Research in Education. Prentice Hall Inc., U.S.A. 9. Chaudhary, M. & Kaur, P. (1993). Impact of Home Environment on Moral Values of Children. Prachi journal of psycho cultural Dimension, Vol. 9 (1), 39-43.
10. Crockett, L.J. (2007). The Meaning of Good Parent- Child Relationships for Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescents. Vol. 3, no. 1, 639-668.
11. Coleman, A. M. (2001). Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
12. Coleman, J.C. (1973). Psychology and Effective Behaviour. D.B. Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
13. Dinkmeyer, D.C. (1967). Child Development. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
14. Jerslid, A.t. (1968). Educational Psychology, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
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15. Lata, K. & Aggarwal (1998). Effect of absence of Maternal Encouragement and its Impact on Educational Development of adolescents. The progress of Education, vol. LXIII (4), 27-31.
16. Manjuvani, E. (1990). Influence of Home and School Environment on Mental Status of Children, Ph.D. Home Science, Sri Venkateshwara University, Tirupati.
17. Morgan, Z. et. al. (2012). The effect of Parent Child relationship on later life Mental Health Status in two national birth cohorts. Soc Psychiatry Journal. Vol. 47, No. 11, 1707-1015.
18. Peecook, E.V. (2000), The Effect of Home Environmental Support and Teacher Instructional Practices on Secondary School Students’ Academic Achievement and Perceptions of Content Meaningfulness. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(4), 67-70.
19. Quadric, S. J. (2011). A study of Mental Health and Emotional Maturity among Child Labour Students and other adolescents. Review of Research, Vol. I, No. VIII, 47-53.
20. Sambrani, M.R. (1997). Home Environment and Emotional Disturbance among Adolescents. Indian Psychological Review. Vol. 48 (4), 11-14.
21. Sears, R.R. (1961). Relation of Early Socialization Experiences to Aggression in Middle Childhood. Journal of Abnormal and Social psychology, Vol. 63, 466-492.
22. Sharma, R. (2006). A study of Mental Health of adolescents in relation to their Socio-Economic Status in Hoshiarpur District. M.Ed. Dissertation, Panjab University, Chandigarh.
23. Simran (2005). Emotional Maturity in relation to Environmental Factors, M.Ed. Dissertation, Panjab University, Chandigarh.
24. Skinner, C.E. (1962). Essentials of Educational Psychology. New York Publishing House, New York, 16-21.
25. Yadav, R.S. & Patel, H.L. (1999). International Effect of Home Environment and Locality on creativity. Journal of All India Association of Educational Research. Vol. 11 (3), 31-38.
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IMPROVED BOOST CHOPPER CONVERTER FOR AC PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE APPLICATION
J.Naresh A.Vandana PG Student [PE] PG Student [PE] Dept. of EEE Dept. of EEE WITS Engineering College WITS Engineering College Warangal,Telangana Warangal,Telangana
K.Srinivas Head of the Department WITS Engineering College Warangal,Telangana
Abstract— Inphotovoltaic (PV) power-generation market, the ac PV module has shown obvious growth. However, a high voltage gain converter is essential for the module’s grid connection through a dc–ac inverter. This paper proposes a converter that employs a floating active switch to isolate energy from the PV panel when the ac module is OFF; this particular design protects installers and users from electrical hazards. Without extreme duty ratios and the numerous turns-ratios of a coupled inductor, this converter achieves a high step-up voltage- conversion ratio; the leakage inductor energy of the coupled inductor is efficiently recycled to the load. These features explain the module’s high-efficiency performance. The detailed operating principles and steady-state analyses of continuous, discontinuous, and boundary conduction modes are described. A 15V input voltage, 200V output voltage, and 100W output power prototype circuit of the proposed converter has beenimplemented; its maximum efficiency is up to 95.3% and full-load efficiency is 92.3%.
Index Terms—AC module, coupled inductor, high step-up voltagegain, single switch.
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I.INTRODUCTION
Photovoltaic (PV) power-generation systems are becoming increasingly important and prevalent in distribution generation systems. A conventional centralized PV array is a serial connection of numerous panels to obtain higher dc-link voltage for main electricity through a dc–ac inverter [1]. Unfortunately, once there is a partial shadow on some panels, the system’s energy yield becomes significantly reduced [2]. An ac module is a micro inverter configured on the rear bezel of a PV panel [1]–[3]; this alternative solution not only immunizes against the yield loss by shadow effect, but also provides flexible installation options in accordance with the user’s budget [4]. Many prior research works have proposed a single-stage dc–ac inverter with fewer components to fit the dimensions of the bezel of the ac module, but their efficiency levels are lower than those of conventional PV inverters. The power capacity range of a single PV panel is about 100W to 300W, and the maximumpower point (MPP) voltage range is from 15V to 40V, which will be the input voltage of the ac module; in cases with lower input voltage, it is difficult for the ac module to reachhigh efficiency [3]. However, employing a high step-up dc–dc converter in the front of the inverter improves power-conversion efficiency and provides a stable dc link to the inverter.When installing the PV generation system during daylight, for safety reasons, the ac module outputs zero voltage [4], [5].
The solar energy through the PV panel and micro inverter to the output terminals are off when switches are OFF. When installation of the ac module is taking place, this potential difference could pose hazards to both the worker and the facilities. A floating active switch is designed to isolate the dc current from the PV panel, for when the ac module is off-grid as well as in the non operating condition. This isolation ensures the operation of the internal components without any
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residential energy being transferred to the output or input terminals, which could be unsafe.
II. Proposed Method
The efficiency and voltage gain of the dc–dc boost converter are constrained by either the parasitic effect of the power switches or the reverse recovery issue of the diodes. In addition, the equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the capacitor and the parasitic resistances of the inductor also affect overall efficiency. Use of active clamp technique not only recycles the leakage inductor’s energy but also constrains the voltage stress across the active switch, however the tradeoff is higher cost and complex control circuit [1], [6]. By combining active snubber, auxiliary resonant circuit, synchronous rectifiers, or switched- capacitor-based resonant circuits and so on, these techniques made active switch into zerovoltage switching (ZVS) or zero current switching (ZCS) operation and improved converter efficiency. However, when the leakage-inductor energy from the coupled inductor can be recycled, the voltage stress on the active switch is reduced, which means the coupled inductor employed in combination with the voltage- multiplier or voltage-lift technique successfully accomplishes the goal of higher voltage gain [6].
Fig.1 Circuit configuration of proposed converter.
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The proposed converter, shown in Fig. 1, is comprised of a coupled inductor T1 with the floating active switch S1. The primary winding N1 of a coupled inductor T1 is similar to the input inductor of the conventional boost converter, and capacitor C1 and diode D1 receive leakage inductor energy from N1. The secondary winding N2 of coupled inductor T1 is connected with another pair of capacitors C2 and diode D2, which are in series with N1 in order to further enlarge the boost voltage. The rectifier diode D3 connects to its output capacitor C3. The proposed converter has several features: 1) The connection of the two pairs of inductors, capacitor, and diode gives a large step-up voltage-conversion ratio; 2) the leakage-inductor energy of the coupled inductor can be recycled, thus increasing the efficiency and restraining the voltage stress across the active switch; and 3) the floating active switch efficiently isolates the PV panel energy during non operating conditions, which enhances safety. The operating principles and steady-state analysis of the proposed converter are presented in the following sections.
III. OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF THE PROPOSED CONVERTER
The simplified circuit model of the proposed converter is shown in Fig. 2. The coupled inductor T1 is represented as a magnetizing inductor Lm, primary and secondary leakage inductors Lk 1 and Lk 2 , and an ideal transformer. In order to simplify the circuit analysis of the proposed converter, the following assumptions are made.
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Fig. 2.Polarity definitions of voltage and current in proposed converter.
1) All components are ideal, except for the leakage inductance of coupled inductor T1 , which is being taken under consideration. The on-state resistance RDS(ON) and all parasitic capacitances of themain switch S1 are neglected, as are the forward voltage drops of diodes D1andD3 .
2) The capacitors C1,C3 are sufficiently large that the voltages across them are considered to be constant.
3) The ESR of capacitorsC1, C3 and the parasitic resistance of coupled inductor T1 are neglected.
4) The turns ratio n of the coupled inductor T1 windings is equal to N2 /N1.
The operating principle of continuous conduction mode (CCM) is presented in detail. The current waveforms of major components are given in Fig. 4. There are five operating modesin a switching period. The operating modes are described as follows.
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A. CCM Operation: Mode I [t0 , t1 ]: In this transition interval, the magnetizing inductor Lm continuously charges capacitor C2 through T1 when S1 is turned ON. The current flow path is shown in Fig. 5(a); switch S1 and diode D2 are conducting. The current iLmis decreasing because source voltage Vin crosses magnetizing inductor Lm and primary leakage inductor Lk1 ;magnetizing inductor Lm is still transferring its energy through coupled inductor T1 to charge switched capacitor C2 , but the energy is decreasing; the charging current iD2 and iC2 are decreasing. The secondary leakage inductor current iLK2 is declining as equal to iLm/ n.
Once the increasing iLk1 equals decreasing iLmat t = t1, this mode ends.
Mode II [t1 , t2 ]: During this interval, source energy Vin is series connected with N2 , C1 , and C2 to charge output capacitor C3 and load R; meanwhile magnetizing inductor Lm is also receiving energy from Vin . The current flow path is shown in Fig. 5(b), where switch S1 remains ON, and only diode D3 is conducting. The iLm, iLk1 , and iD3 are increasing because the Vin is crossing Lk1 , Lm, and primary winding N1 ; Lm and Lk1 are storing energy from Vin ; meanwhile Vin is also serially connected with secondary winding N2 of coupled inductor T1 , capacitors C1 , and C2 , and then discharges their energy to capacitor C3 and load R. The iin ,iD3 and discharging current iC1 | and |iC2 | are increasing. This mode ends when switch S1 is turned OFF at t = t2 .
Mode III [t2 , t3 ]: During this transition interval, the energy stored in coupled inductor T1 is releasing to C1 and C2. The current flow path is shown in Fig. 7(c). Only diodes D1 and D2 are conducting. Currents iLk1 and iD1 are continually decreased because leakage energy still flowing through diode D1 keeps charging
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capacitor C1. The Lm is delivering its energy through T1 andD2 to charge capacitorC2 .The energy stored in capacitor C3 is constantly discharged to the load R. These energy transfers result in decreases in iLk1 and iLmbut increases in iLk2. This mode ends when current iLk1 reaches zero at t = t3 .
Fig.3. Some typical waveforms of proposed converters at CCM operation.
Mode IV [t3 , t4 ]: During this transition interval, the energy stored in magnetizing inductor Lm is released to C1 and C2 simultaneously. The current flow path is shown in Fig. 5(d).
Only diodes D1 and D2 are conducting. Currents iLk1 and iD1 are continually decreased because the leakage energy still flowing through diodeD1 keeps charging capacitor C1. The Lm is delivering its energy
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through T1 and D2 to charge capacitor C2 . The energy stored in capacitor C3 is constantly discharged to the load R. These energy transfers result in decreases in iLk1 and iLmbut increases in iLk2 . This mode ends when current iLk1 is zero, at t = t4 .
Mode V [t4 , t5 ]: During this interval, only magnetizing inductor Lm is constantly releasing its energy to C2 . The current flow path is shown in Fig. 5(e), in which only diode D2 is conducting. The iLmis decreasing due to the magnetizing inductor energy flowing through the coupled inductor T1 to secondary winding N2 , and D2 continues to charge capacitor C2 . The energy stored in capacitor C3 is constantly discharged to the load R. This mode ends when switch S1 is turned ON at the beginning of the next switching period.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A 100Wprototype sample is presented to verify the practicability of the proposed converter. The electrical specifications are Vin = 15V, VO = 200V, fS= 50 kHz, and full-load resistance R = 400 Ω. The major components required are C1 = C2 = 47 μF and C3 = 220 μF. The main switch S1 is a MOSFET IXFK180N15P, the diodes D1 are MRB20200CTG, and the DPG30C300HB is selected for D2 and D3 . Since (10) assign turns ratio n = 5, the duty ratio D is derived as 55%. The boundary normalized magnetizing inductor time constantτLB is found by (28) to be 1.547 ×10−3 . To define the proposed converter’s BCM operation at 50% of the full load, the load resistance R = 800 Ω. The boundary magnetizing inductance
LmB is found as follows:
LmB· fSR>1.547 ∗ 10−3 ⇒ Lm >24.75 μH.
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P- sim results
Fig 4.1 Vd2 and Id2
Fig 4.2 Vd1 and Id1
Fig 4.3 vd3 and Id3
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Fig 4.4 Ic1 and Ic2
Fig 4.5 Vgs and Vds
Fig 4.6 Vds and ids Fig.4. Experimental waveforms measured by the condition of fS= 50 kHz, Vin = 15V, and output 100W.
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V. CONCLUSION
The energy of the coupled inductor’s leakage inductor has been recycled, the voltage stress across the active switch S1 is constrained, which means low ON-state resistance RDS(ON) can be selected. Thus, improvements to the efficiency of the proposed converter have been achieved. The switching signal action is performed well by the floating switch during system operation; on the other hand, the residential energy is effectively eliminated during the non operating condition, which improves safety to system technicians. From the prototype converter, the turns ratio n = 5 and the duty ratio D is 55%; thus, without extreme duty ratios and turns ratios, the proposed converter achieves high step-up voltage gain, of up to 13 times the level of input voltage. The experimental results show that the maximum efficiency of 95.3% is measured at half load, and a small efficiency variation will harvest more energy from the PV module during fading sunlight.
REFERENCES
[1] T. Shimizu,K.Wada, andN.Nakamura, “Flyback-type single-phase utility interactive inverter with power pulsation decoupling on the dc input for an ac photovoltaic module system,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 1264–1272, Jan. 2006.
[2] C. Rodriguez and G. A. J. Amaratunga, “Long-lifetime power inverter for photovoltaic ac modules,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 2593–2601, Jul. 2008.
[3] S. B. Kjaer, J. K. Pedersen, and F. Blaabjerg, “A review of single- phase grid-connected inverters for photovoltaic modules,” IEEE Trans. Ind.Appl., vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 1292–1306, Sep./Oct. 2005.
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[4] J. J. Bzura, “The ac module: An overview and update on self- contained modular PV systems,” in Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Gen. Meeting, Jul. 2010, pp. 1–3.
[5] B. Jablonska, A. L. Kooijman-van Dijk, H. F. Kaan, M. van Leeuwen, G. T. M. de Boer, and H. H. C. de Moor, “PV-PRIV´E project at ECN, five years of experience with small-scale ac module PV systems,” in Proc.20th Eur. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conf., Barcelona, Spain, Jun. 2005, pp. 2728–2731.
[6] T. Umeno, K. Takahashi, F. Ueno, T. Inoue, and I. Oota, “A new approach to lowripple-noise switching converters on the basis of switched- capacitor converters,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Circuits Syst., Jun. 1991, pp. 1077–1080.
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TIME ORIENT BASED SPANNING TREE FOR EFFICIENT DATA COLLECTION IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK
S.Rajeswari Dr. S.Hemalatha Ph.D. Research Scholar Assistant Professor Department of Computer Science Department of Computer Science Karpagam University Karpagam University Coimbatore, Taminadu, India Coimbatore, Taminadu, India
Abstract: In wireless network, data collection is one of the interesting tasks which has to be achieved in a well-organized method. A number of approaches are declared for the problem of data collections. It uses some approaches and issues in the collection of sensor nodes, which have data collection in the storage. The collection improves the performance of data collection, and there are many factors which affect data collection indirectly. Using the spanning tree for path constrain, improves the energy efficiency in wireless sensor network. A delay- aware based set of connected shortest path structure is planned for wireless sensor network with following data collection. Due to the spanning tree, a sink with continuous speed has incomplete communication time to gather data from the device nodes arranged randomly. These important challenge is composed, improving the quantity of data composed and dropping the energy depletion. This paper proposes a novel data collection scheme, named the Time Orient based Spanning Tree (TOST) for the data collection by means of direct path. It helps network amount to grow as well as keeps energy by optimizing the transfer of sensor nodes. TOST is expressed as energy reduction problem and formerly resolves with the support of spanning tree. Spanning tree is also used in two phase communication, in which collect the data in limited sink node as well as all nodes that act as temporary Data Collection (DC) nodes in network. It is progressed with practical dispersed and estimated process to resolve the TOST
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problem. The impression of different covering time divider approaches is used to solve the ns2.
Key words: Data collection. TOST, Spanning Tree, Shortest Path, WSN
1. INTRODUCTION:
Energy efficient protocol for collecting all the data is observed by the sensor nodes in a sensor network in internet connected base station, with specified frequency. Some of the key challenges in designing energy-efficient data collection protocol are effectively exploiting the strong spatial-temporal correlations which are present in most sensor networks, and optimizing the routing plan for data movement. In most sensor network deployments, especially in environmental monitoring applications, the data generated by the sensor nodes are highly correlated in time, where future values are correlated with current values and in space where two co-located sensors are strongly correlated. These correlations are usually captured by constructing predictive models using either prior domain knowledge or historical data traces.
However, the distributed nature of data generation and the resource-constrained nature of the sensor devices make it a challenge to optimally exploit these correlations. The procedure contains both reactive and proactive mechanisms. In a reactive path set up phase, manifold paths are built amid the source and destination of statistic session. Data are stochastically blown out over the dissimilar paths, according to their projected quality. When the trails are uninterruptedly monitored, the better-quality is in proactive way. Link disappointments are distributed nearby. To utilize the resources existent in such sensor sphere, an appropriate routing infrastructure must exist. So, it is established that attribute-based hierarchical data
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collection structure is in the sensor network. The attributes chosen satisfy the locality based relationships.
This locked method validates a data sending and receiving process in the system, and hence it is better to avoid over-crowding and outdoor attacker or confidential attacker of the system. Energy efficient method is to refine the network amount and equal data distribution which help to decrease the delay on the procedure. However, sensor nodes are unnatural in energy supply besides bandwidth. Thus, innovative methods that eliminate vigor disorganizations that would abbreviate the generation of the system is highly compulsory.
The constrictions are combined with representative positioning of large amount of sensor nodes which pose numerous tests to the design and organization of WSNs. It requires energy-awareness at all coatings of interacting for the data collection. The packets with correlated information is gathered together for more efficient data aggregation. This system works on the data aggregation protocol. Actually, in the homogeneous environment, the data aggregation scheme has advantage over the existing data aggregation scheme that employs the static routing protocol.
2. RELATED WORK:
Wireless messages are high-growth parts in the infrastructure arena. A cumulative wealth of compute competence is available in handheld scheme. The better-quality supports for wireless communiqué, that helps to intersect these mobile stages with each other, as well as with hitched desktop processers or servers. The main attention of mobile calculating is in the schemes. Research attention is progressively focused. However, happening systems with additional limited humanoid interference and wireless sensor systems are key examples[1]. Overall, sensor systems are the systems in which frequent compute and detecting devices are disseminated within the situation.
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Sensor systems are proposed for a range of manufacturing, scientific and protection submissions.
The course-plotting protocols which are a top secret are topology grounded which is a position based method. In topology based method, use only material about recent district links, but do not provide topographical information. But in location based method, it includes material around the topographical info. The nodes near the base station relay the data from the nodes that are farther away. This leads to non- uniform depletion of network resources, and the nodes near the base station are the first to run out of batteries. If these nodes die, then the network, for all practical purposes is disconnected. Periodically replacing the battery of the nodes for the large scale deployments is also infeasible. A number of researchers proposed mobility[3] as a solution to this problem of data gathering. The system structure is able in the direction of augment, the number of information collection process per unit time not imposing extra delay on each solitary data collection process[4]. A multistage network configuration algorithm keeps message distances among the antenna nodes at low values. A simulation consequence shows that the anticipated network structure gives important improvement on data compilation rates without rising the data set durations.
Meeting sensed info in energy efficient way is critical to operate the device network for an extended period of time[10]. A data collection problematic is defined anywhere. In a round of message, each sensor node which has a package is sent to the distant dishonorable station. There is some fixed quantity of energy cost in the microchip technology when conveying or in receipt of a packet and an adjustable cost, and when conveying a packet which hinges on the coldness of broadcast. If each node communicates its sensed data straight to the base station, formerly its willpower deplete its control rapidly. Data collection is a promised technique directing to conserve energy by reducing the
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number of packet transmissions through the network, where communication costs are usually more expensive than computing costs. The two necessary conditions for efficient data aggregation are spatial and temporal convergence.
3. PROPOSED SYSTEM:
It is proposed that efficient data collection scheme is called Time Orient based Spanning Tree (TOST) using shortest path for wireless sensor networks with path-constrained sinks. A multi-stage complex configuration procedure is suggested to construct the planned network structure when protection communication space is surrounded by transmitter nodes in low values. Simulation consequences show that the planned network structure delivers significant enhancements on the data gathering rates without collective data collection periods. In TOST, the plotting between sensor nodes and sub go under is optimized to maximize the quantity of data collected by sinks and also stabilize in the energy depletion. TOST has good scalability to provision sensor networks with low thickness and multiple sinks. An experiential based on inherited algorithm local search is obtainable to solve the TOST optimization problem.
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Figure 3.1 Overall Flow of Data Collection in the Network Figure 3.1 shows the data collection based on the spanning tree using separate constraint path in the network. It is also designed a message protocol that provisions TOST and familiarizes to lively topology deviations. To reduce the computational complexity, two practical algorithms, namely, zone partitioning-based solution and a distributed solution are developed. The proposed schemes have different scenarios with various movement trajectories of sinks. Considering that minimizing the total energy consumption may not lead to the maximum network lifetime, it is also planned to study the subsink selection problem with network lifetime maximization as the optimization of this work.
3.1 TIME ORIENT BASED SPANNING TREE:
TOST is a centralized algorithm that cannot be automatically adjusted according to the changes in dynamic topology. Therefore, the discovery phase may be periodically repeated to allow the sink be aware of the system dynamics.A centralized heuristic solution for the TOST problem based on genetic algorithm, it is used to collect the data easily in neighbor node as well as to minimize the energy of the network. It is also uses the sink for each data collection in the network. The sink always has the higher priority for communication in the allocation of the overlapping time, which means that the sink disconnects the communication link with current subsink and it turns to the new sub- sink when it detects a new subsink.
Algorithm: Source-SC Data collection DC Step 1. If SC-->DC Data transfer Step 2. Multiple source MC MC-->DC Find neighbors Step 3. All node address find out
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Step 4. If system= original nodes before Patterned any noise N Step 5. If system=noise before Next sink node Else Provisional supply for data collection Else if Follow circulation FC Step 6. If system ≠ FC Data will collect automatically Else Find next hop sink Step 7. End if 3.2 SINK NODE SELECTION FOR PATH CONSTRAINT:
The data collection strategy for wireless sensor networks is able to solve the challenge of high path constraint[2]. In addition, a good data collection strategy should be scalable to the size of the network and the number of the requests. When large amount of nodes are involved in data collection, the data collection strategy prevent the wireless communication link from blocking. Wireless sensor applications often require co-operation among a large number of nodes. One example is to continuously monitor an area and report the events. Another example is a node sends out a query about interested data to a number of nodes. Thus, many individual data needs to be collected and extracted to form some higher level information. So, it is easy to constraint the path, so that all the data is collected in limited time as well as the energy of each node is saved.
Algorithm:
Recognize amount of data collector DC, n= next hop DC = category (n (DC)).
For both DCi 2 Growing modification DC = µ (∑σ (n * DC).) DC = category (n(DC))/network size) CNF (communicate node formation) = sink nodes.
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If DC>N then CNF (i) = DC/D(i)=0-CNF(i)= n. Data collected End End Stop 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
The proposed time orient based spanning tree for the data collection method is applied and evaluated for its competence using different scenarios. The technique is estimated for its competence in the data gathering. The technique shapes the efficient consequences in the data collection as well as in other issues like time difficulty, latency and energy competence with lifetime expansion.
Parameter Value Imitation Platform NS2 Imitation Area 1000×1000 metres Amount of Nodes 200 Broadcast Range 100 meters Table 1: Details of Limitation of Proposed Protocol
The Table 1, demonstrates the details of limitation used to estimate the presentation of the proposed approach.
Data Collection Accuracy
100
0 Accuracyin%
Graph 1: Evaluation of Rule Generation Accuracy
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The Graph1, demonstrates the accuracy of the data collection. It clearly shows that, the planned approach achieves the data collection with advanced accuracy than previous approaches.
Energy Consumption Ratio 100 80 60 40 20 100 Nodes 0 300 Nodes 500 Nodes
Energy Consumptionin Hz Graph 2: Comparison of Energy Depletion Occurred
Graph 2 shows the energy depletion occurring in the data collection according to the number of nodes available in the network.
Network Overhead Ratio
50 40 30 20 100 Nodes 10 300 Nodes 0 500 Nodes NetworkOverhead kbps in
Graph 3: Comparison of Network Overhead
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Graph 3 shows the comparison of network overhead introduced by different methods in collecting the data from the data sensor nodes. The graph demonstrates that, the proposed method has produces less than the other related methods.
Graph 4: Time Complexity of Different Methods
Graph 4 demonstrates the time complexity formed by various procedures in the data gathering where the number of data devices are more than 20 and they show obviously that the proposed approach forms less time complexity than supplementary methods.
5. CONCLUSION
In this paper, Time Orient based Spanning Tree method is used for the data gathering in wireless sensor networks. The technique computes the data gathering support amount and data availability dynamic for each area. This chapter includes complete reproduction criteria for considering the determination of specified purposes and their problems which occur concurrently. The behavior of routing procedures in wireless network is considered by the time orient based
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data collection. The four metrics of the data collection, namely, accuracy, time complexity, energy consumption and network overhead are evaluated, and a high level performance is achieved in the network.
References
1. Andreas Reinhardt, Christian Renner, RoCoCo: Receiver-Initiated Opportunistic Data Collection and Command Multicasting for WSNs, Springer, Wireless Sensor Networks Lecture Notes in Computer Science Vol. 8965, 2015, pp. 218-233.
2. Amir Hossein Mohajerzadeh, Mohammad Hossein Yaghmaee, Vahid Fakoor, Total Data Collection Algorithm Based on Estimation Model for Wireless Sensor Network, Wireless Personal Communications March 2015, Vol. 81, Issue 2, pp. 745-778.
3. Chi-Fu Huang, Wei-Chen Lin, Many-to-Many Data Collection for Mobile Users in Wireless Sensor Networks, Springer, Advanced Multimedia and Ubiquitous Engineering Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering Vol. 352, 2015, pp. 143-148.
4. NidhiGautam, SanjeevSofat, RenuVig, Data collection model for energy-efficient wireless sensor networks, Springer, annals of telecommunications - annales des télé communications July 2015
5. F. Sivrikaya and B. Yener, “Time synchronization in sensor networks: a survey,” Network, IEEE, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 45–50, 2004.
6. I. F. Akyildiz and M. C. Vuran, Wireless Sensor Networks. John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
7. M. Maróti, B. Kusy, G. Simon, and A. Lédeczi, “The flooding time synchronization protocol,” in SenSys ’04: ACM, 2004, pp. 39–49.
8. C. Lenzen, P. Sommer, and R. Wattenhofer, “Optimal Clock Synchronization in Networks,” November 2009.
9. J. Lu and K. Whitehouse, “Flash flooding: Exploiting the capture effect for rapid flooding in wireless sensor networks,” IEEE, april 2009, pp. 2491 –2499.
10. T. Schmid, Z. Charbiwala, Z. Anagnostopoulou, M. B. Srivastava, and P. Dutta, “A case against routing-integrated time synchronization,” ACM, 2010, pp. 267–280.s
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वैखानसभगव छा ो तो सव वशेषाः ट. माचायु लु शोध छा ः, वैखानसागम वभागः ीवे कटे वरवेद व व व यालयः, त प त
ीवे कटेशम खलेशमन तमा यं का यवा र धमशेषसुरै सुव य म ्।
सृि टि थ त लयहेतुमहेतुमी यं याया म मुि तदमहं चद च छर रम ्।।
लोकोsयं मानवातीतश या प रपा यते इ त, सा शि तः सा ात ् परमा मा इ त, सः परमा मा सव यापी त, स एव अ य लोक य कता , पाता, हता चे त वै दकमतानुया यनाम माकं व वासः। स एव परमा मा लोकानु हाथ व वधेषु द य े ेषु अचा वतार पेण पू यते इ त त याराधनमेव अ माकं ल य म त तेनैव इहलौ ककपारलौ कक ेय च ा यते इ त त य भगवतः द यम गल व हाराधनमेव मो साधने परमोपाय इ त च वैखानसवै णवाः व वसि त।
त यैव परमा मनः वभाव वयं सकल न कलभेदेन वत ते इ त एवं त याराधनम प सगुण नगु णभेदेन व वध म त च अि मन ् वैखानसशा े 1 यते । उ तं च
परमा मनः वभाव वयम ्–
त य परमा मनः न कल सकल च वभावः इ त मर चना 2 वमानाच नक पे त व ानोपदेशपटले परमा मनः व पम भ हतम ् ।
त न कल वभावः एवं भव त - परमा मनो अ य न कि चद ती त ीरे स प ि तले तैलं, पु पे ग धः, फले रसः, का ठे अि न रव www.ijmer.in 145
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3 अि न रव अ तब ह च त सव या याकाशोपमः इ त । एता शपरमा मा सव यापी अशर र सन ् शर रेषु या य त ठती त च पा दतम ्। अत एव व व यापकशील वात ् स परमा मा व णु र त क य ते इ त च न पतम ्। स एव ह परमा मा सव षां भूतानां दयकमला तराकाशोपल धवे वानर शखायां त ठती त च ु त दश नपूव कं ा तप दतम ्। एवं न कल वभावः। एष वभावः देवैर प अन भल यः भव त।
सकल वभाव तु एवं व यते – का ठे अि नः मथनादु वलि नव न कला मको व णुः यानमथनेन भ या स क पनात ् सकलो 4 भवती त द य सः परमा मा य ूपं मनसा भा वतं त त ूपो भू वा काशते इ त ता श वभाव एव व वधेषु द य े ेषु सकलमनुजनयन वषयता गत व ह पेण राराजते। परमा मनः एता श वभावः सव ः अनायासेन अ भल यः भव त। एवं वभाव वय व श ट य परमा मनः आराधनम प व वध म त वैखानसभगव छा े भृगुमर य क यपैः सु प टम भ हतम ्। त यथा –
आराधनं वधा ो तममूत च समूत कम ्।
अमूत गाह प या द सवा ि नषु हु तं मृतम ्।।
त याधाना दकं सव सू े वखनसो दतम ्।
त सू ो त वधानेन सव माघारपूव कम ्।।
अि म कम ण ति छ टं होमकम समाचरेत ्।
समूत मालये ब बे न यं व धवदच नम ्।।
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अ याधानं त ठा यात ्इि टः पवा च ना दका।
याग चावभृथा त यात ् उ सव त वधानतः।।
व णोरेत समूत यः पूजनं भि तत चरेत ्।
5 अतीि यं सग छे तद यं परमं पदम ् ।।
एवं पेण परमा मनः सगुणं नगु ण म त आराधन वयं तपा य त नगु णाराधनं गाह प या यि नषु हु त म त सगुणाराधनं तु द यम गल व हाराधन म त च तपा य तयोः सगुण नगु णयोः सा यम प अ याधानं त ठा यात ् इ या द वा यैः न पतम ्। त समूता राधन प य भगव यम गल व हाराधन य मो पद वं भगवता वखनसा वसू े एवं पि चतम ् – भ या भगव तं नारायणमच येत ् 6 त व णोः परमं पदं ग छती त व ायते त। ता शमाराधनं गृहे देवायतने वा करणीय म त तैरेव सू चतम ्। त गृहाच नं वाथ म त आलयाच नं तु पराथ म त च तपा दतं सं हतासु। वाथ गृहाच नं ो तं पराथ तु आलयाच न म त। तयोः वाथ पराथ यजनयोः पराथ यजन प य आलयाच न य व ध वधानं सम ं भृगुमर य क यपैः वेषु वेषु सं हतासु सु पषेटं तपा दतम ्। तासु सं हतासु आलय नमा ण – द यम गल व ह नमा ण – त ठा – अच न – नपन – उ सव – ायि च ता यंशाः वपुलतया वत ते। तासु सवा सु सं हतासु नमा णा द सकलाः वषयाः तपा दताः। तेषु देव यो सव वधेः वै यं प यामः।
उ सवश दाथ ः –
उ द युपसग पूव कात ् षूञ ् ा ण सवेन इ य मात ् धातोः न प नः उ सवश दः। अ उ द युपसग य उ कृ ट वमथ ः। सवधातुः य ाध कः www.ijmer.in 147
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7 एवम ् उ सवः नाम उ कृ टय ः इ त आगमशा ेषु एवमु तम ् । अयम ् उ सवश दः उ वः उ सुक इ छा सरकोपानाम ् एवमुपनयन ववाहादौ नयता लादजनक यापार य च अथ य जकः भवती त 8 श दाथ च ताम याम ् उ तम ्। एवम ्–
धम सेतुसमाक णा य ो सववतीं शुभाम ्।
टपुटजनाक णा न यो सवसमाकुलम ्।। इ त।
उ सवः आन ददायकः स केत प च भवती त उ तं 9 श दवाच प ये । एवं पेण व वधकोशेषु उ सवश दाथ ः अ भ हतः वैखानसागमे तावत ्।
सवो य ःसमा यातः सव य वशेषतः।
10 उ कृ टोsयत त मात ्उ सवि व त क य ते ।।
एवं सवोनाम अ खलहेय तभटसकलक याणगुणगण न ध प य भगव यम गल व हर य आराधनम ् इ त। उ कृ ट व चेह गु णताराधननानाल कारवाहनारोहणवीथी द ण अवभृथ नानैः समाकुलः य वशेषः सकलजनान द च न केवलमालये समागतानां, क तु भ तव सलः परमा मा स एवाग य प गु-अ ध-ब धर-वृ -मूक- ी-वण - 11 आ मजनान ् भ तान ् सवा न ् च अनुगृ णा त । एष उ सवः आचाया च क– पाचक–प रचारकैः एवं श प-नृ त-ना य-स गीत-वा य-गान वशारदैः सकलशा पुराणे तहासको वदैः सव स भूय सो साहं लोकक याणाथ यमाण आराधना वशेषः एव उ सवः।
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वेदो तय यागादय एव द यम गल व हाराधन पेण सव षां हतका ययाि मन ् भगव छा े वशेषेणा भ हता इ त अ याधानं त ठा यात ्इ या द वा यैः तमेव।
ाधा येन देवदेव यो सवं धा भवती त भृ वा द भम ह ष भः वेषु 12 वेषु सं हतासु सु प टम भ हतम ् । ते न यो सव-शा यु सव- ो सवाः।
1. न यो सवः – वादशमासे वेकि म मासे तीथ दनं नण य तव सरं त तीथ दनावसानकं स क यो सवः यते 13 ति न यो सवः । त यैव कालो सव इ त नामा तरम प 14 शा ेषु यते। अधुना सव आलयेषु यमाणा उ सवाः न यो सवा एव।
2. शा यु सवः – देशे- ामेषु च भय माददु भ या ध हपीडाद नां स भवे ति नवारणाथ तत सव षां सकलायुरारो य ा यथ च 15 यः उ सवः यते स तु शा यु सवः । त य 16 न म तो सवो म त च नामा तरं व यते शा ेषु ।
3. ो सवः – याव न या त शरणं वामशेषाघनाशन म त उ तर या भि त ायु तो यजमानः यथाश यानुसारतः 17 भ या स क य यः यते। उ सवः स तु ो सवः ।
एवं भृ वा द भ वीयसं हतासु उ सवानां ै व यं सु प टम भ हतम ्।
सु प टम भ हतम ्। एवमेव बहवो सवाः शा ेsि मन ् अ भ हताः। ते
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मासो सवाः इ त ना ना सं हतासु क य ते। यागेषु मासे टयः यथा भवि त त वद मासो सवा भ व यि त। त यथा –
चै े - चै मासो सवः, दमनको सवः, पु पसमप णं,वस तो सवः
वैशाखे - वैशाखमासो सवः,मह जय यु सवः
ये ठे - ये ठमासो सवः ( ये ठा भषेको सवः)
आषाढे - आषाढमासो सवः
ावणे - ावणमासो सवः,जय यु सवः
भा पदे - भा पदमासो सवः, प व ो सवः, ावण तार भः,शमीपूजो सवः
आ वयुजे - आ वयुजमासो सवः
का त के - का त कमासो सवः, द पो सवः, आ यणो सवः, कौ शक वाद यु सवः
माग शीष - माग शीष मासो सवः
पौ ये - पौ यमासो सवः
माघे - माघमासो सवः, तलप व धः
फा गुणे - फा गुणमासो सवः
उ सवफलम ्–
एवं यः कु ते भ या त य कायकृतं पापं त ाणादेव न य त, दशपूवा न ् दशापराना मानं च एक वंश तकं देवैर यन भल यं व णोः परमं www.ijmer.in 150
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पदं नयेत ्। त ामवा सनां सव षां यधय शाि तं याि त, जावृ च भव त 18 भव त इ त वमानाच नक पे ।
एवं यः कु ते भ या व णो सवमादरात ्।
सव पाप वशु ा मा सव कामानवा य च।।
सवा न ्श ून् विज वेव जापशु समि वतः।
19 अ ते वमानमा य व णुलोकं स ग छ त।। इ त क णा धकारे ो तम ् ।
एवं पेण सवा सु सं हतासु देवदेव य व वधानामु सवानां वै श यं त करणेन ल यमान य फल य वे श य च पि चतम ्। अतः सव ः व णे सवः अव यं करणीयमेवे त ायते।
वैखानसाय द या ा वध ताम भवध ताम ्।
समूता राधना चैषा वध ताम भवध ताम ्।। Footnotes 1. वमा – पृ - 516 2. वमा – पृ – 487 3. वमा – पृ – 489 4. वमा – पृ – 490 5. समू – 27 अ, 1तः 6 लो 6. ी.वै.क – 4 , 12 खं, 120-121 सू
7. उ द यु कृ टश दोsयं सवो य उदा तः। त मादु तमय वादु सवः प रभा यते।। क – 35 अ, 383 लो (वैखानसा तग त) उ द कृ टवचनं सवोय म त मृतम ्। www.ijmer.in 151
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उ कृ ट ससवो य मात ् उ सवः प रच यते।। पु षो तमसं हता 32 अ, 2 लो (पा चरा ागमा तग त) 8. श द. च – 354 पु 9. श द.वा – 1130 पु 10. समू – 54 अ, 2 लो 11. वमा – पृ – 336 12. वमा – पृ – 319, या – 14 अ, 9 लो, य ा – 38 अ, 1 लो, क – 24 अ, 3 लो, खला – 32 अ, 4 लो, वासा – 31 अ, 20 लो, समू – 54 अ, 3 लो, का य. ा-पृ-173 13. वमा – 319 पृ 14. य ा - 38 अ, 2 लो, या – 14 अ,10 लो, खला – 32 अ, 5 लो, क – 24 अ, 6 लो, वासा – 31 अ, 22-25 लो, समू – 54 अ, 5 लो, का य. ा –पृ- 173 15. वमा – 209 पु, वासा – 31-21 लो 16. य ा - 38 अ, 4 लो, या – 14 अ,12 लो, खला – 32 अ, 7 लो, क – 24 अ, 6 लो, समू – 54 अ, 7 लो, का य. ा –पृ- 173 17. वमा – 319, या – 14 ,11 लो, खला 32 अ,6 लो, य ा – 37 अ, 3 लो, क – 24 अ, 5 लो, समू – 54 अ, 6 लो, का य. ा. पृ -173 18. वमा – पृ 344 19. क – 25 अ, 305-306 लो
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THE HISTORY OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
Dr. Y.Ramachandra Reddy Professor of History Department of History S.K.University, Anantapuram (AP) INTRODUCTION
Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great from the Greek was a king of the Greek kingdom of Macedon. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander succeeded his father, Philip II, to the throne at the age of twenty. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa, until by the age of thirty he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to Egypt and into present-day Pakistan. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history's most successful commanders.
During his youth, Alexander was tutored by the philosopher Aristotle until the age of 16. When he succeeded his father to the throne in 336 BC, after Philip was assassinated, Alexander inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. He had been awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father's military expansion plans. In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid empire, ruled Asia Minor, and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He subsequently overthrew the Persian King Darius III and conquered the entirety of the Persian Empire. At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.
Seeking to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea", he invaded India in 326 BC, but was eventually forced to turn back at the demand of his troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, the city he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of
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planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs.
Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion his conquests engendered. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics.
Alexander was born on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is not known, in Pella, the capital of the Ancient Greek Kingdom of Macedon. He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus. Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely a result of giving birth to Alexander.
Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood. According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, Olympias, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunder bolt, causing a flame that spread "far and wide" before dying away. Some time after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved with a lion's image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of
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these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.
On the day that Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander. Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his own instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.
In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Philip's general Lysimachus. Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.
When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted and Philip ordered it away. Alexander however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions.
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Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him. Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as Pakistan. When the animal died (due to old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.
Adolescence and education
When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.
Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the 'Companions'. Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.
Regency and ascent of Macedon
At age 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war against Byzantion, leaving Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent.[11] During Philip's absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a city named Alexandropolis.
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Upon Philip's return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.
Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes' favor, but Athens won the contest. Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.
As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed
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them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.
After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they were refused, but did not resort to war. At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modeled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire.
Exile and return
When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice, the niece of his general Attalus. The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.
At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."
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Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians. He continued to Illyria, where he sought refuge with the Illyrian King and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties.
In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus. Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him. Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.
King of Macedon
In 336 BC, while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias. As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king by the nobles and army at the age of 20.
Consolidation of power
Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed. He also had two
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Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.
Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive. Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.
News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered the 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese.
Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But
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verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes." At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.
Balkan campaign
Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he traveled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights. The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish.
News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulanti were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.
While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.[66] While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace. Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.
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Conquest of the Persian Empire
Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000,[66] drawn from Macedon and various Greek city- states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. (However, Arrian, who used Ptolemy as a source, said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot; Diodorus quoted the same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, which Polyaenus, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men.) He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.
After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast. Though Alexander believed in his divine right to expend the lives of men in battle, he did experience sorrow, as those who died were rewarded generously: ‘To the relatives of his fallen, Alexander granted immunity from taxation and public service’. Whether it was his own warriors or the Persian forces opposing him, Alexander chose to respect those who died. He even went so far to set up statues to honor and respect these people. Though this did not directly influence the culture of the Persians they did not feel the need to begin a rebellion as their men and rulers were treated with proper respect.[69] At Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged the first of many sieges, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Alexander left the government of Caria to Ada, who adopted Alexander.
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From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia". According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.
The Levant and Syria
Alexander journeyed south but was met by Darius’ significantly larger army which he easily defeated, causing Darius to panic. Although he was chased by some troops ‘Alexander treated them (his family) with the respect out of consideration’ which demonstrated his continued generosity and kindness towards those he conquered. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure. He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.
Alexander the Great, although a generous man in victory, eventually recognized the power that he was capable of when he would defeat an enemy in war. Following the siege of Tyre in 332, the enemy he defeated, Darius, attempted to present terms of unconditional surrender but Alexander became ruthless. He realized that he had control and could receive much more. Darius was thus forced to come back, ‘This time the offer was impressive. Darius offered all territory as a far the Euphrates… a colossal ransom of 30,000 talents for his family…invited to marry his eldest daughter’. This new change in diplomatic relations induced panic among the leaders of the
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surrounding nations, as they feared a similar defeat. This led to some barbarian cultures choosing to merely abdicate power to Alexander, to avoid certain death.”
Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant. In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege. Alexander massacred the men of military age and sold the women and children into slavery.
Egypt
When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated, with the exception of Gaza. The stronghold at Gaza was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. Alexander came upon the city only to be met with a surprising resistance and fortification. When ‘his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible… this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt’. The divine right that Alexander believed he had gave him confidence of a miracle occurring. After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery.
Jerusalem opened its gates in surrender, and according to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel's prophecy, presumably chapter 8, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. He spared Jerusalem and pushed south into Egypt.
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator. He was pronounced the new "master of the Universe" and son of the deity of Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and subsequent currency depicted him adorned with rams
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horn as a symbol of his divinity. During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.
Assyria and Babylonia
Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and again defeated Darius, at the Battle of Gaugamela. Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), while Alexander captured Babylon.
Persia
From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its legendary treasury. He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He had to storm the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.
On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War.
Fall of the Empire and the East
Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander
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approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. Alexander buried Darius' remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral. He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.
Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.
Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.[101] However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.
Problems and plots
During this time, Alexander took the Persian title "King of Kings" (Shahanshah) and adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors. The Greeks regarded the
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gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.
A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgemental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.
Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was implicated in the plot; however, historians have yet to reach a consensus regarding this involvement. Callisthenes had fallen out of favor by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.
Macedon in Alexander's absence
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence. The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in battle at Megalopolis the following year. Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. There
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was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.
In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire. However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's manpower, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome.
Indian campaign
After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak in Bactrian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara, in the north of what is now Pakistan, to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis, ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.
In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys. A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought in the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.
The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble". A similar
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slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.
After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against King Porus, who ruled a region in the Punjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC. Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus' territory land that he did not previously own. Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honor of his horse, who died around this time. The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern day Mong, Punjab.
Revolt of the army
East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River, were the Nanda Empire of Magadha and further east the Gangaridai Empire (of modern day Bangladesh). Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests. As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty
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thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants.
Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern day Multan) and other Indian tribes and sustained an injury during the siege.
Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran (now part of southern Iran and Pakistan). Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.
Last years in Persia
Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.
After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet for
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several thousand of his men at which he and they ate together. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. Meanwhile, upon his return, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.
After Alexander traveled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure, his closest friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning. Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly thereafter.
Death and succession
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32. There are two different versions of Alexander’s death and details of the death differ slightly in each. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus, and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa. He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them. In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever and died after some agony. Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.
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Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination, foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness. The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence, and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas, Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer. There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.
It is claimed that the strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available. However, in 2003 Dr Leo Schep From The New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed in a BBC documentary investigating his death that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album) may have been used to poison Alexander. In 2014 Dr Leo Schep published this theory in the peer- reviewed medical journal Clinical Toxicology; in this journal article it was suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, a plant known to the Ancient Greeks, which produces poisoning symptoms that match the course of events as described in the Alexander Romance. Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause. Another poisoning explanation was put forward in 2010, it was proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (Mavroneri) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.
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Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis. Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic spondylitis or meningitis.[148] Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus. Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasise that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health.
After death
Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever". Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.
While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy stole it and took it to Memphis. His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage.
Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria. The latter allegedly accidentally knocked the nose off the body. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, a
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great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.
The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas- reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331. However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus' death.
Character
Alexander earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces. Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle, in the manner of a Macedonian king.
In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This
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ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persian's scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.
At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through. Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army. At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius' center, causing the latter to flee once again.
When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus' elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.
Physical appearance
The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder- bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and
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swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.
Physically, Alexander was not prepossessing. Even by Macedonian standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute Macedonian barons by going clean-shaven. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. His eyes (one blue, one brown) revealed a dewy, feminine quality. He had a high complexion and a harsh voice.
Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image. Lysippos had often used the Contrapposto sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as Apoxyomenos, Hermes and Eros. Lysippos' sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.
Personality
Some of Alexander's strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents. His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. Olympias' influence instilled a sense of destiny in him, and Plutarch tells us that his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years." However, his father Philip was Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds. Alexander's relationship with his father forged the
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competitive side of his personality; he had a need to out-do his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world", he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.
According to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature, which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions. Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate. He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader. This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general. He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body," in contrast with his lack of self control with alcohol.
Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honor (timê) and glory (kudos). He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader. His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death – only Alexander had the ability to do so.
During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia. His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect. His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his testament and in his desire to conquer the world.
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He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself. Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus, a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa. He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon. Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably proskynesis, a practice of which Macedonians disapproved, and were loath to perform. This behavior cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine. Thus, rather than megalomania, his behavior may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.
Personal relationships
Alexander married twice: Roxana, daughter of the Bactrian nobleman Oxyartes, out of love; and Stateira II, a Persian princess and daughter of Darius III of Persia, for political reasons. He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon of Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.
Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander. This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months.
Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy. No ancient sources stated that Alexander had homosexual relationships, or that Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter riddling that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just
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the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles". Noting that the word eromenos (ancient Greek for beloved) does not necessarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may have been bisexual, which in his time was not controversial.
Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life. However, he was relatively young when he died, and Ogden suggests that Alexander's matrimonial record is more impressive than his father's at the same age. Apart from wives, Alexander had many more female companions. Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly; showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body".Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius's mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.
Legacy
Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.
Hellenistic kingdoms
Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's
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empire covered some 5,200,000 km (2,000,000 sq mi), and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.
The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history. Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.
Founding of cities
Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris. The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. The cities locations' reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons. Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece. However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.
Hellenization
Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest. That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad). Alexander sought to insert Greek elements
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into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the Successor states.
The core of Hellenistic culture was essentially Athenian. The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect. Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek. Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.
Some of the most unusual effects of Hellenization can be seen in India, in the region of the relatively late-arising Indo-Greek kingdoms. There, isolated from Europe, Greek culture apparently hybridized with Indian, and especially Buddhist, influences. The first realistic portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time; they were modeled on Greek statues of Apollo. Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes, and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'. The process of Hellenization extended to the sciences, where ideas from Greek astronomy filtered eastward and had profoundly influenced Indian astronomy by the early centuries AD. For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC
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were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan while the Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets was adopted in India and eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a flat and circular earth. The Yavanajataka and Paulisa Siddhanta texts in particular show Greek influence.
Influence on Rome
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile. The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla. The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or embroidered into their clothes.
On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values. Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory).
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Legend
Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus, invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."
In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, containing many dubious stories, and was translated into numerous languages.
Bibliography
1. Barnett, C (1997). Bonaparte. Wordsworth. ISBN 1-85326-678-7. 2. Baynes, Norman G (2007). "Byzantine art". Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization. Baynes. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-4067-5659-3.
3. Berkley, Grant (2006). Moses in the Hieroglyphs. Trafford. ISBN 1-4120-5600-4. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
4. Cambon, Pierre; Jarrige, Jean-François (2006). Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul [Afghanistan, the treasures found: collections of the Kabul national museum] (in French). Réunion des musées nationaux. p. 297. ISBN 978-2-7118-5218-5.
5. Bose, Partha (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-74114-113-3.
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6. Bosworth, AB (1988). Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. New York: Cambridge University Press.
7. Cawthorne, Nigel (2004). Alexander the Great. Haus. ISBN 1- 904341-56-X.
8. Chamoux, François; Roussel, Michel (2003). Hellenistic Civilization. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22242-1.
9. Connerney, RD (2009). The upside-down tree: India's changing culture. Algora. p. 214. ISBN 0-87586-649-2.
10. Curtis, J; Tallis, N; Andre-Salvini, B (2005). Forgotten empire: the world of ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 272. ISBN 0-520-24731-0.
11. Dahmen, Karsten (2007). The Legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman Coins. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-39451- 1.
12. Danforth, Loring M (1997). The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-04356-6.
13. Dillon, John M (2004). Morality and custom in ancient Greece. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34526-4.
14. Durant, Will (1966). The Story of Civilization: The Life of Greece. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-41800-9.
15. Fermor, Patrick Leigh (2006). Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese. New York Book Review. p. 358. ISBN 1-59017-188- 8.
16. Fischer, MMJ (2004). Mute dreams, blind owls, and dispersed knowledges: Persian poesis in the transnational circuitry. Duke University Press. p. 474. ISBN 0-8223-3298-1.
17. Foreman, Laura (2004). Alexander the conqueror: the epic story of the warrior king. Da Capo Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-306- 81293-4.
18. Fox, Robin Lane (1980). The Search for Alexander. Boston: Little Brown & Co. ISBN 0-316-29108-0.
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FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF REGIONAL RURAL BANKS IN INDIA – AN ANALYSES
Dr.D.Balamuniswamy Prof.D.Krishnamoorthy Post-Doctorate Fellow Professor Department of Economics Department of Economics S.V.University, Tirupati S.V.University, Tirupati
Abstract
Regional Rural Banks plays a vital role in the agriculture and rural development of India. The RRBs have more reached to the rural area of India, through their huge network. The success of rural credit in India is largely depends on their financial strength. RRBs are key financing institution at the rural level which shoulders responsibility of meeting credit needs of different types of agriculture credit in rural areas. At present, most of the regional rural banks are facing the problems of overdue, recovery, nonperforming assets and other problems. Therefore, it is necessary to study financial performance of RRBs in India. This paper attempts to analyze the financial performance of RRBs in India during the period 2006-07 to 2014-2015. The study is based on secondary data collected form annual reports of NABARD and RBI. An analytical research design of Key Performance Indicators Analysis such as number of banks and branches, deposits, loans, investments and growth rate index is followed in the present study. The study is diagnostic and exploratory in nature and makes use of secondary data. The study finds and concludes that performance of RRBs has significantly improved.
Keywords: Regional Rural Banks, Key Performance Indicators, Growth Rate, Rural Economy, NABARD.
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INTRODUCTION
The institution of Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) was created to meet the excess demand for institutional credit in the rural areas, particularly among the economically and socially marginalized sections. The Banking Commission (1972) recommended establish an alternative institution for rural credit and ultimately Government of India established Regional Rural Banks as a separate institution basically for rural credit on the basis of the recommendations of the Working Group under the Chairmanship of M. Narashimham. In order to provide access to low-cost banking facilities to the poor, the Narashimham Working Group (1975) proposed the establishment of a new set of banks, Subsequently, the Regional Rural Banks were setup through the promulgation of RRB Act of 1976. The RRBs Act, 1976 succinctly sums up this overall vision to sub-serve both the developmental and the redistributive objectives. The RRBs were established “with a view to developing the rural economy by providing, for the purpose of development of agriculture, trade, commerce, industry and other productive activities in the rural areas, credit and other facilities, particularly to small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers, artisans and small entrepreneurs, and for matters connected therewith and incidental thereto”. Their financial equity is held by the Central Government, Concerned State Government and the Sponsor Bank in the proportion of 50:15:35 respectively. The central government initiated the process of amalgamating RRBs in September 2005. At the end of march 2006 RRBs are 196 branches. The number came down to 133 and it consolidated to 56 by the end of march 2015.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The literature available in the working and performance of RRBs in India is a little limited. The literature obtained by investigators in the form of reports of various committees, commissions and working
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groups established by the Union Government, NABARD and Reserve Bank of India, the research studies, articles of researchers, bank officials, economists and the comments of economic analysts and news is briefly reviewed in this part. Some of the related literatures of reviews are as follows.
The Kelkar Committee (1986) made comprehensive recommendations covering both the organizational and operational aspects. Several of these were incorporated as amendments to the RRB Act, 1976 such as:
1. Enhancement of authorized capital of RRBs from Rs 1 crore to Rs 5 crore and paid-up share capital from Rs 25 lakhs to Rs 1 crore;
2. Appointment of Chairman of RRBs by the concerned sponsor bank in consultation with NABARD;
3. provision of assistance to RRBs in greater measure by sponsor banks in training RRB staff and giving financial assistance to RRBs in their first five years of their existence;
4. Provision for amalgamation of RRBs in consultation with all the concerned parties.
5. Empowering the sponsor banks to monitor the progress of RRBs and also to arrange for their inspection, internal audit etc. NABARD (1986) published “A study on RRBs viability”, which was conducted by
Agriculture Finance Corporation in 1986 on behalf of NABARD. The study revealed that viability of RRBs was essentially dependent upon the fund management strategy, margin between resources mobility and their deployment and on the control exercised on current and future costs with advances. The proportion of the establishment costs to total cost and expansion of branches were the critical factors, which affected their viability. The study further concluded that RRBs incurred losses due to defects in their systems as such, there was need to rectify these and make them viable. The main suggestions of the study included
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improvement in the infrastructure facilities and opening of branches by commercial banks in such areas where RRBs were already in function.
Khusro Committee 1989, which argued that these banks have no justifiable cause for continuance and recommended their mergers with sponsor banks. The Committee was of the view that “the weaknesses of RRBs are endemic to the system and non-viability is built into it, and the only option was to merge the RRBs with the sponsor banks. The objective of serving the weaker sections effectively could be achieved only by self-sustaining credit institutions.”
Narasimham Committee 1991 stressed the poor financial health of the RRBs to the exclusion of every other performance indicator. 172 of the 196 RRBs were recorded unprofitable with an aggregate loan recovery performance of 40.8 percent. (June 1993). The low equity base of these banks (paid up capital of Rs. 25 lakhs) didn't cover for the loan losses of most RRBs. In the case of a few RRBs, there had also been an erosion of public deposits, besides capital. In order to impart viability to the operations of RRBs, the Narasimham Committee suggested that the RRBs should be permitted to engage in all types of banking business and should not be forced to restrict their operations to the target groups, a proposal which was readily accepted. This recommendation marked a major turning point in the functioning of RRBs.
The financial ratio approach has been widely used by the researchers and working groups/committees to analyze the performance of RRBs. Most of the studies on the performance evaluation of RRBs concentrated on the banks in particular state/region. Some of the studies are: Singh (1992) analyzed the performance of RRBs banks in Punjab. Prasad (2003) evaluated the performance of RRBs in India. Moreover, Pati (2005) developed the performance of RRBs in the north-east region. The study of Bagchi and Hadi (2006) concentrated on the performance of regional rural banks in
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West Bengal. Few studies also exist in the literature which concentrated on the efficiency of a single regional rural bank. .OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1. To measure financial performance of Regional Rural banks in India.
2. To analyze the key performance indicators of RRBs in India 3. To evaluate progress of the RRBs during 2006-07 to 2014-15. 4. To study the growth-pattern of Regional Rural Banks in India. HYPOTHSIS OF THE STUDY
1. The RRBs in India have made a substantial quantitative progress.
2. The qualitative progresses of RRBs have been found to be highly impressive.
3. The macro performance is highly substantial. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
The research study is significant to evaluate financial performance of RRBs in India. The results/ findings of the present study are useful to the policy planners in their efforts to improve the working of the RRBs in India.
SCOPE AND COVERAGE OF THE STUDY
1. It covers all Regional Rural Banks working in India. 2. The study covers a specific period from 2006-07 to 2014-15 i.e., after amalgamation.
3. There is macro evaluation of performance of all the RRBs in India. PERIOD OF THE STUDY
For collection of the secondary data on financial performance of the RRBs in India, nine years i.e. from 2006-2007 to 2014-2015 were taken as the reference period. The accounting year of the bank
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commences on 1st April of every year and ends on 31st March of next year.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The financial performance of the RRBs in India has been analyzed with the help of key performance indicators. The year 2014-2015 was taken as the current year and year 2013-2014 was base year for the calculation of growth rate. Analytical Techniques Employed-Growth rate analysis was undertaken with a view to studying financial performance related to the RRBs. Growth rate is measured with the help of following formula-
Growth Rate = Yt -Yt-1 / Yt-1
Yt= Current Year, yt-1=Base Year.
RESEARCH DESIGN
The present study is diagnostic and exploratory in nature and makes use of secondary data. The study is confined only to the specific areas like number of branches, district coverage, deposits mobilized, credits and investments made by the Indian Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) for the 9 years period starting from 2006-07 to the year 2014-15
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
The present study is empirical in character based on the analytical method. The study is mainly based on secondary data which is collected, compiled and calculated mainly from annual reports of the NABARD and RBI. Other related information collected from journals, conference proceedings and websites.
Key Performance Indicators and Growth of RRBs
Table 1 presents the key performance indicators and growth of RRBs from year 2006-07 to 2014-2015.
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Table 1. Key Performance Indicators of RRBs in India
(Figures: - Rs. in Crore) Parameters 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013-14 2014-15 Growth No. of RRBs 96 91 86 82 82 82 82 57 56 ----- No. of Branches 14526 14761 15158 15480 16001 16001 16914 19082 20059 4.87 Districts covered 534 594 617 618 620 620 635 642 644 ---- 83143.5 99093. 120184.4 166623 187351 Deposit 5 46 6 145035.0 166232 2.34 .37 239494 271329 11.73 11494. 26490. 30271. Borrowings 9775.80 00 12733.80 18770.00 26490.81 80 71 50230 58824 14.60 45666.1 48559. 86510. 89145. Investments 4 54 62629.45 79379.16 86510.44 44 79 139631 106780 -30.76 48492.5 58984. 98917. 120550 Gross Loan (O/s) 9 27 67858.48 82819.10 98917.43 43 .66 159406 184843 13.76 2624.2 1532.3 1104.8 Accumulated Losses 2759.49 2 2325.59 1775.06 1532.39 9 5 948 1069 8.92 1383.6 2420.7 2469.1 Profit (Before Tax) 926.40 8 1859.36 2514.83 2420.75 5 8 2694 2781 11.31 Net NPA % 3.46 3.19 1.68 1.80 2.05 3.75 4.14 6.09 5.72 -6.46 Recovery % 79.80 80.84 77.76 80.09 81.18 81.18 82.63 81.9 79.47 -3.05
Source: Annual Reports of NABARD and RBI 2006-2014
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SUMMERY/ OBSERVATION OF THE STUDY SOURCES OF FUNDS
The sources of funds of RRBs comprise of owned fund, deposits, borrowings from NABARD, Sponsor Banks and other sources including SIDBI and National Housing Bank.
1. Deposits
Deposits of RRBs increased from 239494 crore to 271329 crore during the year registering growth rate of 11.73 percentage
2. Borrowings
Borrowings of RRBs increased from 50230 crore as on 31 March 2014 to 50824 crore as on 31 March 2015 registering an increase of 14.60 percentage
Uses of Funds
The uses of funds of RRBs comprise of investments and loans and advances.
1. Investments
The investment of RRBs increased from 139631 crore as on 31 March 2014 to 106780 crore as on 31 March 2015 registering an decrease of -30.76 percentage .
2. Loans & Advances
During the year the loans outstanding increased by 159406 crore to 184843 crore as on 31 March 2015 registering a growth rate of 13.7 percentage over the previous year.
WORKING RESULTS
1. Profitability
During 2014-15, out of 56 RRBs, for which data is available, 51
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have earned aggregate profits to the tune of 2958 crore, compared to 57 RRBs earning an aggregate profit of 2694 crore in 2013-14.
2. Accumulated Losses
As on 31 March 2014-15, 51 of the 57 RRBs continued to have accumulated losses to the tune of 1069 crore as against 948 crore as on 31 March 2014. The accumulated loss decreased by 177 crore during the year .
3. Non-performing Assets (NPA)
The aggregate gross NPA of all RRBs declined from 6.09 percent as on 31 march 2014 to 5.72per cent as on 31 march 2015.
4. Recovery Performance
The recovery performance of RRBs declined marginally from 81.9 per cent as on 30 June 2013 to 79.47 per cent as on 30 June 2014. Twenty one out of 56 RRBs had a recovery level above the all India average, with 9 RRBs above 90 percent. 33 RRBs had recovery of less then 80 per cent, with two RRBs having a level of less than 60 per cent.
The frequency distribution of RRBs according to the range of loan recovery percentage.
PROBLEMS (Weakness) of RRBs
Although RRBs had a rapid expansion of branch network and increase in volume of business, these institutions went through a very difficult evolutionary process due to the following problems.
The RRBs were very limited area of operations. It’s high risk due to exposure only to the target group like Public perception that RRBs are poor man's banks. It Mounting losses due to non-viable level of operations in branches located at resource-poor areas and switch over to narrow investment banking as a turn-over strategy level of heavy reliance on sponsor banks for investment
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avenues with low returns barring exceptions, step-motherly treatment from sponsor banks. Chairman of RRBs under the direction of Regional Managers appointed as Board of Directors by sponsor banks, financial burden of government subsidy schemes and inadequate knowledge of customers leading to low quality assets and unionized staff with low commitment to profit orientation and functional efficiency Inadequate skills in treasury management for profit orientation. Inadequate exposure and skills to innovate products limiting the lending portfolios .Inadequate effort to achieve desired levels of excellence in staff competence for managing the affairs and business as an independent entity serious undermining of the Board by compulsions to look up to sponsor banks, GOI, NABARD and RBI for most decisions. RRB hampered by an across the board ban on recruitment of staff.
SUGGESTIONS (RECOMMENDATIONS) FOR IMROVEMENT OF RRBs
1. Government should encourage and support banks to take appropriate steps in rural development.
2. Efforts should be made to ensure that the non-interest cost of credit to small borrowers is kept as low as possible.
3. Policy should be made by government for opening more branches in weaker and remote areas of state.
4. Productivity can be improved by controlling the costs and increasing the income.
5. To participation cost, subsidy should be adjusted towards the end of the transaction for which loan assistance is sanctioned.
6. Government should take firm action against the defaulters and shouldn’t make popular announcements like waiving of loans.
7. The RRBs have to make an important change in their decision making with regard to their investments.
8. The RRBs have to be very careful and reduce the operating expenses, because it has been found from our study that these
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expenses have increased the total expenditure of the banks.
9. The RRBs have to give due preference to the micro-credit scheme and encourage in the formation of self help group.
10. Cooperative societies may be allowed to sponsor or co-sponsor with commercial banks in the establishment of the RRB.
11. A uniform pattern of interest rate structure should be devised for the rural financial agencies.
12. The RRB must strengthen effective credit administration by way of credit appraisal, monitoring the progress of loans and their efficient recovery.
13. The credit policy of the RRB should be based on the group approach of financing rural activities.
14. The RRB may relax their procedure for lending and make them easier for village borrowers. CONCLUSION
To conclude, the rapid expansion of RRB has helped in reducing substantially the regional disparities in respect of banking facilities in India. The efforts made by RRB in branch expansion, deposit mobilization, rural development and credit deployment in weaker section of rural areas are appreciable. RRB successfully achieve its objectives like to take banking to door steps of rural households particularly in banking deprived rural area, to avail easy and cheaper credit to weaker rural section who are dependent on private lenders, to encourage rural savings for productive activities, to generate employment in rural areas and to bring down the cost of purveying credit in rural areas. Thus RRB is providing the strongest banking network. Government should take some effective remedial steps to make Rural Banks viable.
Regional Rural Banks plays a key role as an important vehicle of credit delivery in rural areas with the objective of credit dispersal to small, marginal farmers & socio economically weaker section of
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population for the development of agriculture, trade and industry .But still its commercial viability has been questioned due to its limited business flexibility, smaller size of loan & high risk in loan & advances. Rural banks need to remove lack of transparency in their operation which leads to unequal relationship between banker and customer. Banking staff should interact more with their customers to overcome this problem. Banks should open their branches in areas where customers are not able to avail banking facilities. In this competitive era, RRBs have to concentrate on speedy, qualitative and secure banking services to retain existing customers and attract potential customers.
References
1. Ramanaa Murty, D.V. (1977) “Regional Rural Banks: An Assessment of Performance”, Southern Economist, No.16 (7), August 1.
2. Velayudham, T. K., and Sankaranarayanan, V. (1990) “Regional Rural Banks and Rural Credit: Some Issues”, Economic and Political Weekly, September 22, pp.2157-2164.
3. Gupta and Sodhi (1995), “Economic Liberalization and Rural Credit”, Kurukshetra, Vol. XLIII, No. 10, p-27-30
4. Das, U.R. (1998) “Performances and Prospects of RRBs”, Banking Finance November.
5. Reddy, Y.V. (2000) “Rural Credit: Status and Agenda”, Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, November.
6. Horseman, S.B (2002), Performance of Regional Rural Banks, New Delhi.
7. Prasad, T. S. (2003), Regional Rural Banks: Performance Evaluation, Kurukshetra, Vol. 51, No.10, p. 20-24.
8. Misra, B.S. (2006), “The Performance of Regional Rural Banks in India: Has Past Anything to Suggest for Future”, RBI Occasional Papers, Vol.27, Nos.1 and 2 .
9. Khankhoje, D. and Sathye, M. (2008) “Efficiency of Rural Banks:
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The Case of India”, International Business Research, Vol. 1. No.2, pp. 140-149.
10. Ibrahim Dr. M. Syed (2010) “Performance Evaluation of Regional Rural Banks in India”, International Business Research Vol. 3, No. 4; p-203-211.
11. Raman Thirumal (2011) “Factors influencing profitability of Regional Rural Banks (RRBs)”, Journal of Banking Financial Services and Insurance Research, Volume 1, Issue 2, p 76- 84 .
12. Jham Poonam (2012) “Banking Sector Reforms and Progress of Regional Rural Banks in India (An Analytical Study)”, Online published 11 January. Reports
1. A Study on the Viability of RRBs (1981), RBI Bulletin, March. 2. Government of India, Report of the Working Group on Regional Rural Banks (1986), New Delhi .
3. Government of India (1987), Report of the Committee on Agricultural Credit Review Committee, (A. M. Khusro), New Delhi.
4. Reserve Bank of India (1991), Report of the Committee on the Financial System, (chaired by M. Narasimham)
5. Government of India (1994), Report of the Committee on Restructuring of RRBs (M. C. Bhandari), New Delhi.
6. NABARD Annual Reports (2016-17 to 2014-15) 7. Reserve Bank of India (2004), Report of the Advisory Committee on Flow of Credit to Agriculture and Related Activities from the Banking System.
8. Reserve Bank of India (2005), Report of the Internal Working Group on RRBs, Chairman: A.V. Sardesai, Mumbai.
9. Report of Trend and Progress in Banking, RBI, Various issues 10. RBI, Monthly Bulletins, Various issue .
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INTANGIBLE ASSETS REPORTING PRACTICES: GLIMPSES OF LITERATURE
Kirtika Sharma Assistant Professor Department of Commerce D.A.V. College, Hoshiarpur Abstract
Business dynamics of the 21st century have much dependence on the Intangible assets rather than on tangible assets in order to create wealth for the long period. The purpose of the paper is to review the literature relating to Intangible assets in relation to identify the gaps and to determine the extent of Intangible assets disclosure. Specially, this study relates to review the studies relating to Indian companies, foreign companies. Further, the difference in reporting patterns of different economies and relationship between corporate attributes (size, industry, profitability and leverage) with the reporting level are analyzed. The researchers observed that there is enough awareness relating to the theme of Intangible assets but the overall disclosure level is of quite a low level and unsystematic. Researcher further opined that larger companies, knowledge intensive companies, highly leveraged companies and most profitable companies disclosed more Intangible assets related information in their annual reports. The reason of unsystematic and unrecognized level of disclosure is the lacuna of general accounting framework relating to the Intangible assets reporting practices. There is a need for the revised general accounting guidelines that is useful for the companies to disclose their hidden assets in their annual reports in uniform manner which is beneficial for achieving the sustainable competitive advantage and also it is useful for the stakeholders to take the efficient decisions by considering both the tangible as well as Intangible assets.
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Keywords: Intangible assets, Reporting, Indian companies, foreign companies, Comparative studies, Literature
INTRODUCTION
Intangible assets are the hidden and invisible assets that are used for achieving the sustainable competitive advantage. Indian Economy has progressively switched from the industrial economy to knowledge based economy where the investment of the Intangible assets (patents, copyrights, brands, information technology, worldwide customer base and many more) are much more important than the tangible assets (land, labour and machinery). But the traditional model of accounting based on double entry accounting system is incapable to measure, manage and report the Intangible assets. Only some Intangible assets are recognized in the financial statements such as intellectual property (Patents, trademark, copyright) whose market value has been recognized by a transaction and acquired items such as goodwill (OECD,2006). In the twenty first century, the Intangible assets have the ability to maintain the sustainable competitive advantage because in this economy, more and more businesses are highly dependent on intangible assets rather than that of tangible assets. So, there is an immediate need to establish a common accounting framework to managing, measuring and reporting the unrecognized Intangible assets.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
Based on the above rationale, this study is conducted to review the prior literature on the Intangible assets with an objective to identify the gap and to determine the extent of Intangible assets reporting practices. Specifically it deals with:
To review the literature related to Intangible assets reporting practices of Indian companies.
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To review the literature related to Intangible assets reporting practices of foreign companies.
To review and compare the literature of Intangible assets reporting practices of different economies.
To review the studies on the relationship between corporate attributes (Size, Industry type, Leverage & Profitability) and Intangible assets reporting practices.
ANALYSIS OF LITERATURE
There existed vast corpus of literature on the Intangible assets. The terms Intangible assets, Knowledge based assets and Intellectual capital have been used interchangeably assert that they differentiate with their nature of stream like Intangible assets used in accounting literature, Knowledge based assets used by economists and Intellectual capital (hereafter written as IC) used in management practices (Lev 2001, Rodgers 2003). To analyze the literature, this study is divided into following sections. Section-I deals with the analysis of Intangible assets reporting practices of Indian companies. Section-II deals with the studies of Intangible assets reporting practices of foreign companies. Section-III focus on the comparative analysis with an aim to highlight the difference in Intangible assets reporting practices of the companies operating in different economies. Section- IV deals with to analyse the relationship between corporate attributes (Age, Size, Leverage, Profitability & Industry type) and Intangible assets reporting practices.
(I) INTANGIBLE ASSETS REPORTING PRACTICES OF INDIAN COMPANIES
The first Intellectual capital (hereafter written as IC) report was published in 1994 at Skandia under the leadership of Leif Edvinsson who is termed as the “Father” of the IC report, to visualize the hidden value and generate the taxonomy of IC. In India, Reliance Industries
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Limited published the first IC report in 1997 and also Shree Cement Limited and Balrampur Chini Mills also published the IC report on the voluntary basis (Pablos, 2005). Kamath (2008) studied the relationship between the IC components like human capital, structural capital and physical capital with the traditional measures of performance of the company such as profitability, productivity and market valuation by selecting 25 leading Indian pharmaceutical companies from the year 1996 to 2006. The researcher found that human capital has the major impact on the profitability and productivity of the firm over the period of study. Researcher concluded the study by recommending that there is an immediate need to start up the voluntary disclosures of IC so that the negative perception among the stakeholders regarding value creation in the firm may get even more transparent. Joshi and Ubha (2009) conducted a study on the IC reporting practices of 15 leading Indian information technology companies. Bhasin (2011) analyzed the IC related information of 16 top IT sector companies of India for the year 2007-08 and 2008-09. Common findings from these studies are Intellectual property rights (IPR) was the most disclosed item of IC and Infosys Technology Limited was widely disclosing company of IC related items. Chandra and Mehra (2011) assessed the extent of Intangible assets disclosure practices of the Indian companies for the year 2003-04 and 2007-08. Study found that number of employees, market share and research activities were most disclosed attributes in the case of human capital, external capital and internal capital respectively. Infosys Technologies Limited was the top company for disclosing the Intangible assets for the both of the years. Study found significant difference in the Intangible assets reporting practices of the companies in the year 2003- 04 and 2007-08. Researcher concluded the study by saying that there is a need to develop an index of Intangible assets disclosure to incorporate both quantitative as well as qualitative description of Intangible assets.
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The overall reporting of Intangible assets was unorganized and unsystematic. Singh and Kansal (2011) explored and examined the voluntary IC disclosures and variation in top 20 listed pharmaceutical companies in India by using the content analysis of the annual reports for the year 2009. Study showed significant variations in the IC disclosure by top 20 pharmaceutical companies. External capital was the most disclosed category. The computed figures of the IC revealed that huge value of IC remains unreported in the balance sheet. The overall IC disclosure was drastically low. Ragini (2012) examined and compared the Intangibles disclosure practices of the top 100 Indian, US and Japanese companies from the year 2001 to 2005. Content analysis on annual reports and descriptive analysis used for analysis. The findings showed that Japanese companies have shown the maximum improvement of in the overall disclosure scores followed by the US and Indian companies. The study of the descriptive results revealed that Indian companies disclosed more information on ‘research and development’ and ‘human resource’ than the companies from the US and Japan. However, US companies disclosed more information on ‘strategy and competition’, ‘market and customer’ and ‘IPRs and goodwill and other Intangibles’ than the Indian and Japanese companies. Japanese companies disclosed more on ‘corporate and shareholder’ and ‘environment and others’. ‘IPRs and goodwill and other Intangibles’ group showed maximum increase in five years by the sample companies of all the three countries under study. Least disclosed areas on Intangibles are ‘strategy and competition’, and ‘market and customer’. The disclosure scores of the Indian companies are more associated with organizational size and profitability, whereas those of the US companies are associated more with industry type. However, in case of the Japanese companies, disclosure scores are associated with organizational size. Researcher concluded the study by saying that there should be enough steps taken by IFRS for
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harmonization in regulatory framework across countries. Vishnu and Gupta (2014) measured IC of top 22 Indian pharmaceutical firms and also studied its impact on their performance. Performance variables were return on assets (ROA) and return on sales (ROS) whereas IC components were human capital, structural capital and relational capital. Results showed positive relationship between IC components and performance variables. Further, results revealed that relational capital has no significant relationship with performance variables.
(II) INTANGIBLE ASSETS REPORTING PRACTICES OF FOREIGN COMPANIES
Guthrie and Petty (2000) examined the annual reports of 20 Australian companies to measure the extent of IC reporting practices for the year 1998. In an Irish study, Brennan (2001) examined the voluntary IC reporting practices of the 11 knowledge based Irish listed companies for the year 1999. Bontis (2003) conducted a study on the IC disclosure practices of 10000 Canadian Corporations by employing content analysis. April, Bosma and Deglon (2003) examined the measurement, reporting and management practices in the 20 South African mining industry. Goh and Lim (2004) examined the extent of IC disclosure of 20 profit- making public listed Malaysian companies for the year 2001. They found that the incidence of IC disclosure information in the annual reports was highly qualitative instead of quantitatively in the financial statements. Oliveras, Gowthorpe, Kasperskaya and Perramon (2008) conducted a study on the IC reporting practices of 12 Spanish companies over the period from 2000 to 2002. Xiao (2008) analyzed the annual reports to determine the extent of IC disclosure in China for the year 2007. A common finding of all above studies has been the inadequacy of IC disclosure irrespective of what model they used to study such disclosures. These studies found that Intangible assets disclosures are highly qualitative rather than quantitative.
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Pablos (2002) explored the dynamics of measuring and reporting IC in pioneer forms in Asia, Europe and the Middle East. Study showed that there is an increasing interest in the measuring and reporting of their valuable Intangible resources. Study found that in initial stage, firms try to experiment with the elaboration of IC accounts, after the publication of first ICR, the following year publish a new intellectual capital report too. Study suggested that successful firms are those which routinely maximize the value from their IC.
Hamzah and Mahamed (2010) analyzed the IC disclosure practices of two major airline companies in Malaysia for the year 2005 and 2006. This study used the content analysis on the annual reports by considering 58 IC components. Study revealed that both companies disclosed more about organizational capital followed by human capital and relational capital. Intellectual property was highly disclosed by company A in their annual reports while company B emphasized more on Brand and Personnel. Study found that there is not any mandatory regulation for the IC reporting in Malaysia even though these both companies disclose the IC information in their annual report, might be signal to the public relating to their strengths in IC.
Anam (2011) examined the effects of IC information disclosed in the annual reports of 91 listed companies on Bursa Malaysia on their market capitalization. Results showed that extent of IC disclosure in the annual reports for the year 2006 was slightly higher compared to the year 2002 which indicates that overall financial performance of Malaysian listed companies in 2006 was better than 2002.
Fadur, Ciotina and Mironiuc (2011) examined the extent of Intangible assets related information in Romanian companies quoted in Bucharest Stock Exchange and also revealed the difference existing between the market value of the company and its net accounting value as a result of the existence of Intangible asset. The findings indicated
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VOLUME 5, ISSUE 9(3), SEPTEMBER 2016 that a low degree of dissemination of the information on Intangible assets in Romanian companies and the differences between the market value and the accounting value was explained in accounting relating to the investor’s confidence but not based on the Intangible asset.
Castro and Benetti (2013) examined the impact of Intangible assets on the market value of the firm. They proposed a model for computing the Intangible assets that are not shown in balance sheet. 30 companies were selected for the study listed on the Sao Paulo Stock Exchange. The model revealed that the possible existence of relevant Intangible assets was not recorded in the companies. Study suggested that higher the recording of Intangible assets, smaller will be the difference between the book value and market value of the firm. Researcher expected that in the future the recording will be allowed or at least, the disclosure of the fair value of internally generated Intangible assets will be mandatory.
(III) COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON INTANGIBLE ASSETS REPORTING PRACTICES OF DIFFERENT ECONOMIES
Pablos (2005) examined the main similarities and differences between the Indian IC report and European IC report and also made an attempt to know the idiosyncratic features that define the Indian IC report. The researcher found that Indian IC report does not focus on the business model, values, mission and vision and/or knowledge management issues like European IC reports. Indian companies present a narrative style reporting that describes a firm’s IC and analyzed the components without focus on the specific indicators. Indian reports also much larger than the European reports.
Vergauwen and Alem (2005) investigated the current IC disclosure practices in three European countries namely France, Netherland and Germany. The research indicated significantly higher average disclosure number in French annual reports as compared to Dutch
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counterparts. The German is in between but is not significantly different from both countries. The researchers found not only that voluntary IC disclosure significantly differs from these countries, but also that this difference might be explained by country- specific regulation and auditor conservatism
Guthrie, Petty and Ricceri (2006) made investigation on the voluntary reporting of IC by listed companies in Australia and Hong Kong and also evaluated size, industry and time effects on IC disclosure levels. The researchers found that the level of voluntary IC disclosures was low and in qualitative rather than quantitative form in both locations. Study revealed that disclosure level was positively related to company size, this finding was consistent with the previous literature on voluntary reporting that was held in Australia for the year 1998.
Abeysekera (2007) examined the IC disclosure practices between developing nation (Sri Lanka) and developed nation (Australia). Using the content analysis, top 30 firms listed on Colombo stock exchange was examined for the years 1998/1999 and 1999/2000 and then the findings compared with the similar study undertaken in Australia during the same period. Results showed that external capital was most disclosed by these both nations. Study found reporting differences between Sri Lanka and Australia firms might be due to some economical, political and social forces.
(IV) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CORPORATE ATTRIBUTES AND INTANGIBLE ASSETS REPORTING PRACTICES
Surveys and anecdotal evidences showed that level of Intangible assets disclosure practices is dependent upon several corporate attributes and there are studies which empirically examined this. A review of these studies is as follows:
Size of the company
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Previous studies revealed that there are mixed evidence regarding the association between the company size and Intangible assets disclosure. Some of the studies found that there is significant relationship between the size of the company and the level of Intangible assets reporting (Bozzolan et al., 2003; Guthrie et al., 2006; Oliveira et al., 2006; Brugen et al., 2009;Ousama et al., 2012), while some are not (Williams, 2001 and Bukh et al., 2005). Size may be measure through total assets ( Bozzolan et al., 2003; Brugen et al., 2009; Ousama et al., 2012), turnover (Bozzolan et al., 2003; Oliveira et al., 2006; Gerpott et al.,2008), market capitalization( Bozzolan et al., 2003; Oliveira et al., 2006; White et al., 2007) and number of employees (Bukh et al., 2005; Oliveira et al., 2006).
The reasons which express the most Intangible assets disclosure made by large companies are as under:
1) Large corporations have huge investments and employ professionals, have to perform the variety of business activities, disclose more information to give the knowledge about the internal as well as external affairs of the company to the stakeholders.
2) Large companies possess higher share of equity on the stock market. This require latest information regarding the factors that influence the market value of the shares like socio-economic factors, technological factors, legal factors and many more. To reduce the information asymmetry and built the transparency among the stakeholders, the large companies disclose more information.
3) The Intangible assets disclosure is an expensive affair so the small firms may not be in the position to afford this extra cost.
4) Larger firms remain under a severe pressure from various governmental and non-governmental agencies to legitimize their existence. Further the management of larger firms expects enhanced
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benefits from the disclosures of such information such as easy availability of funds, easy marketability of securities.
5) The management of smaller companies is of the view that the disclosures of information can jeopardize their existence as they may not have any strong rate of Intangible assets.
Industry type
Several studies suggested that knowledge based industries or high tech industries disclosed more Intangible assets related information (Bozzolan et al. 2003; Oliveira et al.2006; Whiting et al., 2011). Boujelbene and Affes (2013) classified knowledge intensive industries and traditional industries. Knowledge intensive industries include IT, distribution, media, software, biotechnology, entertainment, retail, high tech manufacturing and web services. Traditional industries consist of chemicals, food, oil, utilities, automobiles, electronics, textile/clothing and tourism and leisure. Bruggen (2009) stated that industry type is a determinant of IC disclosure. Industries that rely more on IC disclose more information on IC. He found that firms of Health care industry and firms of Information technology industry disclosed significantly more information related to IC compared to firms of other industries
Leverage
A review of the prior empirical research revealed that there has been mixed direction of relationship between leverage and Intangible assets disclosure. Some researchers found significant relationship (White et al., 2007; Gerpott et al. 2008 and Omoye, 2013) while some found no significant relationship (Whiting et al., 2011; Ousama et al.,2012; Ferrerria et al.,2012). Gerpott et al. (2008) found highly geared telecommunications network operators (TNOs) try to convince their debt and equity holders by highlighting the value of specific Intangibles, which they purport to control. Omoye (2013) found
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significant positive relationship between Intangible assets disclosure and leverage. It means that Intangible assets reporting are highly significant related to firms with debt stakeholders.
Profitability
Several studies showed positive relationship between profitability and Intangible assets reporting (Ousama et al., 2012; Omoye, 2013) whilst Ferrerria (2012) found insignificant relationship. Positive relationship means most profitable companies disclose more Intangible assets related information. This will provide the clear picture of the firm to the stakeholders that help to increase transparency and attract the potential investors and improve the image of the company.
OBSERVATION
From the above review, researcher observed that there is enough awareness among the Indian and foreign companies relating to the theme of Intangible assets. But still there is high level of unrecognized and unsystematic Intangible assets. Most of the disclosure of the Intangible assets in annual reports is qualitative in nature rather than quantitative. Researcher further opined that larger companies, knowledge intensive companies, highly leveraged companies and most profitable companies disclosed more Intangible assets related information in their annual reports. The overall disclosure level is low because of the reason of the lack of established and generally accepted Intangible assets reporting framework. There is an immediate need to generate Intangible assets reporting practices by the companies so that the negative perception among the stakeholders may be reduced and they can get more transparent information. An observation from the literature studied on comparative analysis on Intangible assets reporting practices showed that different economies did not report much variation in the level of disclosures between developed and
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VOLUME 5, ISSUE 9(3), SEPTEMBER 2016 developing countries. The difference in reporting might be due to some social, political and economical factors.
CONCLUSION
The main objective of the study is to review the prior studies on Intangible assets reporting practices for identifying the gaps in literature on the subject. Specially, this study relates to review the studies relating to Indian companies, foreign companies. Further, the difference in reporting patterns of different economies and relationship between corporate attributes (size, industry, profitability and leverage) with the reporting level are analyzed. From this study, the researcher observed that the reporting practices relating to Intangible assets are of low level. Companies have enough knowledge about Intangible assets but the companies find some problems while reporting relating to these questions: how to classify, how to measure and how to report the Intangible assets. Even though there are various reporting framework for Intangible assets but still there is no uniform framework for reporting the Intangible assets which provide the clear picture for the management, measurement and reporting of this important assets There is an immediate need that most established accounting bodies should have to frame uniform reporting framework relating to Intangible assets so that companies not only focus on tangible assets but also consider Intangible assets for valuation purposes. Consequently, stakeholders make ease for efficient decision-making because due to this, the transparency will be increased and information asymmetry will be reduced.
REFERENCES
1. Abeysekera, I. (2007). Intellectual capital reporting between a developing and developed nation. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 8(2), 329-345.
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2. Anam, O. A. (2011). Effects of Intellectual capital information disclosed in annual reports on market capitalization: Evidence from Bursa Malaysia. Journal of Human Resource Costing & Accounting, 15(2), 85-101.
3. Boujelbene et al. (2013). The impact of intellectual capital disclosure on cost of equity capital: A case of French firms. Journal of Economics, Finance and Administartive Science, 18(34), 45-53.
4. Bozzolan et al. (2003). Italian annual Intellectual Capital Disclosure: An empirical analysis. Journal of Intellectaul capital, 4(4), 1469-1930.
5. Brennan, N. (2001). Reporting intellectual capital in annual reports: evidence from ireland. Accounting & Accountability Journal, 14(4), 123-136.
6. Bruggen et al. (2009). Determinants of Intellectual capital disclosure: Evidence from Australia. Management Decision, 47(2), 233-245.
7. Bukh et al. (2005). Disclosure of information on intellectual capital in Danish IPO prospectuses. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 18(6), 713-732.
8. Castro et al. (2013). The Impact of Intangible Assets in the Market Value of Companies That Compose the Index of Brazilian Stock Exchange. Proceedings of 8th Annual London Business Research Conference. London.
9. Chander,S. and Mehra,V. (2011). A Study on Intangible Assets disclosure: An evidence from Indian Companies . Intangible Capital, 7(1), 1-30.
10. Fadur et al. (2011). Empirical Study on the Financial Reporting of Intangible Assets by Romanian Companies. Theoretical and Applied Economics, 8(561), 5-16.
11. Ferreira et al.(2012). Factors influencing intellectual capital disclosure by Portuguese companies. International Journal of Accounting and Financial Reporting, 2(2), 278-298.
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12. Guthrie et al. (2006). The voluntary reporting of intellectual capital: comparing evidence from Hong Kong and Australia. Journal of Intellectual capital, 7(2), 254-271.
13. Hamzah et al. (2010). Disclosure of Intellectual capital information of airline companies in Malaysia. Jurnal Pengurusan, 30, 25-35.
14. Joshi, M and Ubha, S. D (2009). Intellectual Capital Disclosures: the Search for a new Paradigm in Financial Reporting by the Knowledge Sector of Indian Economy. Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, 7 (5), 575 – 582
15. Lev, B. (2001). Intangibles: Management, Measurement and reporting. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
16. OECD. (2006). Intellectual assets and value creation: Implications for corporate reporting .
17. Omoye, A. S. (2013). Determinants of Intangibles Assets Disclosure in Annual Report: Evidence from Nigerian Quoted Companies. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 3(5), 1152-1165.
18. Oliveira et al. (2006). Firm-specific determinants of Intangibles reporting: evidence from the Portuguese stock market. Journal of Human Resource Costing & Accounting, 10(1), 11-33.
19. Oliveras et al. (2008). Reporting intellectual capital in Spain. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 13(2), 168-181.
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TRUTH AND KNOWLEDE; A PHILOSOPHICAL ENQUIRY Dr. Sajnesh. E. V Research Fellow Indian Council of Philosophical Research Department of philosophy University of Calicut Abstract
Philosophy is not only significant to us to question how we should conduct our lives but also why human beings are thinking creatures and they have the capacity to revisit the knowledge, for which pure understanding is an end in itself. Philosophy, as Aristotle said, ‘begins with wonder at the marvels and mysteries of the world’. It begins in wonder, in the pursuit of truth and wisdom, and ends in life lived in passionate moral and intellectual integrity. The term ‘philosophy’ literally means the love of wisdom, but it is a wisdom that results from the pursuit of knowledge of the most important fundamental questions. Philosophy is love of knowledge in the sense that every rational approach belongs to it until each branch of knowledge developed as separate science. This paper is an enquiry and revisits the arena of creative thinking to discover the truth and knowledge in history of philosophy.
Keywords: Truth, Knowledge, Reality
Introduction
The fundamental questions of philosophy from antiquity onwards focused on truth, beauty and justice. Almost all the question under the sun belongs to these three fundamental principles. The principle of truth itself became a big question before thinkers since the determination of truth and error is the inevitable aspect of our analysis. The quest for knowledge is actually the quest for knowing justice, truth and aesthetics. Whenever human beings
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began to live as community the question of knowledge also come up before them. Actually the communitarian life gave birth to language. As part of language the question of semantics and semiotics issues evolved. In such a situation philosopher like Aristotle not only wrote about the ethics or politics but also logic or different forms of syllogisms. In the same way as part of social life they had to analyse not only what is good and bad but also beautiful and ugly. Even the argument in theology such as whether God exists or not also had its roots in human quest for knowing the reason for just and unjust, good and bad, and truth and untruth. In this way a close examination of the history of human thought would reveal that the whole enquiry is ultimately about justice, truth and beauty.
Men start to ask the stars not only for guidance on the sea but also for an answer to the riddles of the universe. According to Aristotle first philosophers were astronomers. “Proud of their achievements”, “men pushed further afield after the Persian wars; they took all knowledge for their province and sought ever wider studies”.1Men grew bold enough to attempt explanation of process and events before attributed to supernatural agencies and powers; magic and rituals slowly gave way to science and control; and philosophy began. At the initial stage the philosophy was physical in its whole approach (philosophy of nature). It looked upon the material world and asked what the final and irreducible element of things was. This line of thought was the materialism of Democritus. ‘In reality there is nothing but atoms and space’. Gradually Greek philosophy turns its eye, on man himself, or it becomes humanistic. For the philosopher of that time the first problem is about what nature is and its relation with man and then man to nature.
1Durant, W. (1926).Story of Philosophy.New York, p. 3.
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Truth (The Reality of Life, search for Knowledge)
The significant growth of Greek philosophy begins from the Sophists. For sophist Knowledge is perception. The mind of man is a significant factor in the process of knowing. The sophists’ turns its light on the knowing subject and concludes that knowledge depends upon the particular knower. Thus perception is the product of both the object moving towards the subject and the subject moving towards the object. This perception alone is knowledge. This knowledge is relative to different men at different times. Hence the famous saying of Protagoras Homo Mensura, i.e., man is the measure of all things. In other words, what appears to me is true for me and what appears to you is true for you. Hence there is no knowledge, which is valid and acceptable to all men universally.
Questioning Traditional Understanding of Knowledge
Socrates was one of the inspiring human beings to have lived and provided a new method of questioning. Socrates claimed that real knowledge of justice, virtue, eternal ideas are already present in man. As a youth, he got attracted to the ideas of the Physicalists, but finally he turned his attention away from natural sciences towards the problems of everyday life. The teachings of Socrates give morale to the young generation of Athens and they began to ask questions and try to demolish the conventional beliefs. If they decided to put an end to his life, Socrates was not ready to stop his teachings of the basic philosophy of life. It was impossible for Socrates to give up philosophy. He expressed his commitment to the knowledge by the dictum, “the unexamined life is not worth living.”2 From his point of view, a life that was not enriched by philosophical reflection was no
2Cooper, J. M., & Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.). (1997). Plato Complete Works (Apology).Indianapolis/ Cambridge: Hacket Publishing Company, p. 38a.
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better than death. Socrates said, “One thing I know, and that is that I know nothing”.3
There is no real philosophy until the mind turns round and examines itself. Philosophers prior to Socrates, naturally give priority for the physics or nature of external things, the law and constituents of the material and assessable world. Socrates said, “That is very good; but there is an infinity worthier subject for philosopher than all these trees and stones and even all those stars; there is the mind of man. What is man, and what can be become?”4Socrates defends knowledge against the attack by the employment of logical method. His purpose was realistic rather than speculative; he was interested in the correct method of enquiring knowledge more than theory of such a method or approach. Socrates said, “it was mere a matter of asking the right questions. By knowing the proper questions when faced with a problem debate or issue, one can find good answers more easily than someone who starts off without such a foundation”.5
The Sophist studied the psychological method for the reality, while Socrates had faith in a law of reason that determines the truth. His whole attempt was only a continuous invitation to his fellow citizens to help him in this search. He said this “I am wiser than they in this small respect: that I know that I do not know, whereas they think they know something when they really don’t”.6
Knowledge is based on Reason
Plato’s chief aim is to attain reality, to know reality in all its phase- physical, mental and moral - to understand it in its unity and
3Durant, W. (1926).Op. cit., p. 6. 4Ibid, p. 6. 5Mann, D., &Dann, G. E. (2004).Philosophy – A New Introduction. Wadsworth IncorporatedFulfilment, p. 1. 6Cooper, J. M., & Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.). (1997). Op. cit.,pp. 17a to 42a.
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completeness. He knows that the knowledge - problem itself cannot be solved without an understanding of the nature of the world. Plato argued that, the concepts of sophist are quite right that there can be no genuine knowledge, if our proposition is derived from sense perception and opinion. The sense- perception does not reveal the true reality of things, but give us mere appearance. Accordingly opinion may be true or false; as mere opinion it has no value whatever; it is not knowledge; it cannot justify itself. So he does not give much value to the sense perception and opinion. It would be misrepresented, fabricated and half-truth; and not real in its perfect sense. For him genuine knowledge is based on reason.
According to Plato, Ordinary virtue is not better off; it too, rests on sense perception and opinion; it is not conscious of principles. In his verdict “we must advance from sense-perception and opinion to genuine knowledge. This we cannot do unless we have a desire, or love of truth, the Eros, which is around the contemplation of beautiful ideas: we pass from the contemplation of beauty to the contemplation of truth- the love of truth implies us to dialectics; it impels us to rise beyond sense perception to the idea; to conceptual knowledge, from the particular to universal”.7
Truth is the knowledge of reality, of being as such, of that which is. The world perceived by our senses is not the true world; it is changing, fleeting world one thing today, something else tomorrow, and it is a mere appearance of reality. True is being something permanent, unchanged, eternal. In Plato’s opinion the particular object which we perceive are imperfect copies or reflections of these eternal patterns; particular may come particular may go, but the idea or forms remains forever. Man may come and man may go, but the man type, the human race, goes on forever.
7Thilly, F. (2003 .History of Philosophy. New Delhi: SWB Publishers, p. 62.
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There may be object or copies, but there is always only one idea of a class of things.
Knowledge is Impossible without Experience
Aristotle was a man with independent mind to recreate the system and to develop it into a more consistent and scientific manner. He developed his concepts and perspectives by examining and criticizing Plato, his teacher. Aristotle retains the changeless eternal form, the idealistic principles of Plato, but discards their transcendence. He brings them down from heaven to earth, so to speak. For him Form is not separate from things, but inherent in them; they are not transcendent, but immanent. Matter is not non- being but active; form and matter are not separate, but eternally together: matter realizes the form or idea of the thing, moves and changes, grows, or evolves forward. The world of sense, the phenomenal order, is not mere imitation or shadow of the real world; it is the real world, form and matter is one, and the true object of science. Aristotle reconciles both empiricism and rationalism. Knowledge is impossible without experience; but truth derived from experience, by induction, would not be certain- they would yield probability only. Without experience, truth would never be known; without being implicit in reason. They would not be certain. He proposes a new logic to derive the knowledge, in his work known as Organon, i.e., is an instrument for attaining true knowledge. Logic of Aristotle deals with inference, division, definition and induction. Aristotle regarded that both deduction and induction are essential in attaining knowledge.
Medieval Philosophy and theories of Knowledge
Medieval era is famous for ethical and theological discussions such as problems of man’s origin and destiny, his relation to God and the world and his fall and liberation from sin. The rise of
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Christianity as a new religion was the significant development in this era. In St. Augustine’s philosophy the most significant theological and philosophical problems of his age are discussed, and a Christian world-view developed which represents the culmination of patristic thought. Characteristic of the spirit of the entire Christian age is the Augustinian view that the only knowledge worth having is the knowledge of God and self. All the other sciences, logic, metaphysics and ethics have value only in so far as they tell us God. It is our duty to understand what we finally believe, to see the rationality of our faith. “Understand in order that you believe, believe in others that you may understand some things we do not understand unless we believe”.8Besides natural knowledge, faith in divine revolution is a source of knowledge of God. Intelligence is needed for understanding what it believes; faith for believing what it understands. Augustine thought that the human mind to grasp eternal truths implies the existence of something infinite and eternal apart from the world of sensible object, an essence that in some sense represents the source or ground of all reality and of all truth. He also accepted the Gospel story of the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ and believed that God took on human form in the person of Jesus.
St. Anselm was among the first to evaluate the faith in Christian God from a purely philosophical perspective, that is, from a perspective that does not make religious assumption from the outset. Anselm never interested the slightest doubt about whether God exists. He made no difference between philosophy and theology, and he thought it impossible for anyone to reason about God or God’s existence without already believing in Him. He recognized the priority and primacy of faith over reason. His slogan, which was ‘credo, it intelligence’ i.e., Let me believe that I may understand.
8Ibid, p. 148.
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Without faith a man is blind to understand god who is light. But he also held that one should try to understand as much as possible the doctrines of one’s faith.
St. Thomas Aquinas wanted to justify the function of the re- established secular authority of the church and its continued sacred authority. Aquinas, like philosopher before him, believed that man was a social animal intended to live in community. But man the social animal, capable of directing his actions by intelligence, was in danger of being victimized that the potential social unity of man be secured by political unity. The end, peaceful unity, was never questioned. The means were, by analogy, seemingly apparent; as only one hearts commends the functionally integrated body, so government rule by one person is presumably the best. An intelligent monarchy must rule in justice. A society structural like nature, which is ruled by God, will best function in unity through unitary leadership.
Modern philosophy from Descartes to Kant
Through its emphasis on worldly experience and reverence for classical culture, the Renaissance helped and emancipated Europe from the intellectual authority of the Church. The modern period in history and philosophy and its interesting cultural and social development include among other things, the rise of nation states, the spread of capitalism, and industrialization, the exploration and settlement of the new world, the decline of religion, and their eventual domination of science as the most revered source of knowledge.
Modern philosophy began with Rene Descartes. Descartes’ like Bacon, resolutely set his face against the old authorities and, like him emphases the practical character of all philosophy. “Philosophy is a perfect knowledge of all that men know, as well for
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the conduct of his life as for the preservation of his health and the discovery of all the arts”.9 Descartes employed a new kind of scepticism to defeat scepticism. He doubted in such a way that, he hoped, would paves the way for the end of doubt and the beginning of absolute certainty. He was a rationalist who believed that all truth can be known by the mind alone by inquiring within itself. He holds the doctrine of innate ideas (that the mind possesses knowledge at birth) which we know a priori - that is, prior to experience, through experience may be necessary to stimulate awareness of this knowledge. Regarding truth, Descartes says that if the idea of a thing is clear and distinct, it does not mean that the thing really exists (true); but all the ideas of existent things must be clear and distinct to be existent. Our judgments should be based on this assumption, i.e., clarity and distinctness as the criterion of truth.
Knowledge began with Experience
Kant claims that sense experience is the source of all our belief but could not accept its sceptical conclusion that those beliefs cannot be justified. At the same time he rejected the rationalistic claim that factual truth about what does and does not exist can be conclusively established by the use of reason none. In Critique of Pure Reason he argued that we are confined within the world of our perception, with the realities that gave rise to our perception forever beyond our grasp. We understand our world only by imposing on it our own broad conceptual categories: time, space and causality. These concepts provide an essential element for our understanding of physical world. They are not derived from sense experience or observation but are, in Kant’s terminology, apriori. That is to say, they are fundamental requirements of reason he argued that
9Ibid, p. 272.
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morality, too must be grounded in apriorireasoning, rather than in any appeal to authority or religion.
Kant called his most fundamental epistemological insight, the Copernican Revolution in philosophy. He said that the old assumptions that our ideas, to be traced, must certain to objects outside mind must be replaced with a new assumption: that object outside the mind must conform to that which the mind imposes on them in experiencing them. Kant argued with Hume that all knowledge began with experience. But it does not follow Kant maintained that knowledge must therefore arise from experience. Experience is the occasion for the awakening of the knowing mind, He said; but the mind, the awakened, is not limited in knowledge to what, it what, it has found in experience.
Scientific approach in Philosophical Thinking
Science began with the scientific Revolution, which itself commenced when Copernicus (1473-1543) broke with long tradition and proposed that the earth is not the centre of the universe but it revolves, with the other planets, around the sun. Many European thinkers of the sixteenth century began to question established precepts and above all to question the accepted authorities as the spokesman for the truth.
Nothing is beneath Science or above it
Francis Bacon, in many respects a typical representative of the new movement. The eye of the mind, he tells us, must never be taken off from the things themselves, but receivetheir images truly as they are. For him, “As the sciences in their present state are useless for the discovery of works, so logic in its present state is
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useless for the discovery of sciences”.10The fruitlessness of science and philosophy in the past, Bacon thinks, has been due to the absence of a proper method. For overcoming this Bacon think that we must develop a new way of reaching knowledge, a new machine or organ for the mind, a new logic, anovumorganuam. According to him the old logic is inadequate for the discovery of the sciences. Bacon held that mankind must begin the work of science anew. It was natural, under the circumstances, that he did not offer a complete theory of the universe himself; his office was to stake out the ground and to point the way to new achievements. He said, “There are, and can be, only two ways to investigate and discover truth. The one leaps from sense and particulars to the most general axioms and from these principles and their settled truth, determines and discovers intermediate axioms; this is the current way. The other elicits axioms from sense and particulars, rising in a gradual and unbroken ascent to arrive at last at the most general axioms; this is the true way, but it has not been tried”.11
He divided the field of knowledge, or ‘intellectual globe’, in to history and philosophy, according to the faculties of the mind (memory, imagination and reason). Philosophy is the work of reason; it deals with abstract notions derived from impressions of sense; and in the composition and division of these notions, according to the nature and fact, its business lies. Human philosophy studies body and soul and their connection. The human soul has a divine or rational part and an irrational part. The faculties of the soul are understanding, reason, imagination, memory, appetite, will, and all these with which logic and ethics are concerned. Logic treats of the understanding and reason; and ethics of the will, appetite, and
10Bacon, F. (2000).The New Organon.Lisa Jardine& Michael Silverthorne (Eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 34. 11Ibid, p. 36.
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affection; the one produces resolutions, the other action. The art of logic are inquiry or invention, examination or judgment, custody or memory, elocution or delivery. Bacon embodied new delight in the human intellect and its capability to know the world. It was acknowledged that man’s rational mind, purged of its bad habits and superstitions (idols) can understand the natural world and gains control of it in the interest of human needs. This new belief was a far turn from the traditional theological doctrine that man’s reason is corrupt and that man, on his own, can’t do anything right or good.
Science without philosophy, fact without perspective and valuation, cannot save us from havoc and despair. Science gives us knowledge, but only philosophy can give us wisdom. According to Russell “philosophy is like all other studies aims primarily at knowledge. The knowledge it aims at is the kind of knowledge which gives unity and system to the body of the sciences and the kind of results from a critical examination of the grounds of our convictions, prejudices and beliefs. But cannot be maintained that philosophy has had a very great measure of success in its attempt to provide definite answers to its question”.12
He says, “Philosophy is to be studied, not for the sake of any definite answers to its questions, since no definite answers can, as a rule, be known to be true, but rather for sake of the questions themselves; because these questions enlarge our conception, and diminish the dogmatic assurance which closes the mind against speculation; but above all because through the greatness of the universe which philosophy contemplates, the mind also with the universe which constitute its highest good”.13 Science seems always to advance, while philosophy seems always to lose ground. Yet this is
12Russell, B. (1912). The Problem of Philosophy.London, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 90. 13Ibid, pp. 93-94.
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only because philosophy accepts the hard and hazardous task dealing with problems not yet open to the method of science. It deals with the problems like good and evil, beauty and ugliness, order and freedom, life and death. Every science begins as philosophy and ends as arts; it arises in hypothesis and flows into interpretations. Science is the captured territory: and behind it are those secure regions in which knowledge and art build our imperfect and marvellous world.
Conclusion
Everywhere in the history of philosophy there is debate over the rise and growth of thought and philosophy, in that sense this kind of thought and thinking is relevant. Truth is not a simple word to define and accrue. Naturally it holds a quest for of knowledge and history. From the beginning it questions the relevant dogmas of that time and in the middle it attacked the religion and in the renaissance period it questioned the ways of accruing knowledge and experience. In the final stage it is attacking the science itself. We cannot says that this is real and this is unreal in one sense that reality is itself is in question. The idea of knowledge is again in the same dilemma to express the fundamentality of this time. As said in the early part philosophy begins in wonder but now it in more wonder than in the early stage. Every theory of knowledge is related with the truth, justice and beauty and here it is only a revisit to the concept of truth that developed through history, culture and philosophy. Actually the idea of truth is redefined and reconstructed in this postmodern context. The science itself is in a stigma to answer the question that coming up in everyday life. Most of the areas of thought and thinking processes are still unquestionable to the field of science. Scientific thinking is primary and a very important one to answer the present dialogs but at the same time the human intuition is also relevant.
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References
1. Aquinas, T. (1942).Summa Theologiae, Oates and Washbourne (trans.). Burns, London: English Dominican Fathers.
2. Bacon, F. (2000).The New Organon.Lisa Jardine& Michael Silverthorne (Eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Bogomolov, A. S. (1985). History of Ancient Philosophy - Greece and Rome. Moscow: Progress Publishers.
4. Cooper, J. M., & Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.). (1997). Plato Complete Works (Apology).Indianapolis/ Cambridge: Hacket Publishing Company. 5. Durant, W. (1926).Story of Philosophy.New York, 6. Frost Jr, S. E. (1972). Master Works of Philosophy (Vol. 1). New York, London, New Delhi, Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
7. Mann, D., &Dann, G. E. (2004).Philosophy – A New Introduction. Wadsworth Incorporated Fulfilment.
8. Russell, B. (1912). The Problem of Philosophy. London, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
9. Russell, B. (1961). A History of Western Philosophy. London, Oxford: UN Win University Books.
10. Thilly, F. (2003 .History of Philosophy. New Delhi: SWB Publishers.
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POWER FACTOR CORRECTION AND EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OF A BOOST AND BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER WITH ENABLING WINDOW CONTROLAND ACTIVE INPUT BRIDGE BY USING TWO STAGE APPROACH
Goutham Madarapu Aman Sofiya M.Tech. (Power Electronics) Assistant Professor WITS, Warangal, Telangana WITS, Warangal, Telangana
K.Srinivas Assistant Professor WITS, Warangal, Telangana
Abstract—New recommendations and feature standards have increased the interest in power factor correction circuits to get sinusoidal line current. A new two-switch topology is proposed to offer very significant performance improvements over the single-switch buck-boost converters (including fly back, SEPIC, and Cuk topologies) and conventional two-switch buck-boost cascaded converters. The proposed converter has buck-boost conversion characteristic, switch conduction losses comparable to the boost converter, no inrush current problem, and potential for smaller inductor size compared to the boost converter. The analysis of the major-component ratings of the continuous current mode (CCM) single-stage power factor-correction (PFC) and the CCM boost two-stage PFC converters is given. High- performance regulation with satisfactory line-current harmonics is demonstrated with conventional duty-ratio control. Zero voltage switching, zero current switching, active Snubber approaches employed to reduce the reverse recovery losses. By using line frequency commutated techniques and enabling window control Electromagnetic interference noise (EMI) is reduced and soft switching is obtained by reducing driving losses. By using asymmetrical pulse width modulation techniques the total harmonic distortions are reduced to lessthan 3.8% and the efficiency can be obtained above 96.5% with the network. Cool
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MOSFETs and SiCdiode used to reach the desired efficiency with competitive price. This method is verified by experimental results obtained from a 500W prototype.
Index Terms: Boost power factor correction (PFC), continuous conduction mode (CCM), enabling window control (EWC), pulse width modulation control (PWM), zero voltage switching (ZVS), zero current switching (ZCS).Boost and Buck-Boost Converters, Active input Bridge.
I. INTRODUCTION: Power factor correction (PFC) as a basic requirement for switching power supplies. A conventional boost converter with continuous conduction mode (CCM) is shown in Fig. 1, which is one of the most popular topologies for PFC applications due to near unity power factor, continuous input current, and small electromagnetic interference (EMI) filter size [1]–[5].This circuit has certain low efficiency in the light-load work condition or under low input voltage because of higher conduction loss of the input rectifier bridge and higher switching loss [6]–[9]. Power Cool MOSFETs are used to reduce the switching losses and fast response in conjunction with SiC diode.
High switching frequency applications causes to increase the noise and harmonics and causes to reduce the efficiency of the converter.The switching loss is directly proportional to the switching frequency .Efficiency will be improved with lower switching frequency, but the lower switching frequency may cause higher current ripple of the input filter, zero crossing distortion and lower power factor.
The line-frequency switching method has been used for the PFC converter to reduce the switching loss [10]–[12]. The switch is turned ON and OFF only twice per line cycle; thus,the switching loss is reduced significantly compared with thehigh-frequency switching boost PFC. A larger inductor and output voltage cannot be regulated tightly with line and load variations. A similar asymmetricpulsewidth
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modulation (PWM) strategy with double linefrequencyswitching method was developed to further reducethe harmonic distortion, and an extra conduction time of mainswitch was added to increase the conduction time of the inputcurrent [14].
Active PFC technology has been used for high switching frequency applications with improved power factor by using bridge less PFC. the switching loss is reduced due to fewer switching cycles. Output voltage cannot be regulated tightly with wide load variations in active PFC.
The diode bridge also causes one of the reasons to the lower powerfactor due to conduction losses. Many topologies have been developed to reduce the conduction loss. Bridgeless PFC generates less conduction loss compared with the conventional boost PFC (CBPFC). Voltage doubler PFC has only two voltage drop of semiconductors in the current path, but the output voltage should be twice the peak of the input voltage.
Fig 1.CCM boost PFC, (a) Topology of CCM boost PFC
(b) Waveformsof CCM boost PFC
In this paper a novel enabling window control is introduced to reduce the switching loss. In the PFC circuit most of power is transferred in the middle area of a half-line cycle where the input voltage is higher. Hence lower switching frequency is used in this area to reduce the switching loss. In the other areas of a half-line cycle, less power is transferred and the switching loss is smaller. However, It is difficult to track the sinusoidal reference signal around the zero crossing point with a lower switching frequency. Therefore, a higher switching
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frequency, such as 100 KHz, is used in these areas to avoid zero point distortion and achieve high power factor. The used EWC method is easy to implement with existing PFC ICs, and only a few additional control components are needed. EMI noise and driving loss of main switch can be reduced with EWC method. Cheaper semiconductor devices can be used to reach efficiency as high as SiC diode and Cool-MOSFETs.
BUCK BOOST CONVERETR
A buck boost regulator provides an output voltage that may be less than or greater than the input voltage-hence the name “buck-boost”, the output voltage polarity is opposite to that of the input voltage. This regulator is also known as an inverting regulator. A buck-boost regulator provides output voltage polarity reversal without a transformer. It has high efficiency. Under a fault condition of the
transformer, the di of the fault current is limited by the inductor L and dt
will be Vs . L The conduction mode of aconverter is a function of input voltage, output voltage, output current, and the value of theinductor. A buck- boost converter can be designed to operate in continuous mode for loadcurrents above a certain level, usually 5% to 10% of full load. Usually, the input voltage range,
the output voltage, and load current are defined by the converter specification. This leavesthe inductor value as the design parameter to maintaincontinuous conduction mode.
II. PRINCIPLE OF EWC
For the CCM boost PFC, the input current and voltage waveforms are in-phase sine waves, which are expressed as
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Vin Vm sint
I in I m sint ...... (1) It is assumed that the loss of the circuit is small enough that is can be ignored, and then, the instantaneous input power can be described as
2 Pin (t)Vin * I in sin t V * I m m 1cos 2t 2
Po 1cos2t ...... (2)
Fig .2. Instantaneous input power of CB PFC
Where Po is the output power of PFC circuit and V * I P m m o 2 The wave forms of input voltage and input current are shown in fig 2.It is seen that the instantaneous input power of CBPFC is not constant but varies with a double line frequency. Most of the power is transferred during the shadow area in high-line cycle. More than 80% power is transferred in the shadow area.
The power losses of the CB PFC are mainly composed of diode bridge loss, inductor loss, MOSFET loss, diode loss, and so on.
The losses will occur in MOSFET due to internal capacitance and in diode also due to reverse recovery of silicon diode or capacitive charge of silicon carbide diode.
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Fig.3. principle of EWC
By knowing the rise time (tr) and fall time (tf) the switching losses can be determined when the MOSFET is switching is
2 tr t f Pmos _ s iin (n) VO ...... (3) Tline 2
Fig.4..input current wave forms of CB PFC and EWC PFC. (a) input current wave form of EWC PFC (Vin=230Vac, Po=500W,k=0.5,
Tline=20ms) (b) Input current wave form of CBPFC (Vin=230Vac, Po=500W,Tline=20ms)
Low switching frequency lead to the distortion of zero crossing point and low power factor. A high switching frequency such as 100 kHz is used in the outside of the shadow areas to achieve high power factor.
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B. Selection of window size k
Window size k is one of the most important parameters in EWC PFC and should be selected carefully. Fig 4 CB PFC and EDC PFC, which are simulated by PSIM software. In the simulation process the values of boost inductors in the CB PFC and EWC PFC are the same.but we can observed that the current ripple in the simulation area is larger than the CB PFC because of lower switching frequency and increase of harmonic contents resultant current ripple has larger amplitude an input filter which is larger than that of convene PFC is required to filter. It should be noted that power factor will be lower if the switching frequency harmonic is not well filtered. But unity power factor is not essential is some cases. Hence, an input filter which is the same as that of conventional PFC is used in the EWC PFC, which results in a slightly lower power factor.
The switching frequency harmonic content will be changed with the change of window size, means that current ripple is changed in every switching cycle, the current waveform of EWCPFC is calculated with fast calculation tool and, thenanalyzed with FFT method. Fig 5 shows the calculated switching frequency harmonic content with different window size k and corresponding circuit specifications are shown in Table I. It is seen that 20-Khz harmonic content is increased with the growing of window size k, which will result in a slightly lower power factor if it is not well filtered.
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Fig .5. Switching frequency harmonic content with different window sizek
TABLE-I:
Input Voltage Vin 180 Vrms – 265Vrms Rated Voltage 230 Vrms
Output Voltage 400 Vdc
Output Power Po 500W
Line frequency 50Hz
Hold-Up Time 10ms
Harmonics content will be increased with discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) operation .Therefore, DCM operation should be avoided under rated output power when window size k is selected.The margin between CCM operation and DCM operation can also be derived with fast calculation method. The duty cycle in the nth switching cycle in the DCM and CCM can be described.
1 4LPO VO vin (nTs ) DDCm (nTs ) * ...... (4) Vm Ts VO
Where is the efficiency of PFC converter, and (nTs) is the input voltage in the nth switching cycle, which can presented as
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1 v(nTs ) vm sinn Ts ...... (5) 2
The actual duty cycle D(nTs) in the nth switching cycle is decided by the minimum of the two calculated duty cycles. The margin between CCM operation and DCM operation can be described, according to (9) and (10), by
1 V 4LP t arcsin O 1 O ...... (6) mar 2 Vm Vm Ts
Fig .6. Simulated power factor under different window size and
output power (a) Power factor under different window size k (VIN=230
Vac, PO=500W, Tline=20ms). (b) Power factor under different output
power (VIN=230Vac, k=0.5, Tline = 20ms).
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The size of the window should be lessthan or equal to 0.5 under the working condition. The requirement for power factor and limitation for harmonic content should also be satisfied, and a trade off between the efficiency and the power factor in the selection of window size k. A simulation model is designed in PSIM software to get power factor at different window size K. Power factor will reduce with the increase of window size k. In this analysis k=0.5 is considered. DCM operation and simulation results, which makes a good trade off between efficiency and power factor and the harmonic content limitation of IEC 61000-3-2 is satisfied at the same time.
Fig .7.Relationship between inductance and switching frequency in CB PFC.
III. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF EWC PFC
A) Inductor design of EWC The inductor plays a critical role in the boost PFC. It should be well designed with consideration of power density, efficiency, and power factor. In the CB PFC, the inductor is usually selected to ensure 20% current ripple under the lowest input voltage [24]. The required inductance is calculated as follows:
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2V V 2V 1 L in _ min * O in _ min * ....(7) I in _ peak * 20% VO f s Where is the minimum input rms voltage, is the peak Vin _ min I in _ peak input current, η is the efficiency of PFC (typically 0.95), and PO is the output power. As shown in (7), the inductance is inversely proportional to the switching frequency. The inductor 1.12-mH inductor is used should be used in 100-kHz CB PFC, while a 5.6-mH inductorshould be selected in 20-kHz CB PFC. However, due to twodifferent switching frequencies in the EWC method, 20 and100 kHz, there is a trade-off between the volume and the loss inthe design of inductor. Fig.8 shows the comparison of power loss of different value inductors in CB PFC.
Fig .8. Induction comparison in CB PFC
Fig .9. Loss comparison in CB PFC and EWC PFC
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The core loss can be reduced by using a bigger inductor in CB PFC. However, the wire loss and core volume will increase concurrently. A 1.12-mH inductor makes a good trade-off between the loss and the volume.
If a 1.12-mH inductor is used in both CB PFC and EWC PFC, the core loss of the two outer side areas in EWC PFC is the same as that in CB PFC. Fig 9. Shows the inductor loss comparison in CB PFC and EWC PFC. In the window area of EWC PFC, the switching frequency will be only one-fifth that of CB PFC,but the change of flux density will be five times that of CB PFC. Then, the core loss in the window area can be calculated as
1.46 2 1 2 1.46 PCore _ Loss _ Window 4.1695B f s 10B f s 5 (8)
Fig 10. Shows the requirement of the window control signal .the
signal should be always in phase with the input voltage and current.
Fig .10. Window control signal of EWC PFC
The total core loss in EWC PFC is only a little larger than that in CB PFC, since the core loss is only a small part of the total loss. Considering the volume and the efficiency, a 1.12-mH inductor can be
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used in EWC method, which is the same as the inductor used in 100- kHz CB PFC. Therefore, with the used EWC method, the efficiency, can be improved without increasing the inductor size.
Fig.11. the variation of duty cycle and gain of a Buck-Boost
Converter
B. Implementation of EWC
Since theEWC involves two switching frequencies, a special control circuit is needed to control the change of the frequency.For most commercial PFCICs, the switching frequency is determined by oscillation resistor or oscillation capacitor or both of them. For RSET CT example, the relationship between theswitching frequency and these components in UC3854BDW can be shown as
1.25 f s ...... (9) CT RSET However, in UC3854BDW, the oscillation resistor is not only RSET related to the oscillator charging current but also the output limitation of multiplier. Therefore, oscillation capacitor is used to switch the CT frequency in the prototype. If is constant, the switching frequency RSET
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varies with the change of . A window control signal is used to switch CT the capacitance of . CT This signal should always be in phase with the input voltage and current. Furthermore, it should always be located between k and 4 3 which is not affected by the amplitude of the input voltage, k 4 where kisan integer.
The implementation of EWC PFC is shown in fig.12.The rectified line voltage Vdis sensed and comparedwith the dc value which is obtained by filtering Vd, and theresulting window control signal isindependent of the amplitudeof the input voltage. The duration of the high level of windowcontrol signal can be adjusted by the potential ratio of RW.
This signal is used to turn ON or OFF switch . When switch is S 2 S 2 ON, capacitor is are called with capacitor CT 1 , andswitching CT 2 frequency fs is reduced to 20 kHz; when switch is OFF, switching S 2 frequency fs is increased to 100 kHz.
Fig .12. Enabling window control
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C. Control Loop Design
In the prototype, UC3854 with average current control is used. The whole PFC circuit can be modelled as a double-loop control system, which contains an inner current loop and an outer voltage loop. The voltage loop is used to regulate the output voltage crudely, and the inner current loop is used to shape the input current. The compensation parameters of both loops should be carefully designed to achieve a stable control loop and high power factor.
Fig. 13 shows the control block diagram of inner current loop, where is the transfer function of the current error amplifier, GCA (s) GPWM (s) is the transfer function of thePWMgenerator, is the GCA (s) Gid (s) transfer function of the power stage, and RS is the current sense resistor.
In CB PFC, for the design of the control loop, 45◦phase margin and 10-dB gain margin is selected to make a trade-off between the static performance and the dynamic response.
In order to ensure enough attenuation for the switching ripple, the crossover frequency is usually under one-fifth of the switching frequency. However, in EWCPFC, two switching frequency, 100 and 20 kHz exist in one half-line cycle. The inner current loop should be designed according to 20-kHz switching frequency. Then, the crossover frequency should be around 4 kHz, which is one-fifth of 20 kHz.
Fig .13. Inner current loop boost PFC with average current control
IV. COMPARISON OF EWC PFC AND CB PFC
A. Loss Comparison of EWC PFC and CB PFC
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Then, the loss analysis ofEWCPFC andCBPFC is performed and compared under rated input voltage (Vin = 230 Vrms) and full load (PO = 500 W), and the detailed circuit specifications are shown in Table I.
Fig .14.Loss comparison of EWC PFC and CB PFC
The Cool-MOS and SiC diode is an ideal matched pair of switch and ultrafast diode, and ultralow-loss in PFC circuits can be achieved [28]. A CoolMOS IPP60R099CP ( = 99 m , , Rds(ON ) Ω VDSS 600 V I D25 31A ) from Infineon is used as the main switch, and an SiC diode STPSC806D ( ,QC = 10 nC) from ST is used as the VF 1.6V freewheeling diode. To reduce the volume and height of the boost inductor, two 0.56-mH inductors are connected in series and each of the inductor is built with a Kool-mμcore (77548, μ = 125) from Magnetics and 90 turns of Litz wire. To meet the requirements of hold-up time and ripple of output voltage, a high-voltage aluminium electrolytic capacitor (390 F, 400 ) is used as the bulk capacitor. μ Vdc The MOSFET loss in EWC PFC is smaller than that of the CB PFC because of less switching cycles. On the other hand, the inductor loss in EWC PFC is a little higher than that of the CB PFC due to the larger current ripple in the window area. The loss reduction of diode is not very significant in the EWCPFC, because SiC diode is used in the loss analysis and the reverse recovery loss is significantly suppressed. The
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efficiency is improved up to 0.2% with the EWC method under rated work condition. The efficiency improvement is not very significant since CoolMOSFET and SiC diode are used. However, it will be shown in the experimental results that more obvious efficiency
Improvement can be observed if a fast recovery silicon diode is used.
The driving loss is proportional to the switching frequency, so the driving loss will be reduced with the decrease of switching frequency in the window area. Although an extra small signal switch is added, it is switched with line frequency and has less loss. Therefore, the loss of control circuit with EWC method can be reduced.
B. EMI Noise Comparison of CB PFC and EWC PFC
The switching mode power supplies generate electrical noise due to their high dV/dtand di/dtfrom switching [29]. Many international standards specify conducted and radiated emissions limits for switching mode power supplies [30]. To have the same EMI test results at different places, a linear impedance stabilization network (LISN) is used in the EMI test. The LISN offers 50-Ωimpedance over the frequency of interest and shields the measurement against unwanted incoming noises.
In order to make a comparison of EMI noise of CB PFC and EWC PFC, a simulation model is built to predict the conducted EMI noise, including LISN and the PFC circuit. As the parameters of LISN are precisely defined by the standards, the simulation model of LISN can be derived from these parameters [31], [32].
When the simulation results of EWC PFC and CB PFC, the EMI noise of EWC PFC is lower than that of CB PFC in all frequency range. EMI noise is reduced for two reasons. First, there are two switching frequencies in the EWC PFC, and the energy of EMI noise are divided into two parts, so the peak value of EMI noise is reduced. Second, the
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interested frequency range of standards is from 150 kHz to 30 MHz To reduce the EMI noise, it is better to use a switching frequency lower than 150 kHz. Since 20-kHz switching frequency is used in the window area of EWC PFC, it is much lower than 150 kHz and good for the reduction of EMI noise.
C.Simulation Circuit for Boost and Buck Boost Converter with Window Control and Active input Bridge
The diode bridge rectifier has more conduction losses. To reduce the losses and to improve the efficiency the diode bridge is replaced by active input bridge.
In the positive half cycle the transistors Q1 and Q3 should be turned on. The voltage Vds-Q4 across Q4 is sensed and compared with a reference voltage to generate the drive signal for Q1 and Q3.and in the negative half cycle the voltage Vds- Q3across Q3 is used to generate the drive signal for Q2 and Q4.
Fig.15. Boost converter topology with window control and Active input bridge
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Fig.16. Active input bridge circuit with wave forms
Fig.17. Half-Bridge Drive circuit
Fig.18: Simulation circuit for Buck-Boost Converter
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Fig 19 gives the input current waveform with EWC control under rated work condition. The current ripple is increased due to the low switching frequency in the window area.
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Fig .19. Input current waveform under rated input voltage (V in= 230
V rms) and full load (PO=500W).
Fig 20.Efficiencycomparison of different strategies under rated input
voltage (Vin=230Vac)
Fig 21.Power factor comparison of EWC PFC and CB PFC under rated input voltage.
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Fig .22. Measured harmonic content of the line current together with the limits of IEC61000-3-2 Class A standard.
Fig .23. Output results for the work.
VI. CONCLUSION
The EWC method is used in this paper to improve the efficiency of PFC, especially in the low input voltage or the light-load case and also electromagnetic interference (EMI). The EWC method is easy to implement with existing PFC ICs, and only a few additional components are needed. Efficiency improvement is possible without increasing the inductor size. Cool MOSFETs and SiC diode devices are used in this paper to get the desired efficiency and to reduce the switching losses and also to reduce the regulation of harmonic content at same time.
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12. .J. A. Pomilio and G. Spiazzi, “A double-line-frequency commutated rectifiercomplying with IEC1000-3-2 standards,” in Proc. Appl. Power Electron.Conf. Expo., 1999, vol. 1, pp. 349–355. 13. L. Rossetto, G. Spiazzi, and P. Tenti, “Boost PFC with 100- Hz switchingfrequency providing output voltage stabilization and compliance withEMC standards,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 188–193,Jan./Feb. 2000. 14. J. A. Pomilio and G. Spiazzi, “A low-inductance line- frequency commutatedrectifier complying with EN 61000- 3-2 standards,” IEEE Trans.Power Electron., vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 963–970, Nov. 2002. 15. J. A. Pomilio, G. Spiazzi, and S. Buso, “Comparison among Highfrequencyand line-frequency commutated rectifiers complying with IEC61000-3-2 standards,” in Proc. Ind. Appl. Conf., 2000, vol. 4, pp. 2218–2223. 16. C. Ming-Yang, H. Yun-Chieh, C. Cheng-Hu, H. Ming-Kai, AndT. Mi- Ching, “An asymmetric PWM for low switching frequency powerfactor correction circuit,” in Proc. Ind. Technol., 2008, pp. 1– 6. 17. X. Yang, H. Wang, X. Yang, H. Lei, and H. Guan, “Theoretic analysis and experimental study of a novel bridgeless partial active PFC,” in Proc.Elect. Mach. Syst., 2008, pp. 1179–1184. 18. L. Huber, J. Yungtaek, and M. M. Jovanovic, “Performance evaluation ofbridgeless PFC boost rectifiers,” IEEE Trans.Power. Electron., vol. 23,no. 3, pp. 1381–1390,May 2008. 19. B. Lu, R. Brown, and M. Soldano, “Bridgeless PFC implementation usingone cycle control technique,” in Proc. Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo.,2005, vol. 2, pp. 812–817.LIU et al.: HIGH- EFFICIENCY SINGLE-PHASE AC/DC CONVERTER WITH ENABLING WINDOW CONTROL AND ACTIVE INPUT BRIDGE 2923 20. B. Su, J. Zhang, and Z. Lu, “Totem-pole boost bridgeless PFC rectifierwith simple zero-current detection and full- range ZVS operating at theboundary of DCM/CCM,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 26, no. 2,pp. 427–435, Feb. 2011. 21. J. C. Salmon, “Circuit topologies for single-phase voltage- doubler boost rectifiers,” in Proc. Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo., 1992, pp. 549–556.
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22. D. Maksimovic and R. Erickson, “Universal-input, high- power- factor,boost doubler rectifiers,” in Proc. Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo.,1995, vol. 1, pp. 459–465. 23. D. Giacomini, “A novel, high efficiency approach to input bridge,” presentedat the PCIM Europe, Nuremberg,Germany, 2008. 24. B. M. Hirst, “Synchronous bridge rectifier,” U.S. Patent 6563 726, May13, 2003. 25. D. K¨ubrich, M. Schmid, and T. D¨urbaum, “A fast calculation tool forthe design of PFC converters—Method and application,” in Proc. Ind.Electron. Soc., 2005, pp. 900–905. 26. A. I. Pressman, K. H. Billings, and T. Morey, Switching Power SupplyDesign, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009, pp. 687–688. 27. L. Jinjun, Jr., T. G. Wilson, R. C. Wong, R. Wunderlich, and F. C. Lee,“A method for inductor core loss estimation in power factor correctionapplications,” in Proc. Appl.Power Electron. Conf. Expo., 2002, pp. 439–445. 28. L. H. Dixon, “High power factor preregulators for off-line power supplies,”in Proc. TI Semin. Proc., 1991, pp. 193–201. 29. F. A. Huliehel, F. C. Lee, and B. H. Cho, “Small-signal modeling of thesingle-phase boost high power factor converter with constant frequencycontrol,” in Proc. Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 1992, vol. 1, pp. 475–482. 30. L. Lorenz, G. Deboy, and I. Zverev, “Matched pair of CoolMOStransistorwithSiC-Schottky diode: Advantages in application,” IEEE Trans. Ind.Appl., vol. 40, no. 5, pp. 1265–1272, Sep./Oct. 2004. 31. K. Mainali and R. Oruganti, “Conducted EMI mitigation techniques forswitch-mode power converters: A survey,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 2344–2356, Sep. 2010. 32. C. Basso, “Conducted EMI Filter Design for the NCP1200,” AND8032/D,ON Semiconductor, Phoenix, AZ. 33. C. Basso, “Spice predicts differential conducted EMI from Switching 34. L. H. Dixon, “High Power Factor Preregulator for Off -Line Supplies,” Unitrode Power Supply Design Seminar Manual SEM600, 1988 (Reprinted in subsequent editions of the Manual.) 35. L. H. Dixon, “High Power Factor Switching Preregulator Design Optimization,” Unitrode Power Supply Design Seminar Manual SEM700, 1990 (Reprinted in subsequent editions of the Manual.)
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36. L. H. Dixon, “Average Current Mode Control of Switching Power Supplies,” Unitrode Power Supply Design Seminar Manual SEM700,1990 (Reprinted in subsequent editions of the Manual.) 37. S. Freeland, “Input-Current Shaping for Single- Phase AC-DC Power Converters,” Ph.D. Thesis, California Institute of Technology, 1988. 38. Power electronics devices,circuits and application by M.H.Rasheed. Third dition.
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A STUDY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT ENGAGEMENT AND INSTITUTIONAL CLIMATE BASED ON SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES AMONG THE B.Ed STUDENTS
Dr. Sreelatha K Dr. Amruth G Kumar Assistant Professor in Education Associate Professor Mahathma College of Education Department of Education Nileshwar , Kasaragod Central University of Kerala Kerala, India Kasaragod, Kerala, India
Abstract
This paper is an attempt to study the relationship between “student engagement and “Institutional climate”, among the student teachers based on the subsamples, gender, Marital status, Age and Type of Management. The findings show that there exists a significant positive correlation between these two variables.
Keywords : Student Engagement, Institutional climate,, B.Ed. students, gender, marital status, age, Type of management, correlation etc.
Introduction
According to Harper and Quaye (2009), “Engagement is more than involvement or participation. It requires feelings and sense making as well as activity”. This is applicable for Student Engagement also. If the students are able to involve physically, mentally and emotionally in the process of learning, then it can be said that they are ‘engaged’ in learning, because through this process, the learning will become meaningful. Hence, this kind of engagement is needed in all the aspect of education especially in teacher education, because of the importance of teachers in the teaching-learning process. According to Coates (2005), “The concept of student engagement is based on the
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constructivist assumption that learning is influenced by how an individual participates in educationally purposeful activities. Learning is seen as a ‘joint proposition’, however, which also depends on institutions and staff providing students with the conditions, opportunities and expectations to become involved. However, individual learners are ultimately the agents in discussions of engagement”. It is clear from this statement that ‘there are other personal and environmental factors involved in the engagement by the student’.
One among these factors is Institutional Climate which influences the academic performance among the students. Findings of the Studies conducted by Desales (1978), Ekambaram (1980) and Chopra (1982) supports this argument. According to Litwin and Stringer (1968) “Climate in an institution comprises the structure, responsibility, warmth, support, reward, conflict, standards, identity, and risk existing in the institution.
This study is dealt with the relationship existing between the student engagement and Institutional Climate based on selected subsamples such as gender, marital status, age group and type of management of the institution.
Objectives
1. To test whether there exists any significant correlation between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate for the total sample
2. To test whether there exists any significant correlation between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on Gender of the B.Ed students
3. To test whether there exists any significant correlation between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on marital status of the B.Ed students
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4. To test whether there exists any significant correlation between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on age group of the B.Ed students
5. To test whether there exists any significant correlation between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on type of management of Institutions of the B.Ed students
Hypotheses
1. There exists significant correlation between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate of student teachers for the total sample
2. There exists significant correlation between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on gender of the B.Ed students
3. There exists significant correlation between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on marital status of the B.Ed students
4. There exists significant correlation between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on age group of the B.Ed students
5. There exists significant correlation between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on type of management of the institutions of the B.Ed students
Methodology
The data was collected from 1601 students pursuing B.Ed. course in various colleges in Kerala State. The sub-samples selected for the study were Gender (male & female), Marital Status (married & unmarried), Age (20-25 & above 25) and Type of Management of the Institution (government supported & private). The size of the sub samples were as
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follows. Male- 126 & Female-1475, Married-719 & Unmarried-882, Age between 20-25 is 1258 & above 25 years -343 and Government supported college students- 698 & Private college students-903. The data was gathered using two standardized tools. The tools used were ‘Student Engagement Scale’ by Sreelatha and Amuth G Kumar (2015) and‘ Institutional Climate scale’ by Sreelatha and Amruth G Kumar (2015). Both the tools were standardized using item analysis and the reliability was established using split half method. For the Student Engagement Scale there were 58 items. It was found that the reliability value of Cronbach’s Alpha was 0.850 and that of Guttman Split – Half Coefficient was 0.875 and that of Guttman Split- half coefficient was 0.903. For the Institutional Climate scale, it was found that the reliability value of Cronbach’s Alpha was 0.956 and that of Guttman Split – Half Coefficient was 0.932. There were 64 items in Institutional Climate Scale. Correlations were calculated for the total sample as well as for the sub samples. The results are discussed below.
Result
Table 1
Relationship between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate for the total sample
Variable N R Significanc Confidence Shared e level level varianc e Lowe Uppe r r limit limit
Institutiona Total 160 0.387 0.001 0.345 0.427 l Climate sampl 1 * 14.7 e
*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
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Table 1 can be interpreted as follows. The correlation value obtained between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate is 0.387 for the total sample which is found to be significant. The 0.05 confidence interval for the total sample is found to be between 0.345 and 0.427. The shared variance of Student Engagement with Institutional Climate is 14.97 for total sample.
Table 2
Relationship between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on Gender
Variable N R Significan Confidence Shared ce level level varianc Lowe Uppe e r r limit limit Institution Male 126 0.299 0.001 0.131 0.45 8.94 al Climate * Femal 147 0.399 0.001 0.356 0.441 15.92 e 5 *
*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Table 2 can be interpreted as follows. The correlation value obtained between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate for male is 0.299 and for female it is 0.399 which is found to be significant. The 0.05 confidence interval is found to be between 0.131 and 0.45 for male and 0.356 and 0.441 for female. The shared variance of Student Engagement with Institutional Climate for the subsample male is 8.94 and for female it is 15.92.
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Table 3
Relationship between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on marital status
Variable N R Significanc Confidence Shared e level level varianc Lowe Uppe e r r limit limit Institution Married 71 0.406 0.001 0.344 0.465 16.48 al Climate 9 * Unmarrie 88 0.373 0.001 0.315 0.428 13.91 d 2 *
*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Table 3 can be interpreted as follows. The correlation value obtained between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate for married is 0.406 and for unmarried it is 0.373 which is found to be significant. The 0.05 confidence interval is found to be between 0.344 and 0.465 for married and 0.315 and 0.428 for unmarried. The shared variance of Student Engagement with Institutional Climate for the subsample married is 16.48 and for unmarried it is 13.91.
Table 4 Relationship between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on age group
Variable N R Significanc Confidence Shared e level level varianc Lowe Uppe e r r limit limit Institutiona Age20- 125 0.396 0.001 0.349 0.441 15.68 l Climate 25 8 * Age 343 0.352 0.001 0.256 0.441 above2 * 12.39 5
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*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Table 4 can be interpreted as follows. The correlation value obtained between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate for the age group (20-25) is 0.396 and for age above 25 is 0.352 which is found to be significant. The 0.05 confidence interval is found to be between 0.349 and 0.441 for age group 20-25 and 0.256 and 0.441 for age above 25. The shared variance of Student Engagement with Institutional Climate for the age group 20-25 is 15.68 and for above 25 it is 12.39.
Table 5
Relationship between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate based on Type of Management of the Institution
Variable N R Significa Confidence Share nce level level d varian Low Upp ce er er limit limit
Institutio Govt.Suppo 69 0.26 0.001 0.19 0.33 7.18 nal rted 8 8* 8 5 Climate Private 90 0.47 0.001 0.41 0.51 22.09 3 0* 8 9
*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Table 5 can be interpreted as follows. The correlation value obtained between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate for students belonging to Government supported institution is 0.268 and for students belonging to private institution it is 0.470 which is found to be significant. The 0.05 confidence interval is found to be between 0.198 and 0.335 for government supported institutions and 0.418 and 0.519
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for private institutions. The shared variance of Student Engagement with Institutional Climate for Government supported institution is 7.18 and for private institutions it is 22.09.
Findings
All the correlation values are significant at 0.05 level and have a p value of 0.001 for the total sample as well as for the subsamples. It means that there exists a real relationship between the variables. All the values are positive. When the relationship is positive it means that an increase in one variable will result a corresponding increase in the other variable. The relationships between the variables can be verbally interpreted as moderate correlation except for the subsamples Male, Government & Government Aided. For these two subsamples the obtained correlation can be said as low correlation from its values of correlation. Hence any improvement in Institutional Climate will results in the increase in Student Engagement. The lower and upper limits of Confidence interval at 0.05 level shows that if the correlation is worked out for the same variable for the whole population, the resulting correlation will be between these intervals at 0.05 level of probability. The shared variance gives the percentage of what is measured by Institutional Climate is related to Student Engagement.
The relationship between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate is found to be significant for the total sample as well as for the sub samples based on Gender, Marital Status, Age, and Type of Management. The correlation obtained for the total sample and for all sub samples are positive and moderate. For the subsamples male and Government supported the correlation can be considered as low. The percentage of overlap is ranging from 7.18 to 22.09. From these findings it can be concluded that there exists a significant positive relationship between Student Engagement and Institutional Climate of B.Ed. Students. This finding appears to be consistent with the findings
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of the earlier researches as well. The studies conducted by Connel (1990), Marks (2000), Nystrand&Gamoran (1991), Connel& Wellborn (1991), Fredricks, Blumenfeld, Friedel& Paris (2002), Moos (1979), Fraser (1991), Brophy&Everston(1976) and Doyle (1986) support the finding of the present study. The reason behind this is a well-known fact that the background setup will have direct relationship with any outcome.
Conclusion
From the above results and findings it can be concluded that the academic and non- academic climate provided in the B.Ed. institutions has a positive relationship with the Engagement of Students in their course. A good academic climate with freedom, democracy, mutual respect, sensible rules and regulations, shared responsibilities, moral and personal supports will lead a student to involve more in the course. The correlation values of the subsamples also tell the same. The Gender, Marital Status, Age and Type of Management based on the Institutional Climate are also positively correlated with Student Engagement. All the relationships are positive. It means an improvement in the Institutional Climate will improve the Engagement of B.Ed. students in their course irrespective of Gender, Marital Status, Age and Type of Management. There is an opposite way of interpretation for this result, which is the Student Engagement will decline if the Institutional Climate is poor.
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