UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI Date:___________________ I, _________________________________________________________, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in: It is entitled: This work and its defense approved by: Chair: _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ Citizenship and National Identity in Post-Partition Bengal, 1947-65. A Dissertation submitted to the Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy In the Department of History of the College of Arts and Sciences 19 April 2006 By Haimanti Roy M. A. Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India, 1998. B. A. Presidency College, Kolkata, India, 1996 Committee Chair: Barbara N Ramusack Abstract This dissertation focuses on the Partition of Bengal in 1947 and its aftermath to 1965 to examine how India and Pakistan legitimized and symbolically reproduced markers of national identity. It argues that specific concepts of what constituted loyal citizens, Partition violence and legitimate victimhood critically influenced the establishment of post-Partition states in the Bengal region. Through the themes of national imagination, border politics, violence and refugee rehabilitation, this dissertation explores the official and unofficial processes, which sought to produce national identities of Hindus and Muslims as Indians and Pakistanis. These conflicting attempts to homogenize national identities in religious terms were contested in the post partition period, as identities based on region, language and culture competed for primacy. The dissertation argues that on the eve of Partition despite increasingly communalized spaces, multiple imaginings of nationhood existed. Political contingency rather than the historical trajectory of “communalism” guided the decision to divide Bengal. The Partition and nationhood are addressed through the examination of the social and economic impact of the new border and the sporadic violence, both physical and psychological that especially targeted minorities, Hindus in East Pakistan and Muslims in West Bengal. Along with territorial delimitation, minority citizens became intricately linked with the evolution of national identity, self definition and legitimacy of each state. The dissertation also focuses specifically on the trans-territorial relationship between the Indian state and Hindu migrants from East Pakistan who strategically claimed to be “refugees” in order to demand Indian citizenship. Finally this dissertation complicates normative discourses of national identity formation and the uncritical understanding of “secular” India and “Islamic” Pakistan. iii Acknowledgements This project, which began eight years back and has undergone many mutations and digressions, would not have reached completion without the generous support of many individuals and institutions. First, I would like to thank my supervisor, mentor and friend Barbara Ramusack for her encouraging comments, meticulous reading, sharing her vast knowledge of Indian history, teaching me the skills to become a good researcher and most importantly, keeping me on track. She has provided both intellectual support as well as a home away from home introducing me to the different facets of American academia and life in general. I am indebted to Maura O’ Connor, whose unbridled enthusiasm for my different projects at the University of Cincinnati has been a constant source of inspiration. Her friendship and support throughout my years in Cincinnati and beyond are deeply appreciated. Martin Francis and Laura Jenkins, who also served on my dissertation committee, provided incisive comments and suggestions that have greatly enriched this dissertation. I owe an intellectual debt to individuals in multiple locations and from different points of the research. In Calcutta, my teachers at Presidency College, especially Rajat K Ray significantly shaped my intellectual trajectory. Anjan Ghosh generously shared his thoughts and his research with me. Gautam Bhadra encouraged me in early 1997 to look at newspapers as a viable source for popular contemporary opinion. At Jawaharlal Nehru University, my professors taught me to think beyond historical “facts and figures” for which I am most grateful. I owe special thanks to Neeladri Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi Bhattacharya, Rajat Datta and Susan Viswanathan for encouraging me to pursue a PhD. iv In Cincinnati along with the members of my dissertation committee, I have greatly benefited from discussions with Man Bun Kwan, Willard Sunderland, Laura Jenkins and Ann Twinam. Institutional support for my project has come from various sources. A pre- dissertation research grant from the Bangladesh Program of the Social Science Research Council and another from the Cincinnati Chapter of the English Speaking Union supported my initial forays to the archives libraries in Britain, India and Bangladesh. A Distinguished Dissertation Fellowship from the Graduate School at the University of Cincinnati allowed me to research extensively in London, New Delhi, Calcutta (Kolkata for those who are historically challenged) and Dhaka. A fellowship from the Charles Phelps Taft Memorial Fund enabled me to write a substantial portion of the dissertation without having to worry about material needs of the daily life of a graduate student. The assistance and interest of the librarians at the Oriental and India Office Collections, London, the Nehru Memorial and Museum Library, National Archives of India, Central Secretariat Library in New Delhi, West Bengal State Archives, Government of West Bengal Police Archives, SB Branch, National Library in Calcutta, Dhaka University Library, Bangla Academy and the Bangladesh National Archives, especially Md. Hashanuzzaman Hydari, are most appreciated. Hope Earls at the Department of History helped in smoothing out the bureaucratic aspects of being an international graduate student. Mikaila Corday at the Interlibrary Loan section of the Langsam Library at the University of Cincinnati provided valuable help in procuring relevant materials from other libraries. v In Britain, Bangladesh and India many scholars have put me in their debt for their intellectual and emotional support. In Britain Joya Chatterji extended significant suggestions about specific sources. In Bangladesh Shaukat Ali, Sonia Amin, Anisuzzaman, Ratanlal Chakrabarty, Meghna Guhathakurta, Ahmed Kamal, Ameena Mohsin and Badruddin Umar opened their hearts and homes to me. Irfat (Bithe) Ara extended comradeship during the lonely hours at the Bangladesh National Archives. Wajid Hasan Shah, Iftekhar Iqbal and Rizwana have become wonderful friends. The Daulas and the Rays were generous and gracious hosts during my time in Dhaka and introduced me to different aspects of Indian diplomacy and Bangladeshi politics. Willem Van Schendel, Gautam Ghosh, Geraldine Forbes and Ian Petrie provided thoughtful suggestions and unselfishly shared their knowledge about Bangladeshi society and history and introduced me to their friends there. Friends have been an important part of my life and this project by creating space for diversions, volatile and non-volatile discussions and camaraderie through the rigors of research and dissertation writing. Rahul Nair and Sayata Ghose have been constant companions much before this project began. The J.N.U. cohort of Varuni Bhatia, Shubhra Bhattacharjee, Sabyasachi Dasgupta, Sharatee Ghosh, Mahesh Gopalan, Alita Nandi, Raisur Rahman and Aparna Vaidik provided intellectual and social adventures. My life in Cincinnati became more interesting and lively because of my friends Anuradha Agarwal, Amitava Bhaduri, Madhubanti Mukherjee, Meeta Sinha-Raghavan and Priyanka Srivastava. Credit goes to the old Presidency gang, Hira, Koel, Ranjini, Samarpita and Sangeeta for keeping in touch over the years. Thanks also to those friends who defy neat groupings, Monica Bhattacharjee, Rajoshree Bhattacharya, Prasanta vi Chakravarty, Neeti Nair, Sharmadip (Toy) Basu, S. Sasikant and Samikhsa Sherawat for making the research and writing period enjoyable. The last section of the dissertation was written amidst a move to Cambridge, MA where Nandini Manjrekar, Jeff Ravel and Cristelle Baskins made the transition to a new place a welcome experience. I am indebted to David Ciarlo for the last minute technical help that ensured that this dissertation became suitable for the digital age. This dissertation would not have been possible without the love and encouragement of my parents Haripada Roy and Gouri Roy and my sisters, Anindita Roy and Priyadarshini Roy. In addition to their unconditional support, I have greatly benefited from my father’s knowledge of the intricacies of the Indian bureaucracy. My family in the U. S, the Nairs, Anupama, Rajiv, Puja and Vivek, have ensured I get all the love and comforts of home away from home. My parents-in-law, late K. N. Syamasundaran Nair and P. A. Sarojini, have always encouraged me to keep on writing even if it meant less visits with them. Last but not the least, I would not have come this far without the loving support of Rahul Nair, who has been a constant source of suggestions, questions, criticisms and inspiration. He has always been there, emotionally and intellectually, persuading me to rethink some of my assumptions about traditions, histories and life in general and to enjoy the process