Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76039-3 — a Concise History of Italy Christopher Duggan Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76039-3 — A Concise History of Italy Christopher Duggan Index More Information

INDEX

Abruzzi, 15 Amari, Michele (1806–89), 5 Acerbo Law, 210 Ambrose, Saint (c. 334–97), 32 Action Party (1943–7), 243–5, 248, 251 Amendola, Giovanni (1886–1926), 215 Adua, Battle of (1896), 171, 236 America, North, 19, 197, 220, 255, 256, Afghanistan, 287 257, 281, 288 Africa, 12, 171, 187, 240 America, South, 19, 117 see also Ethiopia; Libya anarchism, anarchists, 21, 164, 172, 189, AGIP (Azienda Generale Italiana dei 192, 202 Petroli), 238 Ancona, 91 Agnelli, Giovanni (1866–1945), 185 Andreotti, Giulio (1919–2013), 286, agriculture, 16, 17–18, 33, 36, 38, 65, 298 66, 70, 72–4, 101–2, 147, 150, 164, Angevins, 46, 49 176–7, 240, 256, 264 annona, 82 see also fascism; landowners; latifondi; Ansaldo (firm), 152, 179, 195 peasants; sharecroppers; Antonuzzo, Antonio (b.1938), 267 smallholders; South; wheat Apennines, 14 Agro Romano, 78 Apostolic Brothers, 52 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of (1748), 76 Apulia, 11, 28, 40 Albania, 11, 28, 240 Aquileia, 49 Alberti, Leon Battista (1404–72), 60 Arabs, 11, 12, 34–5, 37, 40 Alessandria, 76 Aragon, Aragonese, 45, 62 Alexander VI (1431–1503), Pope Arezzo, 57 (1492–1503), 62 Argentina, 19 Alfa, Alfa Romeo, 175, 266 Ariosto, Ludovico (1474–1535), 63 Alfieri, Vittorio (1749–1803), 88 Aristotle (384–22 BC), 56 Alfonso of Aragon (1396–1458), King of armistice (1943), 242 Sicily (from1416) and Naples (from army, 13, 78, 97, 138, 141, 156, 171, 1442), 57, 59 183, 193, 203, 213, 237, 239, 240, Alitalia, 266, 304–5 241, 242, 249, 270, 278 Alleanza Nazionale, 296, 297, 300, Arpinati, Leandro (1892–1945), 203 301, 303 Aspromonte (1862), Plate 18 Allende, Salvador (1908–73), 285 Austria, 12, 13, 76, 89, 99, 100–1, 113, Alps, 9, 22, 97 114, 121, 124, 128–9, 144, 167, Alvaro, Corrado (1895–1956), 246 191, 197 Amalfi, 13, 34, 37, 40 autarky, 238

324

Index 325

autonomy, regional, see regionalism Bernardino, San (1380–1444), 54 Avanguardia Operaia, 274 Bismarck, Prince Otto von (1815–98), Avignon, 46 167–8 Azeglio, family of d’, 94, 97 Bizzoni, Achille (1841–1903), 165 Azeglio, Massimo d’ (1798–1866), 111, Black Death (1348), 52 113, 124, 145 Blasetti, Alessandro (1900–81), 227 Boccaccio, Giovanni (1313–75), 56 Bacchini, Benedetto (1651–1721), 80 Bocchini, Arturo (1880–1942), 213 Badoglio, Pietro (1871–1956), 242, 245 Boccioni, Umberto (1882–1916), Plate 26 Bakunin, Michael (1814–76), Bologna, 23, 32, 46, 65, 129, 145, 21, 163 202, 282 Balbo, Cesare (1789–1853), 104, 113, Bonaparte, Joseph (1768–1844), King of 114, 122 Naples 1806–8, 93 Balbo, Italo (1896–1940), 205, 228 Bonaparte, Napoleon (1769–1821), Balkans, 11, 32, 187, 191, 235 Emperor of France (1804–15), 12, Banca Commerciale Italiana, 176 89–96, 128 Banca Romana, 166, 170 Boniface VIII (c. 1235–1303), Pope Bandello, Matteo (1485–1561), 4 (1294–1303), 46 Bandiera brothers, Attilio (1810–44), Bonomi, Ivanoe (1873–1951), Emilio (1819–44), 21, 112 223, 245 bandits, banditry, 27, 70, 87, 98, Borghese, Prince Valerio (1906–74), 140, 250 269 banking, 51, 60, 66, 69, 166, 176, 222 Bossi, Umberto (b.1941), 294, 296, 297, Bank of Italy, 222–3, 297 298 Baratieri, Oreste (1841–1901), 236 Bottai, Giuseppe (1895–1959), 218 Barbarasi, family of, 43 Botticelli, Sandro (1445–1510), 60 Barbarossa, Frederick (c. 1123–90), bourgeoisie, 68, 74, 80, 94, 95, 111, 119, Emperor 1152–90, 44 120, 138, 186, 253 Bardi, family of, 51 see also middle classes Bari, 12, 33 Bramante, Donato (1444–1514), 60 Baroque, 65 Brescia, 22, 82, 164 Basilicata, 262 Brindisi, 13, 242 ‘battle of grain’, see under fascism Britain, the British, 12, 69, 89, 93, 97, 99, Beauharnais, Eugène de 101, 106, 111, 118, 128, 131, 147, (1781–1824), 93 152, 174, 185, 197, 222, 236, 238, Beccaria, Cesare (1738–94), 82 245, 257, 265, 277, 288 Belgium, 111, 118 Bronte, 131 Belisarius (505–65), 32 Bruges, 56 Bellini, Giovanni (c. 1430–1516), 60 Bruno, Giordano (1548–1600), 165 Bembo, Pietro (1470–1547), 63 Buonarroti, Filippo (1761–1837), 92, Beneduce, Alberto (1877–1944), 223 107, 108 Benetton (ﬁrm), 288 Buondelmonte de’ Buondelmonti Benevento, 34, 163 (d. 1215), 43 Benevento, Battle of (1266), 45 bureaucracy, bureaucrats, 74, 77, 100, Bergamo, 1 105, 141–143, 158, 179, 213, 231, Berlinguer, Enrico (1922–84), 285–6 248, 269, 270 Berlusconi, Paolo (b. 1949), 297 Burgundy, 11, 55 Berlusconi, Silvio (b. 1936), 296, 297, Buscetta, Tommaso (1928–000), 300, 301, 306 290, 293

326 Index

Byron, Lord (1788–1824), 104 Cavour, Camillo Benso di (1810–61), 13, Byzantium (Constantinople), Byzantines, 14, 23, 28, 114, 119, 120, 122, 11, 32, 33–5, 37, 57 123–35, 137, 140, 159, 170, 173 Cavour, family of, 96, 97 Cadorna, Raffaele (1815–97), 140 Cefalù, 42 ‘Calabiana affair’ (1854), 126–7 CGIL (Confederazione Generale Italiana Calabria, 28, 34, 40, 70, 155, 280, del Lavoro), 255 281, 293 Chambers of Labour, 183, 203 Calatafimi, Battle of (1860), 131 Charlemagne (742–814), 35 Calderari, 99 Charles II (1661–1700), King of Spain camorra, 281, 305 (1665–1700), 75 Campagna, Roman, 15, 70, Charles V (1500–58), King of Spain 151, 219 (from 1516), Emperor (1519–56), Campania, 34, 66, 280, 281, 293 62–3, 74 Campoformio, Treaty of (1797), 89 Charles VIII (1470–98), King of France Candy (firm), 264 (1483–98), 59, 60 Capelletti, family of, 43 Charles Albert (1798–1849), King of Caporetto (1917), 193, 201 Piedmont-Sardinia (1831–49), 112, Capua, 34, 40 113–14, 115 carabinieri, see police Charles of Anjou (1225–85), 45 Caracciolo, Domenico (1715–89), 84 Charles of Bourbon (1716–88), Carboneria, carbonari, 19, 99, 103–4, King of Naples and Sicily 108, 109, 128 (1735–59), 76 Carducci, Giosuè (1835–1907), Charles the Bold (1433–77), Duke of 165 Burgundy (1467–77), 62 Carli, Gian Rinaldo (1720–95), 82 Charter of Labour (1927), 218 Carpaccio, Vittore (c. 1450–1525/6), 54 Chartism, 112 Carrà, Carlo (1881–1966), Plate 26 chemical industry, 175, 222, 264 cars, 175, 222, 264, 277 children, 153, 155, 183, 221, 227 Carthaginians, 11 China, 272 Casati Law (1859), 155 Christian Amity, 99 Cassa Integrazione Guadagni, 279 Christian Democracy (DC), Christian Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, 262 Democrats, 25, 245, 251, 252, Castelfidardo, Battle of 253–4, 256, 257–8, 259, 260, (1860), 134 262–4, 268, 269, 270, 271, 276, Castiglione, Baldassare(1478–1529), 63 278, 279, 285, 286, 289, 291–2, Castile, 62 293 Catalonia, Catalans, 28, 51 Church, Catholic, 11, 14, 25–7, 32, 65, Catania, 263 74, 78, 80, 84, 106, 120, 140, 143, Cateau-Cambrésis, Treaty of (1559), 63 158, 193, 237, 253, 258, 263, Catholic Action, 229, 231, 256, 267, 267–9, 277 277–8 see also Church lands: Church–state Catholic Church, Catholicism, see relations; fascism; papacy Church, Catholic church lands, sale of, 91, 94, 137 Catholic Electoral Union, 190 Church–state relations (after 1860), Cattaneo, Carlo (1801–69), 111, 119, 140, 144, 146, 165, 189–90, 208, 135, 295 229, 252 cattedre ambulanti, 177, 221 Churchill, Winston (1874–1965), 245 Cavalcanti, family of, 48 Ciano, Galeazzo (1903–44), 239, 243

Index 327

Ciompi, revolt of (1378), 52 Corfu, 208, 235 Cisalpine Republic, 89, 92 corporate state (fascism), corporatism, Cispadine Republic, 89 see under fascism clienteles, clientelism, 51, 143, 190, 234, Corradini, Enrico (1865–1931), 248, 254, 262–4, 270, 271, 278, 187–8 279–80, 281, 286, 297, 304 corruption, 165–6, 263, 289, 292–3, climate, 16 298, 301, 304 coal, shortage of, 22, 161, 176, see also clientelism; mafia 195, 266 Corsini family, 69 Cobden, Richard (1804–65), 23 Cosa Nostra, 282, 290 Coglioni family, 43 see also mafia Colleoni, Bartolomeo (1400–76), 54 Cosenza, 263 Collodi, Carlo (pseudonym of Carlo Cossiga, Francesco (1928–2010), 293 Lorenzini) (1826–90), 156 Costa, Andrea (1851–1910), 163, 164 Colombo, Cristoforo (Christopher Counter Reformation, 65 Columbus) (1451–1506), 4 courts, 44, 79 Colombo, Giuseppe (1836–1921), 176 see also judiciary; lawyers Committees of National Liberation Craxi, Bettino (1934–2000), 287, 289, (CLN), 245, 248 291, 292, 297, 301 common lands, 95, 137, 258 Cremona, 36, 37, 39, 164, 202 see also feudalism crime, criminals, 27, 79, 140, 220, 264, Common Market, see European 289 Economic Community see also bandits; corruption; mafia Commune, Paris (1871), 146, 163 Crimean War, see under war communes, medieval, 36, 37, 39, 42–8, Crispi, Francesco (1818–1901), 131, 61, 97, 295 145, 166–71, 173, 182 Communist Party (PCI), Communists, Croce, Benedetto (1866–1952), 179–80, 21, 203, 205, 211, 240, 243, 245, 216, 236 247, 251, 252–4, 256–7, 258, 259, see also idealism 260, 268, 269, 273–4, 285, 291–2 Crusade, first, 39 Confindustria, 255 Curcio, Renato (b.1941), 283 confino, 216, 300 customs (internal), 93, 97, 100 confraternities, 50, 52, 54 customs, see tariffs connubio (1852), 124 Custoza, Battle of (1848), 114, 115 Conrad II (c. 990–1039), Emperor Cutolo, Raffaele (b. 1941), 282 (1027–39), 37 consorterie, 42–3 Dalla Chiesa, Carlo Alberto (1920–82), Constance, Peace of (1183), 44 282, 290 Constantine (c. 288–337), Emperor Dalmatia, 198, 208 (306–37), 32 D’Annunzio, Gabriele (1863–1938), see also Donation of Constantine 166, 173, 192, 198, 203 Constantinople, see Byzantium Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), 31, 46, 52, Constituent Assembly (1946–7), 250, 251 158, 181 Constitution (1948), 251–2, 301, 303 Datini, Francesco (1335–1410), 51 Constitutional Court, 251 day labourers, see under peasants constitutions, constitutional government De Amicis, Edmondo (1846–1908), (in Risorgimento), 103, 121 156 see also Statuto debt, public, 127, 135, 279, 291, 298, cooperatives, 163, 258, 259 299, 300, 304, 305

328 Index

De Gasperi, Alcide (1881–1954), 253, electoral laws, electorate, 138, 145, 257, 265 159–60, 161, 164, 170, 190, 197, De Lorenzo, Giovanni (1907–73), 269 262 De Mita, Ciriaco (b. 1928), 289, 292 electricity, 176, 222 Democratic Party of the Left (PDS), 292 emigration, emigrants, 18–19, 160, 176, democrats (in Risorgimento), 109, 112, 177, 220 115–17, 121, 134, 139 Emilia, 48, 72, 107, 222, 276, 283 demographic campaign, Empire, Holy Roman, 35, 36, 39, 42, see under fascism 44–6, 60, 61, 62 Depretis, Agostino (1813–87), 141, 161, see under individual Emperors 166 engineering, engineers, 135, 175, 288 De Sanctis, Francesco (1817–83), 120, ENI (Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi), 266, 145, 216 270 De Sica, Vittorio (1901–74), 277 Enlightenment, 78, 79–86, 87, 88, 89, diet, 17, 150–1, 174 109 Dini, Lamberto (b. 1931), 298 Este, d’, family of, 49 Di Pietro, Antonio (b. 1950), 293, 298 Este, Isabella d’ (1474–1539), 55 Divorce Law (1970), 276 Este, Obizzo d’ (1264–93), 48 Dogali (1887), 171 Ethiopia (Abyssinia), 235–6 Dolcino, Fra (d. 1307), 52 Europe, Italy’s relationship to, 75, 79, Dollfuss, Engelbert (1892–1934), 235 85, 97, 119, 294 Donatello (1386–1466), 55 see also European Economic Donati family, 43 Community; and under individual Donation of Constantine, 35, 45 countries Doria family, 42, 66 European Economic Community (EEC, Drago, Antonino (1924–97), 263 EC), European Union (EU), drugs, drug trafﬁcking, 281–2 Common Market, 265, 277, Duccio di Buoninsegna (d. 1319), 55 294, 303 Durando, Giacomo (1807–94), 6 Evelyn, John (1620–1706), 74 Ezzelino da Romano (1194–1259), ‘economic miracle’ (1958–63), 223, 264, 45, 48 266–7 economy, see agriculture; banking; Falcone, Giovanni (1939–92), 290, industry; trade 293–4 education, 121, 135, 146, 155–7, 272, families, family values, 42, 262–3, 272, 303 278 see also fascism; schools; universities see also clienteles; consorterie Edward III (1312–77), King of England Fanfani, Amintore (1908–99), 263 (1327–77), 51 Farinacci, Roberto (1892–1945), 203, Einaudi, Luigi (1874–1961), 180, 246, 205, 208, 214, 243, 247 254 Farini, Luigi (1812–66), 138 El Alamein, Battle of (1942), 240 fasci, Sicilian, 170 Elba, 22 fascism, 32, 158, 181, 246, 247–8, 254, elections, local, regional, 201, 283, 286 257–8, 260 elections, parliamentary, 124, 145, 182, foundation of, 200 189, 190, 200, 251, 253, 259, 286, in 1920–2, 200, 202–6 287, 294, 299, 301 and ‘battle of grain’, 217, 221–2, 234 see also Constituent Assembly; and Church, 224, 228–30, 231 electoral laws and corporate state, 216, 218–19, 234

Index 329

and cult of Duce, 213, 224–6 food, see diet and culture, 224, 230 foreign policy (general), 12–13 demographic campaign of, 220–1, 234 see also under individual countries and economy, 216–23, 237–8 forests, deforestation, 15–16, 17, and education, 208, 231 31, 177 and foreign policy, war, 208, Formia, 17 234–6, 240 Foscolo, Ugo (1778–1827), 96 and racial laws, 237 France, 11, 12, 13, 59, 60, 61–2, 63, 71, and reform of customs, 234, 237 89, 92–3, 97, 106, 107–8, 111, 118, and South, 219–20, 231–2 127–9, 131, 144, 147, 152, 157, and suppression of opposition, 160, 167–8, 170, 174, 197, 236, 214–15 238, 257, 288 and unions, 210, 216, 217–18 Franceschini, Alberto (b. 1947), 283 see also fascist party; March on Rome; Francis of Assisi (c. 1181–1226), 52 Militia; neo-fascism; Salò, Franco, General Francisco (1892–1975), Republic of; squads, squadrismo 236 squadristi Franks, 35 fascist party (PNF), 205, 209–10, 214, Frederick II (1194–1250), Emperor 226–7, 234, 241 (1220–501), 44–5 federalism, federalists, 113, 115, 129, freemasons, freemasonry, 84, 87, 135, 294 89, 165 Federzoni, Luigi (1878–1962), 209, 212 free trade, 119, 127, 146, 254, 265 Fellini, Federico (1920–93), 266 Fréjus Tunnel, 13 feminism, 287 French Revolution, 84, 88–92, 167 Ferdinand II (1452–1516), King of Friuli, 11, 57, 202 Aragon and Castile, 62 fruit, fruit trees, 17, 66, 220 Ferdinand II (1810–59), King of the FUCI (Federazione Universitaria Two Sicilies (1830–59), 113, 115, Cattolica Italiana), 229 121 Futurism, 181, 191, 192, 200 Ferdinand III (1769–1824), Grand Duke of Tuscany (1790–1824), 99 Gaeta, 115 Ferdinand IV (1751–1825), reigned as Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), King Ferdinand III of Sicily and IV of 65, 146 Naples (1759–1815), and as Garibaldi, Giuseppe (1807–82), 109, Ferdinand I, King of the Two 117, 130–4, 139, 143, 163, 167, Sicilies, (1815–25), 99, 100 170, 206 Ferrara, 59, 63, 91, 201, 202 gas, 23, 266 Ferrari, Giuseppe (1811–76), 2, 4, 5 Gava, Silvio (1901–99), 263 feudalism, 74, 77, 78, 95–6 Gedda, Luigi (1902–2000), 267 feuds, feuding, 43, 50 Genoa, 9, 11, 12, 39, 43, 63, 66, 76, 85, Fiat, 175, 195, 255, 265, 288, 291 99, 115, 274 Filangieri, Gaetano (1752–88), 87–8 Genovesi, Antonio (1712–69), 83–4, 88 ﬁlms, 254, 266, 274 Gentile, Giovanni (1875–1944), 179, Finsider, 255 180, 208, 216, 235 First World War, see under war Germany, Germans, 11, 14, 99, 111, Fiume (Rijeka), 198 118, 167, 174, 176, 185, 197, 218, Flanders, 11, 55, 56 236, 238, 239, 242, 265, 277, 288 Florence, 36, 39, 42, 43, 50–1, 52, 57, see also Prussia 63, 66, 68–9, 70, 75, 186, 187 Ghent, 56

330 Index

Ghibellines, 45, 46 Holland, 69, 84 Ghiberti, Lorenzo (1378–1455), 55 ‘Hot Autumn’ (1969), 274 Giannone, Pietro (1676–1748), 80 House of Freedoms (Casa delle Libertà), Gini, Corrado (1884–1965), 220 301, 303 Gioberti, Vincenzo (1801–52), 113, 120 housing, 151, 264 Gioia, Giovanni, 263 humanism, humanists (Renaissance), Gioia, Melchiorre (1767–1829), 91 56–7, 63 Giolitti, Giovanni (1842–1928), 141, Hungary, 45, 268 166, 174, 180, 181–90, 191, 192, Huns, 9 197, 198, 205, 207, 210, 212, 260–2 idealism, neo-idealism, 179–80, 191, Giotto di Bondone (c. 1267–1337), 54 216, 223, 253 Giuliano, Salvatore (1922–50), Ignis, 264 250, 258 Illuminati, 87 Giussano, Alberto da, 295 IMI (Istituto Mobiliare Italiano), 222 Gladio, 293 industry, industrialists, 22, 23, 65, Goes, Hugo van der (d. 1482), 56 68–9, 71, 106, 111, 135, 138, Gonzaga, family of, 49, 55 152–5, 157, 158, 160–1, 167, Goths, Gothic wars, 32 174–6, 177, 182, 183, 185, 187, see also Ostrogoths; Visigoths 195, 215, 217, 238, 254–5, 256, government, local, 132, 138, 141, 166, 264–5, 269, 270–1, 279, 288, 304 281, 293 Innocent III (c. 1160–1216), Pope Govone, General Giuseppe (1825–72), (1198–1216), 45, 97 140 Inquisition, 79 Gramsci, Antonio (1891–1937), 202, insurance schemes, state, 184, 223 203, 253, 258 see also welfare Grandi, Dino (1895–1988), 241 ‘integral land reclamation’ (boniﬁca Great Britain, see Britain integrale), 219 Great Depression (1929–33), 222, 223 see also land reclamation Greece, Greeks, 9, 11, 14, 105, 240 intellectuals, as political agents, 180, Gregory VII (c. 1020–1085), Pope 191, 243, 253 (1073–85), 3 International Working Men’s Grimaldi family, 66 Association, 146, 163 Guastalla, 76 IRI (Istituto per la Ricostruzione Guelfs, 45, 46 Industriale), 222–3, 266, 270, 279 Guicciardini, Francesco (1483–1540), iron, steel, 22, 118, 153, 160–1, 175, 60–1 222, 264, 266 guilds (arti), 44, 46, 50, 54–5, 69, 79, 82 Isabella I (1451–1504), Queen of Castile, Gullo, Fausto, 258 62 Isotta Fraschini (ﬁrm), 175 health service, 286 Istria, 193, 202 see also welfare Italian League (1454), 57, 59 Henry VII (1457–1509), King of England Italian National Society, see National (1485–1509), 65 Society Herder, Johann Gottfried (1744–1803), Italian Nationalist Association, see 108 Nationalist Association ‘historic compromise’, 285–287 Hitler, Adolf (1889–1945), 235, 237, 239 Jacini, Stefano (1827–91), 120, 145 Hohenstaufen dynasty, 44, 45 Jacobins, 88, 89, 99

Index 331

Japan, 265, 288 Lazio, 46, 92 Jesuits, 25, 84, 100 Lazzaretti, Davide (1834–78), 25 Jews, 100, 237 League, Lombard, Northern League John XXIII (1881–1963), Pope (Lega Nord), 293, 294–6, 299, 301, (1958–63), 268 303 John Paul II (1920–2005), Pope League for the Institution of Divorce (1978–2005), 287 (LID), 276 Joseph II (1741–90), Emperor of Austria League of Nations, 235, 236, 238 (1780–90), 83 Left, the (1860s, 1870s, 1880s), 145, journalism, journalists, 158 146, 157, 159, 165, 166 see also press legal codes, 77, 82, 93, 135, judiciary, 122, 248–50, 251, 138, 250 293, 297 Legnano, Battle of (1176), 44, 295 see also courts; lawyers Lentini, Plain of, 15 Julius II (1443–1513), Pope (1503–13), Leo III (d. 816), Pope (795–816), 35 62 Leo X (1475–1521), Pope (1513–21), 62 Justinian, Emperor (483–565), 32 Leonardo (journal), 180 Leopold (1747–92), Grand Duke of Keynes, John Maynard (1883–1946), Tuscany (1765–90), 82 175 Leopold (1797–1870), Grand Duke of Khrushchev, Nikita (1894–1971), 257, Tuscany (1824–59), 116, 129 268 Liberal Party (PLI), 245, 259 liberalism (in Risorgimento), 103–4, La Farina, Giuseppe (1815–63), 132 111, 119–20, 137–8, 146 La Marmora, family of, Plate 13 liberals (to 1922), see democrats; Left; La Marmora, Alfonso (1804–78), 115 moderates; parliament Lamartine, Alphonse de (1790–1869), 6 Libya, 188–9, 235, 240 Lancia, 175 Liguria, 92, 153, 176 land occupations (by peasants), 201, Lima, Salvatore (1928–92), 263 208, 258 literacy, illiteracy, 33, 57, 155, 264, 303 landowners, 70, 72, 100, 101, 106, see also schools 146, 164, 170, 201, 203, 217, Livorno, 57, 68, 69 260 Locke, John (1632–1704), 80 see also nobles; latifondi; peasants; Lockheed scandal, 278 smallholders Lombard League (1980s), see League, land reclamation, 177, 219 Lombard land reforms (1950), 259–60 Lombard League (formed 1167), language, dialects, 28–30, 63, 230–1, 44, 295 277 Lombardi, Riccardo (b.1908), 267 La Scala, opera house, 176 Lombards, Lombard invasions, 9, 32–3, Lateran Pacts (1929), 229, 252 35 latifondi (latifundia), latifondisti, 31, 33, Lombardy, 14, 18, 23, 48, 66, 78, 99, 70, 170, 186, 208, 219, 247, 250, 100, 101, 105, 112, 119, 153, 158, 258–9, 262 176 see also South see also Milan, Duchy of; Po valley Latini, Brunetto (c. 1220–94), 27 Lomellina, 76 La Torre, Pio (1927–82), 282 London, 131 lawyers, 39, 79, 157–8 Lorenzetti, Ambrogio (d. 1348), 55 see also courts; judiciary Lotta Continua, 273, 274, 283

332 Index

Louis XI (1423–83), King of France Matteotti, Giacomo (1885–1924), (1461–83), 62 Matteotti crisis, 211–12, 217 Louis XII (1462–1515), King of France Maximilian I (1459–1519), Emperor (1498–1515), 62 (1493–1519), 62 Louis XIV (1638–1715), King of France Mazzini, Giuseppe (1805–72), 108–10, (1643–1715), 75 112, 115, 118, 121, 123, 131, 134, Louis of Orléans (1372–1407), 59 144, 161, 163, 167, 170, 171, 206, Lucca, 36–7, 38, 42, 52, 63, 76 216 Luther, Martin (1483–1546), 65 Medici, Cosimo de’ (1389–1464), 55 Medici, family of, 51, 55, 60, 63 Mabillon, Jean (1632–1707), 80 Medici, Gian Gastone de’ (1671–1737), Machiavelli, Niccolò (1469–1527), 31, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1723–37), 61, 63, 146 76 macinato (grist tax), 137 Medici, Lorenzo de’ (1449–92), 56 Maffei, Scipione (1675–1755), 80 Medici, Luigi de’ (1759–1830), 106 maﬁa, organised crime, 141, 232, 247, Melzi d’Eril, Francesco (1753–1816), 93 250, 258–9, 277, 280–2, 285, 289, merchant marine, 13, 195 290, 293–4, 296, 297, 298, 303, Messina, 75 304 Metternich, Prince (1773–1859), 101, Magenta, Battle of (1859), 129 107 Maistre, Joseph de (1753–1821), 85 middle classes, 131, 137, 156–8, 165, maize, 17, 66, 72, 151 179, 181, 190, 215, 273, 286, 294 malaria, 15, 17, 151 see also bourgeoisie Malatesta, family of, 46, 48 migration (internal), 28, 72, 101, 177, Malatesta, Sigismondo (1417–68), 59 220, 263–4, 266–7, 278 Manfred (1232–66), King of Sicily Milan, city of, 9, 14, 22, 36, 39, 43, 48, (1258–66), 45 70, 111, 114, 145, 147, 171, 176, Manifesto, Il, 273, 274 181, 266, 274, 283, 292–3 Manin, Daniele (1804–57), 114, 124 Milan, Duchy of, 57, 59, 61, 62, 63, 70, Mannerism, 65 71, 76, 83 Mantegna, Andrea (1431–1506), 55, 60 military service, conscription, 27, 101, Mantua, 39, 63, 71, 76, 164 140, 156 Manzoni, Alessandro (1785–1873), 111 Militia, fascist (MVSN), 212, 230 March on Rome (1922), 206 minerals, mineral resources, 22 Marche, 46, 48, 91, 107, 134, 222, 288 see also coal; iron; oil; sulphur Maremma (Roman, Tuscan), 15, Minghetti, Marco (1818–86), 161 72, 219 Modena, 32, 63, 76, 85, 99, 107, 129 Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso moderates (in Risorgimento), 104, 109, (1876–1944), 181, 191, 193 111, 112, 114, 123, 114, 123, 130, Marsala, 131 133, 136, 145, 171 Marseilles, 13, 281 Monarchists (since 1946), 259 Marshall Aid, Marshall Plan, 255 monasteries, 33, 36, 126, 137 Marx, Karl (1818–83), Marxism, 118, Monferrat, 49, 71 163, 173, 272 Monreale, 42 Massa, 76 Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de Massawa, 171 (1533–92), 17 Matapan, Cape (battle, 1941), 240 Montecatini, 175 Mattarella, Piersanti (1935–80), 282 Montelfeltro, family of, 46, 49 Mattei, Enrico (1906–62), 266 Montefeltro, Federigo da (1422–82), 54

Index 333

Montesquieu, Charles–Louis de Nenni, Pietro (1891–1980), 256, 268 Secondat (1689–1755), 80 neo-fascism (after 1945), Moro, Aldo (1916–78), 284, 285, 286, 269–70, 278, 282–3, 296 287, 293 Newton, Isaac (1642–1727), 80 Mosca, Gaetano (1858–1941), 168 Nice, 99, 130 mountains, 14–15, 66 Nicholas II (d.1061), Pope (1058–61), MSI (Movimento Sociale Italiano), 296 40 mulberries, 17, 23, 66, 74 Nicholas V (1397–1455), Pope see also silk (1447–55), 57 Murat, Joachim (1767–1815), King of Nitti, Francesco Saverio (1868–1953), Naples (1808–15), 93, 99 198 Muratori, Ludovico (1672–1750), 80 nobles, nobility, 42–3, 46–8, 49, 50, 51, Murri, Romolo (1870–1944), 180 69, 74, 77, 78, 80, 83, 84, 101, 140 Mussolini, Benito (1883–1945), 186, see also landowners; latifondi 192, 193, 198–200, 207–8, 209, Normans, 14, 40–2, 79 210–12, 213, 214–15, 216, 220, North–South gap, 13, 165, 247, 250, 224, 227–8, 229, 234–6, 238, 241, 266, 269, 270, 280, 303 242, 243, 291, 300 Northern League, see League Mussolini, Edda (1910–95), 243 Novara, Battle of (1849), 115 mutual aid societies, 161–3 Novecento (art movement), 230 Nuova Camorra Organizzata, 282 Naples, city of, 11, 12, 13, 14, 33, 34, 46, 63, 68, 70, 74, 79, 82, 92, 131, ‘occupation of the factories’ (1920), 132–4, 135, 147, 163, 206, 263, 201 282 Odoacer (c. 433–93), 32 Naples, Kingdom of, 27, 49, 59, oil (petroleum), 23, 238, 278 61, 63, 69, 71, 76, 83–4, 85, Olivetti (ﬁrm), 265 93, 99, 100, 101, 104, Olivetti, Camillo (1868–1943), 185 105–7, 114 OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Napoleon I, Emperor, see Exporting Countries), 278 Bonaparte Opera dei Congressi, 165 Napoleon III (1808–73), Emperor of Opera Nazionale Balilla, 227 France (1851–70), 124, 127, 128–9, Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro, 227 130, 132, 144 Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele Napoli, Carlo di (1702–58), 79 (1860–1952), 195, 198, 210, 211, Napolitano, Nicola, Plate 19 212 Narses (c. 480–574), 32 Ostrogoths, 32 Nationalist Association, Italian, 187 Otranto, 59 Nationalists, Nationalist Party, 158, Ottomans, Ottoman Empire, 51, 57, 59, 182, 186–8, 189, 191, 192, 198, 70, 113 200, 208–9, 216, 235 National Society, Italian, 130 ‘Pact of Steel’ (1939), 239 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Padania, 296 Organisation), 286 Padua, 39, 54, 57, 65 navy, 12, 239, 240 Palaeologi family, 49 see also merchant marine Palatine Chapel, Palermo, Plate 4 nazis, nazism, 231, 237, 243 Palazzeschi, Aldo (1885–1974), Plate 26 see also Germany; Hitler Palermo, 12, 13, 35, 41, 74, 104, 113, Negri, Toni, 283 131, 140, 263

334 Index

Pallavicino family, 66 Piacenza, 32, 36, 39, 76 Paolucci, Scipione, 25 Piedmont (region of), 18, 23, 74, 141, papacy, popes, 11, 33, 35, 39, 40, 45, 46, 153, 176 57, 65, 113, 121, 128 Piedmont, Piedmont–Sardinia, Kingdom see also Church; Papal States of, 14, 77–8, 85, 92, 94, 99, 100, Papal States, 45, 46, 48, 62, 63, 71–2, 85, 104, 105, 112, 115, 121–123, 124, 101, 114, 128, 134, 140 127, 130, 135, 158 Papini, Giovanni (1881–1956), 180 Piedmont–Savoy, Dukes of, 49, 63, 71, Pareto, Vilfredo (1848–1923), 187 75, 76 Paris, 43, 131 Pinerolo, 75 Paris, peace conference of (1856), 128 Pirandello, Luigi (1867–1936), 165 Paris, peace conference of (1919), 198 Pirelli (ﬁrm), 176 see also Versailles Pirelli, Giovan Battista (1848–1932), parliament (from 1861), 122–3, 135, 185 145, 157, 159–60, 161, 165–6, 168, Pisa, 11, 39, 57, 83 170, 173, 186, 191, 192, 195, 205, Pisacane, Carlo (1815–57), 21, 121 212, 215, 251, 291, 301 Pisanello (c. 1395–1455), 49, 60 parliament (of Piedmont–Sardinia, Pistoia, 57 1849–60), 122–3 Pius VI (1717–99), Pope (1775–99), 85 parliaments (medieval, early modern), Pius IX (1792–1878), Pope (1846–78), 68, 80 113, 140, 144 Parma, 63, 71, 76, 85, 92, 99, 107, 129, Pius X (1835–1914), Pope (1903–14), 164 190 Parri, Ferruccio (1890–1981), 243, 248 Pius XI (1857–1939), Pope (1922–39), Parthenopean Republic (Naples, 1799), 92 210, 229 Partito Popolare Italiano (PPI), Popolari, Pius XII (1876–1958), Pope (1939–58), 197, 205, 210–11, 253 268 Pavia, 32, 35, 65 plague, epidemics, 52, 70, 102 Pavia, Battle of (1525), 63 Po, River, 16, 24 Pazzi family, 51 Po valley, 14, 16, 21, 23, 36, 72, 119, Peace Treaty (1947), 247, 257 150, 164, 177, 202, 264, 266 peasants, peasantry, 19, 21–2, 24, 25, police, carabinieri, 27, 138, 183, 202, 27, 36, 89, 98, 102–3, 106, 121, 203, 213, 243, 248, 267, 268, 269, 131, 150–1, 156, 160, 170, 177, 285, 287 193, 219–20, 221, 243, 258, Polytechnic, Milan, 158 259–60, 263, 266–7 Pontine Marshes, 219 see also sharecroppers; smallholders Popolari, see Partito Popolare Italiano Pelagius I (d. 561), Pope (556–61), 32 popolo (in medieval communes), 39, pellagra, 18, 151 43–4, 46–8 Pellico, Silvio (1789–1854), 105 population, 17, 18, 38, 52, 65–6, 70, 77, Pelloux, Luigi (1839–1924), 171–2, 182 102, 147, 174, 177, 221, 289 Persano, Carlo (1806–83), 132 Portinari, Tommaso, 56 Pertini, Sandro (1896–1990), 289, 293 Portugal, 66 Perugia, 52, 129 positivism, 179–80, 186 Peruzzi family, 42, 51 Potere Operaio, 273, 274, 283 Petacci, Claretta (1912–45), 243 Prague, 257 Petitti, Count Ilarione (1790–1850), 120 Prato, 57 Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca) (1304–74), prefects, 141, 213, 214, 246, 248 56 Presidi, 75

Index 335

press, newspapers, 166, 215, 249, 303 Revolutionary Socialist Party of the Prezzolini, Giuseppe (1882–1982), 180 Romagna, 164 Prima Linea, 282 Ricasoli, Baron Bettino (1809–80), 129 Priuli, Girolamo, 14 rice, 17, 66, 72 Prodi, Romani (b. 1939), 299, Rifondazione Comunista, 299 300, 301 Rimini, 46 Prussia, 89, 128, 129, 144, 146, 157 risings, social unrest, 22, 50, 52, 89, public ﬁnances, see debt, public 92, 104, 131, 137, 138, 140, public works, 184–5 146 see also bandits; revolts Quadruple Alliance, 100 Risorgimento, 32, 167, 170, 173, 191, 231, 246, 251, 300, 305 racial laws (1938), 237 rivers, 16, 23, 66 Radetzky, Marshal Count Johann Rivola family, 43 (1766–1858), 114 roads, 14, 24–5, 31, 97, 150, 159 Radical Party (PR), 287 Robespierre, Maximilien (1758–94), 92 radicals (1890s), 171 Rocco, Alfredo (1875–1935), 189, 209, railways, 12, 13, 106, 111, 118, 119, 216, 218 124, 127, 159, 222 Romagna, 45, 46, 112, 163, 222, 276, rain, rainfall, 16 283 Ranza, Giovanni (1741–1801), 91 Romanticism, 102, 108, 112 Rastatt, Treaty of (1714), 76 Rome, 12, 28, 33, 35, 45, 61, 62, Ravenna, 32, 35 65, 70, 91, 115, 116–17, 132, Red Brigades, 282–4 144–5, 147, 166, 207, 242 ‘refeudalisation’, 72 Rome, ancient, 31–2, 56, 61, 97, 220, Reggio (Calabria), 70 230, 236 Reggio (Emilia), 91, 107 Romulus Augustulus, Emperor, (475–6), regionalism, regional government, 135, 32 251, 276, 286, 296, 303 Rosa dei Venti, 278 Renaissance, 11, 31, 37, 46–59, 96 Rossi, Alessandro (1819–98), Republican Party (PRI), 289 153, 155 republicans, republicanism (in nineteenth Rossi, Pellegrino (1787–1848), 115 century), 91, 108, 112, 131, 132, Rossini, Gioachino (1792–1868), 122 140, 171 Rossoni, Edmondo (1884–1965), 210, see also democrats 217, 218 Resistance (1943–5), 243–6, 247, 283, Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712–78), 87 300 Rubens, Peter Paul (1577–1640), Plate 8 revolts, revolutions Rucellai family, 51 1585 (Naples), 68 Ruffo, Cardinal Fabrizio (1744–1827), 1647 (Naples and Palermo), 74–5 92, 99 1674 (Messina), 75 Russia 97, 128, 170, 197, 200 1820 (Naples and Palermo), 104 see also Soviet Union 1821 (Piedmont), 104, 108 Russolo Luigi (1885–1947), Plate 26 1830 (Paris), 107, 120 1831 (central Italy), 107 Salandra, Antonio (1853–1931), 190–1, 1848–9, 113–17, 118 197, 205, 206, 211, 212 1866 (Palermo), 140–1 Salaparuta, 95 1968–9, 272 Salerno, 13, 34, 37 see also French Revolution; risings see also svolta di Salerno

336 Index

Salò, Republic of, 242–3, 248, 300 silk, 17, 23, 66, 68, 69, 71, Salutati, Coluccio (1331–1406), 56 74, 152, 175 Saluzzo, 71 Sironi, Mario (1885–1961), Plate 26 Salvemini, Gaetano (1874–1957), 180, Sixtus IV (1414–84), Pope (1471–84), 191 59 Santarosa, Santorre di (1783–1825), smallholders, smallholdings, 22, 74, 101, 104–5 150, 177, 220, 260, 264 Sardinia, 15, 23, 27, 61, 63, 93, 251 see also peasants, peasantry Sardinia, Kingdom of, see Piedmont Smiles, Samuel (1812–1904), 137 Sarfatti, Margherita (1880–1961), 224, socialism, socialists, 158, 161, 165, 170, 230 171, 181, 182, 200 Saviano, Roberto (b. 1979), 305 see also Socialist Party Savonarola, Girolamo (1452–98), Socialist Party (PSI), the Socialists, 21, 54, 61 164, 170, 173, 183, 186, 187, 188, Savoy, Dukes of, see Piedmont–Savoy 189, 190, 192, 193, 197, 200, Savoy (region of), 89, 99, 130 201–3, 205, 211, 245, 247, 251, Scaglione, Pietro (1906–71), 282 256, 268, 269, 274, 285, 286, 287, Scala, della, family of, 49 289, 292, 293 scala mobile, 255 Sofﬁci, Ardengo (1879–1964), 180 schools, 57, 77, 83, 155, 174, 266 Solferino, Battle of (1859), 129 see also education; fascism; literacy Sonnino, Sidney (1847–1922), 147–50, Sciascia, Leonardo (1921–89), 285 151, 171 Scott, Sir Walter (1771–1832), 111 South, social and economic conditions of Scrovegni, Reginaldo (d. before 1289), 54 the, 13, 14, 16, 18, 27, 28, 68, 72, Second World War, see under war 74, 94, 95, 119, 120, 135, 138–9, secret services (after 1945), 269–70, 278, 140, 146, 151, 155, 160, 179, 186, 285 190, 219–20, 222, 246–7, 256, secret societies, sects (in Risorgimento), 258–9, 263–4, 270–1, 288–9, 292 98–9, 103–4 see also Naples, Kingdom of; Sedan, Battle of (1870), 144 North–South gap Segni, Antonio (1891–1972), 269 Soviet Union, 222, 240, 254, 268, 291–2, Sella, Quintino (1826–84), 119, 135, 144 300 separatism, Sicilian, 250, 259 see also Russia Serao, Matilde (1856–1927), 155 Spain, the Spanish, 11, 14, 60, 61–2, 66, Serpieri, Arrigo (1877–1960), 219 74, 75–6, 99, 106 Serrati, Giacinto (1876–1926), 201 Spanish Civil War, 236 Sforza, Francesco (1401–66), 56 Spenser, Edmund (c. 1552–99), 65 Sforza, Ludovico (1452–1508), 55 Spinola family, 66 sharecroppers, sharecropping, 21, 27, Spiritual Franciscans, 52 72, 119, 150 sport, 227–8, 234 Sicilian Vespers (1282), 46 squads, squadrismo, squadristi, 202–6, Sicily, 9–11, 14, 23, 27, 33, 34–5, 40–2, 207, 208, 209–10, 211–12 45, 49, 61, 63, 65, 76, 93, 101, 115, Stalin, Joseph (1879–1953), 245, 257, 131, 132, 134, 140–1, 170, 174, 268 232, 241, 250, Starace, Achille (1889–1945), 251, 280 226, 247 see also Naples; Kingdom of Statuto, 114, 121–2, 135, 138, 213 Siena, 52, 55 Stendhal (Henri Beyle) (1783–1842), 14 signorie (in Renaissance), 48–9 Stephen II (d. 757), Pope (752–57), 35

Index 337

strikes, 138, 164, 183, 185, 186, towns, cities, 21, 31, 36, 37, 38–40, 102, 200, 218, 240, 243, 251, 147, 177, 266 274, 288 Toynbee, Arnold (1889–1975), 2 Strozzi family, 51, 60 trade, commerce, 11, 12, 24, 37, 39, 40, Sturzo, Don Luigi (1871–1959), 197, 51, 68–9, 97, 167, 238 210, 253, 259 trade, free, 82, 111 Sublime Perfect Masters, 103 trade unions, trade unionism, 183, 255, Suez Canal, 13 274, 275, 288 sugar, sugar beet, 17, 35, 175 trade war (with France, from 1888), 160, sulphur, 23, 106 167, 176 Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of ‘transformism’ (parliamentary), 161, (c. 1517–47), 65 164, 165, 166 svolta di Salerno (1944), 245 Trent, 49, 198 Syllabus of Errors (1864), 140 Treves, Claudio (1869–1933), 183, 186 syndicalism, syndicalists, 186, 192, 198, Treviso, 57 200, 202, 210, 217, 218, 243 Trieste, 257 Syracuse, 9 Triple Alliance, 167, 191 Tuccia, Niccolò della, 54 Tanassi, Mario, 278 Tupamaros, 283 tangentopoli, scandal of, 293, 297 Turati, Augusto (1888–1932), 214 Tanucci, Bernardo (1698–1783), 84 Turati, Filippo (1857–1932), 186 Taranto, Prince of, 49 Turiello, Pasquale (1836–1902), 168 tariffs, 78, 83, 106, 135, 159, 160, 161, Turin, 36, 135, 175, 202, 240, 266, 267, 164 274 see also trade Tuscany, 17, 22, 27, 28, 66, 74, 158, taxes, taxation, 27, 77, 78, 82, 83, 92, 202, 222, 276, 288 101, 106, 127, 131, 135–7, 138, Tuscany, Grand Duchy of, 63, 68, 74, 217, 266, 294, 299, 304 76, 82–3, 89, 92, 114, 119 teachers, 28, 155 Tyrol, South (Alto Adige), 193, 198, 251 see also schools Teano, 134 Uberti, family of, 43 telegraph, 12, 159, 180 Ukraine, 70 television, 254, 277, 297, 301, 303 Umberto I (1844–1900), King of Italy Terni (steel plant), 160 (1878–1900), 163, 164, 171, 172 Terra di Lavoro, 75 Umberto II (1904–83), King of Italy Terranova, Cesare (1921–79), 282 (1946), 250 terrorism, 163–4, 247, 273, 277, 282–5, Umbria, 27, 46, 92, 276 286 United States of America, see America; textiles, textile industry, 51, 66, 69, 106, North 135, 152, 175, 254, 255 universities, 56, 65, 102, 157, 173, 222, Theodoric (c. 454–526), 32 272, 304 Thomas, William (d. 1554), 4 Urbino, 46, 54, 63 Togliatti, Palmiro (1893–1964), 245, 248, 252–3, 268 Valle d’Aosta, 251 Tolentino, Battle of (1815), 99 Valtellina, 71 Torrigiani family, 69 Vasari, Giorgio (1511–74), 55 Toscanini, Arturo (1867–1957), 19 Veneto, 11, 48, 89, 91, 134, 144, 158, tourism, 175 189, 193, 222, 288

338 Index

Venice, 9, 11, 12, 14, 34, 37, 40, 43, Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) 49–50, 57, 59, 62, 63, 68, 69, 70, (1694–1778), 80 71, 76, 85, 89–91, 99, 114, Volterra, 57 115, 117 Verdi, Giuseppe (1813–1901), 112 war, wars, 147, 167, 180, 187, 234 Verona, 57, 70 of 1494–1559, 60–63 Verri, Pietro (1728–97), 82, 88 of Spanish Succession, 76 Versailles, Treaty of (1919), 235 of Polish Succession, 76 Vespucci, Amerigo (1454–1512), 4 of Austrian Succession, 76 Vicenza, 57 American, of independence, 87 Vico, Giambattista (1668–1744), 88 Napoleonic (1796–1815), 89–99 Victor Amadeus II (1666–1732), King of Crimean, 128 Piedmont–Sardinia (1720–32), 75 of 1859, 129, 130 Victor Emmanuel I (1759–1824), King of First World (1914–18), 191–7, 231 Piedmont-Sardinia (1802–21), 99, Second World (1939–45), 7 100 Vietnam, 272 Victor Emmanuel II (1820–78), King of welfare, provision of, 25, 137, 161, Piedmont–Sardinia (1849–61); King 183–4, 220, 223, 275, 279, 298 of Italy (1861–78), 28, 121–2, 127, wheat, 17, 69, 72, 75, 151, 160, 221–2 129, 131, 132, 135, 145, 167 wine, vines, 69, 74, 101, 160 Victor Emmanuel III (1869–1947), King women, 152, 153, 183, 196, 228, 230, of Italy (1900–46), 206, 212, 213, 256 241, 242, 245, 250 workers, industrial, 50, 52, 153, 182–5, Vienna, peace settlement of (1815), 99 200, 201–2, 218–19, 245, 255, 266, Villafranca, Prince of, 78, 95 274–5 Vinci, Leonardo da (1452–1519), 60, 66 Wyatt, Sir Thomas (1503–42), 65 Visconti, family of, 49, 57 Visconti, Matteo (1250–1322), 48 Young, Arthur (1741–1820), 18, 83 Visconti, Valentina (1366–1408), 59 Young Italy (Giovine Italia), 109, 112 Visigoths, 9 Vittorio Veneto (1918), 196 Zancaruol, Giuliano, 60 Voce, La, 181 Zanussi (ﬁrm), 264 Volpe, Gioacchino (1876–1971), 182 Zollverein, 111