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Effects of Local Stress Perturbation on Secondary Fault Development

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Effects of Local Stress Perturbation on Secondary Fault Development Journal of Structural Geology 24 -2002) 145±153 www.elsevier.com/locate/jstrugeo Effects of local stress perturbation on secondary fault development Laurent Maertena,*, Paul Gillespieb, David D. Pollarda aThe Rock Fracture Project, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-2115, USA bNorsk Hydro Research Center, Postboks 7190, N-5020 Bergen, Sweden Received 25 February 2000; revised 12 March 2001; accepted 20 March 2001 Abstract The complex patterns of normal faults in sedimentary basins are commonly attributed to a complex geological history with varying directions of tectonic extension. However, we show an example of normal faulting from a North Sea hydrocarbon reservoir where the variability in secondary fault orientations can be attributed to stress perturbations that developed around the larger faults during a single phase of extension. This is demonstrated by comparing attributes of the stress ®elds computed around largest faults from detailed three- dimensional -3D) geomechanical models, with fault data such as discretized fault orientation and density observed from a high quality 3D seismic re¯ection survey. The modeling results show the strong in¯uence of the irregular geometry -bends and intersections) of larger faults on the development of smaller faults. Methods developed in this study can be applied to predict likely locations and orientations of subseismic faults. q 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: North Sea tectonics; Normal faults; Subseismic faults; 3D numerical model; Extension; Stress ®eld 1. Introduction Sassi and Faure -1997) highlighted, through numerical experiments, the role played by major structural dis- Highly variable fault strike direction or multiple fault sets continuities in the local variations of stress regime and in a given region are commonly observed at regional scale. discussed the deformation modes of faulting and fracturing, Variability is often explained in terms of either multiple which may take place at small scale. tectonic episodes, reactivation of pre-existing faults, or In this paper we describe the spatial distribution -orien- simultaneous development of faults under three-dimen- tation and density) of faults from the Oseberg oil ®eld area sional -3D) strain -Reches, 1983). Depending upon which in the northern North Sea. Here, smaller normal faults, inter- explanation is chosen, geologists use observations of preted from seismic re¯ection surveys, strike in a wide multiple fault sets to infer paleo-rotation of the regional variety of angles near larger faults. We hypothesize that stress ®eld -Fñrseth et al., 1997), the trend of deeper faults, the development of the smaller faults is related to the stress or the 3D strain ®eld that caused faulting -Krantz, 1989). perturbation produced by displacement on the larger faults. Early studies, using analytical models -Hafner, 1951; We use 3D numerical models to predict the likely nucleation Couples, 1977; Pollard and Segall, 1987), predict that a points and orientations of secondary faults, and show that heterogeneous stress ®eld can be caused by faulting. stress perturbations can be observed at scales as large as the However, although the mechanical interaction of growing Viking Graben and not just at the small scale of an outcrop faults has been studied over the last 10years -Willemse et -Schlische et al., 1996; Ackermann and Schlische, 1997). al., 1996; Cowie, 1998; Gupta et al., 1998), the development Furthermore, the results illustrate how this concept can be of secondary faults in the vicinity of a larger fault has been used for the prediction of sub-seismic faults in aquifers or the subject of few studies. Ackermann and Schlische -1997) hydrocarbon reservoirs. ascribed the anticlustering of small normal faults to the stress-reduction shadow around larger faults observed in a quarry in the Mesozoic Danville basin in North Carolina. 2. Geological setting The Oseberg Syd reservoir is located in the Norwegian * Corresponding author. Correspondence address -and now at): The sector of the North Sea. This ®eld, operated by Norsk Institut FrancËais du PeÂtrole, 92852 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex, France. Tel.: 133-1-4752-6369; fax: 133-1-4752-7067. Hydro, is located within Block 30/9 on the Norwegian E-mail address: [email protected] -L. Maerten). Continental Shelf and forms part of the eastern ¯ank of 0191-8141/02/$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0191-8141-01)00054-2 146 L. Maerten et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 24 52002) 145±153 faults were controlled by stress perturbations around the N larger faults rather than by the stress conditions of suc- Oseberg cessive tectonic events. Fig. 2d shows that smaller fault orientation is highly variable, ranging from N1158 to N358. In the following numerical analysis, we aim to test the l hypothesis that the later, smaller faults were in¯uenced by l l l l the perturbed stress ®eld around the earlier, larger faults by l l l l l l comparing attributes of the computed perturbed stress ®eld l l l l l l l l l NORWAY l l l l l l l around the larger faults to the strike and density of the l l l l l l l l l l l l l ll l l l l l l smaller faults. l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l Bergen l l l l l l l l l l l l l 3. Numerical analysis n l l Shetland l l l e l l l l b l l Platform l l l l a l Oslo l l l r l l Platform l l l In geomechanical studies, one of the simplest ideali- l l G l l l l l l l l g l l l l zations of faulted rock is to approximate the rock mass of l n i l l l k l i l l Horda the upper crust as a homogeneous isotropic linear-elastic V l l l l material cut by discontinuities that accurately represent the geometry of the seismically mapped faults. This approxi- NORTH SEA mation ignores the sedimentological heterogeneities and 100 km focuses attention on the structural heterogeneities -the seismically resolvable faults), their complex geometry and Fig. 1. Regional map showing the location of Oseberg Syd reservoir on the displacement. Our models, which capture the mechanics of Norwegian Continental Shelf, northern North Sea. The study area forms an idealized single slip event or a series of events that do not part of the eastern ¯ank of the Northern Viking Graben. include any stress relaxation, suggest likely locations where inelastic strains may accumulate, but do not characterize the the Northern Viking Graben -Fig. 1). The structure has been inelastic deformation itself. Our underlying assumption is well de®ned by 3D seismic re¯ection surveys. In essence, that these approximations capture the ®rst-order relationship the area consists of a N±S to NNW±SSE striking, easterly among fault geometry, fault displacement distributions, and tilted fault-block -the Oseberg fault-block) between the perturbed stress ®eld. The ef®ciency of this approach and its Horda Platform and the Viking Graben. assumptions have been demonstrated through examples The Oseberg fault-block -Fig. 2) is de®ned by major described by Willemse -1997), Maerten et al. -1999), Crider west-dipping, N±S striking normal faults and southwest- and Pollard -1998), Kattenhorn et al. -2000), Maerten et al. dipping, NW±SE striking normal faults -Fñrseth and RavnaÊs, -2000), and Maerten -2000). 1998). Fristad et al. -1997) have shown unequivocally that the We have carried out geomechanical elastic modeling larger faults in Oseberg Syd were active during sedimentation using the computer program Poly3D -Thomas, 1993), a in Lower to Middle Jurassic times, with up to 100% thickness 3D boundary element program based on the displacement changes in the Brent, Dunlin and Statfjord Formations -see discontinuity method and the governing equations of linear Fig. 2b and also see Fig. 4 in Fristad et al., 1997). Although elasticity theory -Crouch and Star®eld 1983; Becker, 1992). the majority of the extension occurred in the Upper Jurassic The `boundary' surfaces are discretized as polygonal -Kimmeridgian±Volgian), earlier extension is well documen- elements that are particularly well-suited to model complex ted in the North Sea -Yielding et al., 1992). The faults are surfaces such as a curving fault with irregular tip-line typically truncated by an unconformity at the base of the -Fig. 3). Cretaceous, that dips to the west -see Fig. 2b). The boundary conditions of a Poly3D model are of two Most of the largest faults in the study area -maximum types. The ®rst corresponds to a constant displacement displacements .250m, gray in Fig. 2a) are ,N±S striking discontinuity, which is speci®ed for each polygonal element as shown on the rose diagram of Fig. 2c. On the basis of of the fault surface. It can be decomposed into three com- sedimentary thickness variations, we conclude that these ponents. The component normal to an element plane may faults were active from Lower to Upper Jurassic. Smaller represent the local opening along a joint, whilst the two faults -250m . maximum displacements . 30m, black in components parallel to the element plane may represent Fig. 2a) with much more variable orientation developed the local dip-slip or strike-slip along a fault. By joining later, predominantly in the Upper Jurassic -Fristad et al., many small elements together, smooth displacement 1997), while the major faults were still active. Examination distributions can be approximated over each fault surface. of Fig. 2a shows that orientations of the smaller faults with The second type of boundary condition is a remote loading respect to the larger faults is not consistent across major that can be strain or stress -Fig.
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