AN EX4MINATIOW OS' TïDZ INFLUENCE OF SOCRAmS AND 3 ANCIENT MPSTERO SCHûOLS ON PLATO, HIS E'ûTüRE THEORIES OF THE SOUL AND SPIRIT,
AND SYSTEM OF SOUL-- EDUCATION AS PORTRAPeD IN HIS REPUBLIC -TH EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS E'DR TODAY
Barbara Boney Brooks Feb. 6, 1997 Dept. of Religion and Philosophy in Education, McGill University, Montreal Copyright O 1997 by Barbara H. Brooks National Library Bibliothèque nationale I*I of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographic Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington OttawaON K1AON4 ChtawaON KtA ON4 Canada Canada
The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/fïlm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique.
The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in ths thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. 1 first, and very sincerely, acknowledge and thank 'The One' and those spiritual overseers who helped to inspire, assist, teach and guide me throughout the writing of this thesis. 1 would also like to express my deepest gratitude to my first thesis advisor, Stan Nemiroff, who relocated to Toronto. It was your encouragement that inspired me to continue my studies in the Department of Philosophy and Religion in Education, and consequently on the journey to the study of Plato and the cornmencement of this thesis. You gave me total freedom to explore the work of Plato from a perspective very close to my heart. To my present advisor, David Smith, 1 thank you for taking me on downstream in this project, and for your valued advice and counsel. 1 also appreciate your heartfelt cornmitment to Peace Education and your spiritual approach to achieving peace within and without which is so much in harmony nith my vision of educating with respect to the Sou1 and Spirit. Soul-Centered Education is, for me, the next stage of Peace Education. Pcace must first begin within. To my son Noah, this paper is dedicated to you. May you and those in youz generation and those that follow corne to understand the Wisdom of the Ancients and learn the value of living in accordance with the Spiritual Laws and Truths conveyed in this paper. An examination is made of important influences that shaped both the development of Plators religious and philosophical teachings/ theories of the Sou1 and Spirit which were based on core Spiritual Laws or Principles, and his scheme of education as outlined in the Republic. Included are Plators early years and the teachings and influence of Socrates and the Orphic, Pythagorean and Eleusinian Mystery Schools. Plato's system of education is shown to be very much influenced by the Pythagoreans, to involve the 'Principle of Initiation' and to be soul- centered, where al1 thought is related to 'The One'. The conclusion is that the philosophy and teaching of education today tends to ignore the important integrative principle of unity - the Soul/Spirit connection. A renewed philosophy and scheme of education is introduced incorporating a vision of the whole person.
Ce travail présente une analyse de certaines influences importantes ayant contributé à la fois au développement des doctrines religieuses et philosophiques de Platon ayant trait à l'âme et h l'esprit, doctrines fondées sur des lois ou principes spirituels de fond, et à son programme d'éducation tel qu'élabore dans la République. 11 examine l'influence de les jeunes années de Platon, et aussi de l'enseignement de Socrate et des écoles des Mystères orphiques, pythagoriciens et d' Éleusis. 11 démontre que le système df éducation de Platon reflète l'influence profonde des pythagoriciens, fair intervenir le «principe initiatique» et s'articule autour de l'idée de l'âme, où toute pensée est liée à «l'Universel». Il conclut que la philosophie et la doctrine contemporaines de l'éducation ignorent l'important principe intégratif de l'unité - le lien entre 1' &ne et l'esprit. Il propose enfin une philosophie renouvelée de l'éducation et un programme éducatif s'appuyant sur une conception de la personne entière. iii
Page
PREFACE vii PREFACE - FOOTNOTES X
PART ONE:
-- -- - PHILOSOPHICAL AND RELIGXOUS -OS OF THE SOUL AND SPIRIT
-1: P~'S~ZYANDYoulw: miE-SrmrirRAR CHAPTER 1 - FOOTNOTES
1. The Teachings of Socrates
2. How Socrates Influenced Plato A. Platots Theory of Ideas/Fonns: The Essential Kinship of the Sou1 with the World of Thought
3. The Influence of Socratest Death on Plato
CWLPTER II - FOOTNOTES
1. Foundational Teachings of the Orphic and Pythagorean Mystery School A. Initiation Into the Orphic Mystery School a. The Orphic Religion: Divine or Natural Laws i. The Law of One ii. The Law of Three iii. The Law of Many iv. The Law of Metempsychosis and the Need for Purification v- The Law of Harmony and Equilibrium vi . The Law of Love: The Gods vii. The Gods and The Mystic Vision (Union) B. Initiation Into the Pythagorean Mystery School a. The Pythagorean Religion i. The Law of Rebirth: The Need for Purification ii. The Law of One: Unity iii. The Law of Three: The Triune Nature of the Universe iv. Silence/Contemplation/Meditation: The Mystic Vision/Revelation b. Conclusion
2. The Orphic and Pythagorean Influence on Plato's Religious and Philosophical Doctrines A. Plato's Cosmology: God and 'the gods' B. Plato's Conception of the Immortality, Reincarnation and Purification of the Soul: The Doctrine of Remernbrance C. Plato's Spiritual-Psychological Theory of the Sou1 31 a. E.J. Urwick's Interpretation of Plato's 3 1 Transpersonal-Psychological Theory of the Soul i. Introduction 31 ii. The Distinction Between the Path of Pursuit of 32 Ends in the World From the Path of Religion b. Mental Conflict and Disease in the Soul: Plato's 37 Contributions to the Field of Spiritual-Fsychology c. Conclusion 4 O
CHAPTER III - FOOTNOTES 41
1. Introduction A. The Lesser Mysteries a. Initiation Into the Lesser Mysteries B. The Greater Mysteries a. Initiation Into the Greater Mysteries 2. Conclusion A- Plato's Dialogues That Reveal the Secret Wisdom of the Eleusinian Mysteries
CHAPTER IV - FOOTNOTES
PART TUO: IMPORTANT INFLUENCES ON THE DEVeLOm OF PfiATO'S MYSTERY SCHOOL AND HIS VISION OF EDUCATION AS PORTRAPED IN HIS 'REPUBLIC'
CEUPTERVI:: Tm l%mUDXNGWTBZ:-: A P-mm 53 CHAPTER VI - FOOTNOTES 54
1. Introduction
2. Early Elementary Education A. Purification of the ~ody(Physical Appetites/Desire): Preparation for Initiation B. Purification of Both Body and Emotions Leading to First Initiation
3. Higher Education of the Candidate: Purification of the Body, Esnations and Mind Leading to Second Initiation A. Introduction: A Pythagorean Mode1 a. The Core Curriculum of the Pythagorean Mystezy School and Its Relationship with the Orphic Teachings/Laws: A Foundation for Plato (ia) The Study of Number: The Orphic Law of Many (ib) The Study of Mathematics and Geometry (iia) The Study of Music: The Orphic Law of Harmonies (iib) Music as a Therapeutic Tool: The Orphic Law of Harmony and Equilibrium (iii)The Study of Astronomy (The Gods) : The Music of the Spheres B. The Core Curriculum of Plato's Scheme of Higher Education 71
4. Higher Education: True Philosophy Leading to Third Initiation 73 A. The Final Purification of the Mind 73 a. Theoretical Educational Training in Dialectic 73 b. Third Initiatory Testing Period 74 Through Practical Experience
5. Self-Realization: The True Initiate or Philosopher-King 75
CHAPTER VI1 - FOOTNOTES 76
1. Plato's Perception of Socrates as a Perfected Soul 2. Can This Perfected State Actually Exist on Earth?
CHAPTER VI11 - FOOTNOTES
PART THREE: EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF PLATO'S TEACfIINGS - THE EDUCATIONAL AND SOCfZUl CRïSIS: A POSSIBLE SOLUTION
CHAPTKR XI: A POSSIBLE SOLUTlOBt: SOI%-- QR WHOLISTIC 89 EDQciwzOW CHAPTER XI - FOOTNOTES 99 vii
PREFACE
The question that came to my mind over and over again as 1 read the dialogues of Plato was who and what else, besides Socrates, influenced the thinking of Plato? Heraclitus taught that al1 things are in a state of flux and that there is nothing permanent in the sensible world; Parmenides, that reality is eternal and timeless, therefore al1 change must be illusionary. Plato combined the doctrines of Heraclitus and Parmenides, concluding that knowledge cannot be derived from the senses but only achieved by intellect. From Socrates, Plato became preoccupied with ethical problerns, seeking univercals or essences and 'The Goodr. True, Plato oued a great deal to Anaxagoras for his sdggestion of 'Nousf as a universal reality and to Euclides even more for combining 'Nous' and 'The Goodt . [l] But somehow, intuitively, 1 felt there was more, something deeper. As 1 began my research, 1 discovered that Plato was indeed greatly influenced by a variety of other sources. Besides the impact of the Peloponnesian War and the teachings of Socrates on Plato, he was significantly influenced by the philosophical and religious teachings of several ancient mystery schools. The Orphic Mysteries, for instance, appear to be the remote source of Plato's knowledge, having been brought to Greece from Asia, most likely ancient India. Plato apparently was an initiate of this mystery school. -Another influential Greek mystery school during Plato's time was the Eleusinian, and Plato was also evidently initiated into this school, as well as others, such as the Hermetic (Egyptian) Mystery School and the Pythagorean School. As we shall see, Plato very much embraced the religious and philosophical teachings of both Socrates and these ancient mystery schools, and especially followed in the footsteps of the Orphics and Pythagoreans. Several authors make reference to the mystery schools that influenced Plato. A.E. Taylor, for instance, wrote: "...Platols works, as is ne11 known, show considerable familiarity both with Pythagoxean and Orphic theological ideas...." [2] Francis Cornford regarded Plato himself as finding in the Pythagorean philosophy the chief source of his inspiration. [3] Bertrand Russell concurs, stressing that "what appears as Platonism is, when analyzed, found to be in essence Pythagorean." [4] G.M.A. Grube writes that "The Pythagoreans also quite clearly had a great influence on Plato, as probably on Socrates, and from them Plato derived the more mathematical aspects of his theory." [SI W.K.C. Guthrie, Giorgio de Santillana, Manly Hall and Edouard Schuré have also viii
acknowledged the influence that the philosophical and religious teachings of the Orphics, Pythagoreans, and/or the Eleusinian Mystery Schools had on Plato, What exactly were these 'Mystery Schools'? Manly Hall explains that in the ancient world, nearly al1 the important philosophic and religious teachings were restricted to secret societies and that it was the belief of the ancient philosophers, who were part of these societies, that one could not live intelligently without a fundamental knowledge of Nature and her laws:
"Before man can obey, he must understand, and the Mysteries were devoted to instructing man concerning the operation of divine law in the terrestrial sphere..,. They were moralistic rather than reiigionistic; philosophic rather than theologic. They taught man to use his faculties more intelligently, to be patient in the face of adversity, to be courageous when confronted by danger, to be true in the midst of temptation, and, most of all, to view a worthy life as the most acceptable sacrifice to God, and his body as an alter sacred to the Deity." [6]
Philosophers and mystics, deeply immersed and knowledgeable in Nature's laws, usually banded together to form seclusive philosophic and religious schools in many cities of the ancient world. The more important of these groups, writes Hall, were known as the Mysteries. Many of the ancient philosophers were initiated into these secret societies or schools, where, once being aàrnitted, the initiates were instructed in the secret wisdom or doctrine that had been preserved for ages. Orpheus, Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Moses, Jesus, and many others such as Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great, al1 "sought the spiritual wisdom concealed behind the mysterious veil of their elaborate rnyth~logy.~[7] It took great wisdom on the part of the teacher to show his pupil the corresponding spiritual counterpart within the interior of man himself. It was through myth and symbols, explains author Florice Tanner, that the inquiring minds of the ancient philosophers, who were initiated into the Mysteries, were challenged to develop abstract thinking by interpreting the divine mystery hidden in these fables which conveyed to the initiates the cosmic history and charted the whole cycle of the divine unfolding of mankind. The theme of the myth generally dealt with the human sou1 in its existence on earth, where the hero of the rnyth (initiate) struggles to conquer animal nature. The pilgrim's progress is depicted as the Divine Self's journey from earth back to the skies. Their gods, she writes, were discovered not by worship and belief in history as divine, but by an expansion in consciousness, through revelation, vision or some transcendent experience that, as a result, expands the awareness of the initiate. This was a theme vesy much pursued by Plato in his Theory of Ideas/Forms, his Cosmology, his Theory of the Immortality, Reincarnation and Purification of the Soul, and especially in his Spiritual- Psychological Theory of the Soul. These theories, based on very specific Divine/Natural laws which were at the heart of the teachings of those mystery schools that influenced him, will be discussed in PART ONE of this thesis. The mysteries also contained secret processes (keys of wisdom) which were revealed only to the philosophic elect who alone earned this 'right' as a result of surviving the 'trials' or tests to which the candidate was subjected, proving that he was able to overcome his lower nature, master the appetites and give expression to the higher side of himself (Deity). This was accomplished through an intensive educational training systern that included steps of attainment (from a 'philosophic death' to a 'psychological rebirth') for the advanced candidate and which climaxed with graded tests or 'initiations'. The initiation rites of the ancient mystery schools were designed to transform animal man into divine man, "to make man aware of his divine essence, to help him becorne fully human." [8] The major goal of initiation was an expansion of awareness that eventually identifies with the universal essence; with 'The One'; with 'the gods'; with the natural laws; with the invisible. Tanner writes: "The priests knew a great deal about natural laws and could temporarily aid the higher subtle parts of consciousness to leave the physical body and thus gain actual experience in the invisible worlds." [9] This encounter with the invisible, she explains, transforms the fear of death because the initiate, as a result of this expansion, realizes that consciousness is a continuing process in different forms. Death is no longer viewed as the end of life or intelligence, "but rather as the beginning of a àifferent spiritual state that he has earned by preceding action. Recognizing that every state is generated by former acts gives him incentive to improve his conduct." 1101 And once these steps or degrees of attainment for the advanced candidate are experienced, once the mystic vision is realized, the initiate then returns home to continue serving others in his earthly life. This theme, discussed in PART TWO of this thesis, is also emphasized by Plato in his Republic when he outlines his vision of a soul-centered educational scheme that encourages the development and unfolding of the gifts of the soul through a series of 'trials' (tests) leading to initiations. It was only after researching the philosophical and religious teachings and laws at the heart of the ancient mystery schools plus those of Socrates that 1 came to more fully understand and appreciate both the great influence they had on Plato and the spiritual vision that he, as a mystic, philosopher and initiate (seeker after Truth) must have held in his heart. 1 hope that a good sense of this vision will be conveyed to the reader and that he or she will gain something of the multi-dimensional perspective inherent in an understanding of the soul, and with it, gain a greater appreciation of Life and its purpose in general, and Plato's works in particuiar.
FOOTNOTES - PREFACE
Urwick, E. J., The Platonic Quest, pg. 18. Taylor, A.E., The Mind of Plato, pg. 11. Russell, Bertrand, A History of Western Philosophy, pg- 51. Ibid., pg. 56. Grube, G.M.A., Plato's Thought, pg. 4. Hall, Manly, The Secret Teachings of Ail Ages, pg. HI. Tanner, Florice, Mystery Teachings in World Religions, pg. 43. Ibid., pg. 82. Ibid., pg. 144. Ibid., pg. 144. The main objective of this thesis is 2-fold: first, to examine certain major influences in Plato's Life that shaped: 1) the development of his philosophical and religious teachings (theories) of the Soul and Spirit, and 2) the development of The Academy (The Platonic Mystery School) and Plato's soul-centered educational scheme as portrayed in his Republic, and second, using the above as a foundation, to explore the educational implications for contemporary schooling of Plators teachings regarding the Soul and Spirit. In support of this objective, Plato's involvement with earlier mystery schools - The Orphic, Pythagorean and Eleusinian - will be examined, as well as the fundamental spiritual teachings/laws of each which appear to have touched Plato's soul and which influenced his future work. 1 will seek to show how the above influenced Plato's philosophical and religious teachings/theories, and system of education.
PART ONE begins with an examination of several important influences on the development of Plato's philosophical and religious teachings of the Soul and Spirit. These include: Plato's family, his youth, the impact of the Peloponnesian War; Socrates' teachings (how to live a good and righteous life by searching for truth; for the essence; for the universal standard of right and wrong; for the Source of al1 good everywhere) and their influence on Plato's future Theory of Ideas/Forms; and the philosophical and religious teachings/laws of the Orphic and Pythagorean Mystery Schools and their influence on him. The Orphics, for example, emphasized Natural or Spiritual Laws and taught the ideas behind The Law of Unity ('The Oner 1, The Law of Many, The Law of Three (the triune nature of the universe), The Law of Equilibrium and Harmony (which included The Law of Cause and Effect and The Law of Cycles), The Law of Rebirth and the need for purification, and the Law of Love. They emphasized the study of Hamonics (Music) and the goal of attaining the Mystic Vision through uniting with 'The One' and with 'the gods'. Pythagoras expanded on these ideas/laws of the Orphics, especially focusing on the theme of Unity, Harmony and Divine Order within the soul and relating this to number. Plato very brilliantly synthesized and took their teachings one step further with his Theory of Ideas/Foms, his conception of Cosmology (God and 'the gods' ) , his Theory of Immortality, Reincarnation and Purification of the Soul (which includes his Doctrine of Remembrance), xii
his Spiritual-Psychological Theory of the Sou1 (as based upon the analysis of E.J. Urwick), and his contribution to the field of Spiritual-Psychology with his idea of mental conflict and disease in the Soul. This major theme of Plato's incorporated several questions:
8 How can the soul free itself from the bonds (vices) of the body while remaining in a world of changing shadows of real things? 8 How can the soul be healed £rom the experience of mental conflict within? 8 How can we really know the forms of 'The Good' (Tme Wisdoml that we may be good and a source of good in the world?
O@ How can the Soul be completely turned around from the path of pursuits in the world to the higher path of religion (wisdom) ?
PART ONE concludes with the teachings of the Eleusinian Mystery School (which emphasize the purification of the soul and the initiations involved within this process) and their influence on Plato, as revealed in several dialogues and his system of education. The dialogues of Plato referred to in PART ONE are: the Meno, Phaedo, Symposium, Republic, Phaedrus and Timaeus.
PART TWO is Plato's answer to the four questions above - through purification of the soul by means of an intensive educational system. It shows how the ideas of the Eleusinian School and the Pythagorean initiatic school, with its core curriculum, found their way into both the development of the Platonic Mystery School and his Republic. There he envisioned an educational system whose focus wzs purely on that of the Soul and Spirit (Soul-Centered) and the training and purification required to become a true initiate of the ancient mystery school, or what Plato referred to as 'Philosopher-Kingf, a true Guardian of the people.
PART THREE focuses on: 1) what 1 believe is the educational and social crisis today, 2) soul-centered or wholistic education and 3) whether or not there is still something we can benefit from today in the wisdom of the Ancients as expressed through Plato. 1 conclude with possible suggestions for educating with respect to the soul or Higher Self today so that we, as educators and we, as a society, may prepare our yoiith more wholistically for the 21'' Century; that more of them may be trained to be true Guardians of al1 life on our planet. PART ONE: IMPORTANT INFLUENCES ON THE DEVEIaPBfENT
OF THB SOUL AND SPZRIT
According to Manly Hall, Plato was born on the day of the Feast of Apollo, on the island of Aegina, of a wealthy and distinguished family, in the year 427 B.C. Plato, born son of Ariston and Perictione, was actually named Aristocles, after the paternal grandfathex, Ariston who, A.E. Taylor explains, was a descendant of Codrus, the last king of Athens. He was also clearly related, on his mother's side, to Critias and Charmides, who were both members of the oligarchy of 'The Thirty' that later ruled Athens. Critias was the leader among its more violent members. Plato's elder brothers, Glaucon and Adeimentus, appear as characters in the Re~ublic. As Plato matured, his size increased so greatly that he was nicknamed 'Plato', meaning broad-shouldered. Hall describes Plato as follows :
"The gods bestowed upon him most of the blessings which can be derived from nature. It was said of him that there was not any imperfection throughout his person. He had 'large eloquence' , comeliness of body and majesty of intellect. He was a lover of the fine arts, as he learned to paint and addicted himself to poetry .... In writing, he was fluent in discourse and argument, he demonstrated the greatest ability, and in al1 forms of learning he possessed what the Greeks called an 'intensive genius.'" [Il]
Edouard Schuré writes that when Plato was a lad, love and harmony were at the core of his sou1 - "The love of that everlasting Beauty and Harmony which embrace the universe." [12] In his search for supreme Beauty, he studied painting, music and poetry - al1 modes and forms of beauty. Like his friends, Plato was most ambitious of poetical fame and at 27, he had composed several tragedies and was about to present one for public performance. He was also most proficient and cornpetitive in wrestling, often competing in the Pythian games and becoming most distinguished in contests of ski11 and strength. Plato also loved argument and possessed tremendous courage of conviction. According to Francis Cornford, in his introduction to his The Republic of Plato, al1 of Plato's chilàhood and youth were spent under the shadow of the Peloponnesian War. The close of the golden age of democracy was marked by the death of Pericles in 429 B.C. Pericles was the last philosophic statesman, whose "loftiness of spirit, as Socrates remarks in the Phaedrus, was due to his converse with Anaxagoras, whose speculations gave Pericles an insight and a breadth of view which he carried into his practical work as leader of the democratic Assembly." [13] Cornford writes that in 404 B.C., when Plato was 23, an oligarchic revolution occurred. Athens capitulated and her empire was lost to imperialistic Sparta, which was ruled by ambition, fear and self- interest. He explains that the Peloponnesian War was really 'a struggle between the business interests of Athens and Corinth for commercial supremacy in the West." [14] Plato remarked that the motive behind al1 wars is getting money. This all-powerful motive entered into the several states, resulting in a tremendous conflict between oligarch (the richl and democrat (the poor). Extremes of violence and treachery were displayed by both parties. This conflict eventually became one of Plato's chief aims to extinguish. The revolutions that took place during the war at Athens were more peaceful. Some of the relatives of Plato, on his mother's side, "were active in the oligarchic reaction against the misconduct of the wax by the democxatic leaders." [15) A body called 'The Thirty' was created. They seized power. Among the leaders were Plato's uncle, Charmides, and his cousin, Critias, who both pressured Plato to enter public life. With the condemnation of the existing constitution and the resultant revolution, Plato "imagineci they would bring the state under their management from an iniquitous to a right way of life." [16] This group, however, was greatly corrupt and the constitution changed from bad to worse. The men of 'thought' and the men of 'action' began to take different paths. Most of the men of thought went into exile, writes Cornford, voluntarily or enforced. Socrates, a man of 'thought' and one whom Plato considered 'the most righteous man then living" [17], remained in Athens, however, fulfilling his civic duties while keeping clear of politics. The job of winning the war was left to men of 'actionr, businessmen like Cleon or ambitious egoists like Alcibiades. This was the context in which Plato's life was unfolding and which was to shape his life-long search for Truth, Justice and 'The Good'. -S - PART ONE
Hall, Twelve World Teachers, pg. 146. Schuré, Edouard, The Great Initiates, pg. 377. Cornford, Francis, The Republic of Plato, pg. XXIV. Ibid., pg- XVI. Ibid., pg. XVII. Ibid., pg. MI- Ibid., pg. XVIT. The first teacher to captivate Plato's heart was Socrates. Plato was about 20 years old when he was introduced to Socrates, who conversed with young men in Athens. This meeting was a major turning point and changed the course of Plato's life. In spite of those very disturbing days of war and revolution, Socrates, writes Cornford, was the one person in Athens who stood detached from active life, inquiring from those who cared to discourse with him what men should live for. Plato listened intently to this philosopher day after day. Socrates spoke about the Just and the Unjust, the One, the Beautiful, the Good and the True. The sole subject of his philosophy was man. He did not deny the gods. Socrates worshipped them as did his fellow citizens. However, he claimed that their nature was impenetrable and confessed that he did not understand the physics or metaphysics which were taught in the Schools. He had been a sculptor who "threw down the chisel, saying that he would rather carve his own soul than blocks of marble." [18] Socrates thus steered his thoughts away from the problems of the universe, preferring to focus on the problems of man. The most important thing he claimed was to believe in the Just and True and apply it in one's life. In other words, more important than knowing how the universe came into being was knowing what is right and to live by it. And because Socrates was most interested in the problems related to living a cighteous or good life, much of his teaching dealt with the meaning of 'right' and 'wrongr. He firmly believed that a basic principle of right and wrong existed, a measure which could bc applied far beyond the beliefs of any single individual. The core questions he asked were: "What is the good? What is the highest good by which al1 else in the universe is measured?" 1191 Socrates spent his entire life attempting to help others discover what is 'good', 'right', 'justf, etc., as a result of his deep belief that the only life worth living was a life devoted to inquiring and discovering, within the soul, what is 'good'. He was convinced that "the soul existed before the body and, prior to immersion therein, was endowed with al1 knowledge; that when the sou1 entered into the material form, it became stupefied, but that by discourses upon sensible objects, it was caused to reawaken and to recover its original knowledge." [SOI It was on this premise that Socrates attempted, through irony and inductive reasoning, to awaken the soul-power within each man. This method became known as the Socratic Dialectic Method, which could be used to obtain true knowledge as distinct from mere opinion. Socrates firmly declared that this knowledge could only be obtained "by removing individual differences and discovering the essentials upon which al1 men would agree." [21] Urwick concurs:
".,.when Socrates is searching for the explanation of cognition, of reality, or of the standard of right and wrong. ... He is out to find life, and the whole secret of life. It is al1 in al1 to him: not a theoretical interest, not a metaphysical or philosophic interest, but just everything that matters, the whole key to the soul's well-bcing. For this 'reality' or.. . 'essencef .. - is, for him, the living Good and the living God. He must find it, he must know it - in order to become good, in order to find salvation." [22]
Thus, as Urwick writes, Socrates' eternal questions really meant, "How are we to know Goodness in order that we may be good and a source of good in the world?" [23] To be good, we must KNOW this Unity, this 'Realityr8 this 'Good', this 'God', which Socrates believes are al1 One, 'not as the world knows or thinks it knows facts and truths, but with a directness, a certainty" 1241 - "knowledge of the spiritual by the spirit, not knowledge of the intelligible by the intellect.. . transcending personality" [25] - relating al1 of our thought to a greater Reality. In other words, Socrates is NOT seeking truth as a theory of knowledge but, as Urwick describes, "truth as an existent fact, the creator and source of al1 good everywhere." (261 In this, 1 suggest that Socrates is speaking about Truth or true knowledge that is KNOWN as a result of direct mystical or religious experience, revelation or vision. This would parallel the 'Mystic Vision' of the Orphics and Pythagoreans which will be discussed later. Socrates argued that when one attains this experience, then one knows what is 'right' or 'good' and will then act on it. Without true knowledge, without the awareness of this UNITY, this 'Essence', this 'Reality' , this 'Good' , man, argued Socrates, was in danger of wrong actions, arising £rom greed, ambition, power, lust, etc., which lead to corruption, If wrong choices were made due to ignorance, for example, choosing to lust after power rather than seeking true knowledge, he would suffer. But through attaining true knowfedge, man could have some control or influence upon his destiny, here and hereafter. Man would do the 'right' thing and would be 'good', thus influencing the fate which was his. He would no longer suffer. Socrates declared his belief in man's own ability and strength to rise up against the shadows of the soul which block this expression and expe~ienceof 'The Good'. This, to him, was the most important task and definition of the good citizen - one whose search for true knowledge is constant, who is forever questioning, and who, when discovering true knowledge, will both act on it and conduct himçelf rightly in al1 his relationships with others. At the end of several weeks of listening to Socrates, a complete transformation or revolution had taken place within Plato's psyche or soul. The happy, young poet, filled with illusions, discovered that both the course of his thoughts and the goal of his life had totally changed. He was converted "to the great renunciation that is wisdom." [27] After listening to the teachings of Socrates, he even renounced poetry, recognizing its inability, writes Schuré, to express pure Truth as he now sought. In front of a surprised group of friends, at a banquet which he, himself, had organized, Plato proceeded to burn al1 the verses which he had composed. He was now a disciple of Socrates!
How Socrates Xnfluenced Plato
Why was Plato so totally captivated by Socrates? Schuré discusses this:
"In seeing him, Plato understood the superiority of the Good over the Beautiful. For the Beautiful accomplishes the True only in the mirage of art, while the Good is brought about in the depths of souls. Rare and powerful is this chanrt, for the senses have no share in it. The sight of a truly just man made the shkering splendors of visible art fade in Plato's soul, finally to disappear in presence of a diviner dream." 1281
In other words, Socrates showed Plato "the inferiority of that beauty and glory he had believed in until then, when conpared with the beauty and glory of the active soul, which forever attracts other souls to the same Truth...the pomp of art merely succeeds in reflecting for an instant a deceptive truth, under a disguise." [29] Hall writes that it is from Socrates that Plato derived his understanding of the three-fold nature of truth; that 'this sovereign reality manifests through three conceivable attributes, which Socrates termed the One, the Beautiful and the Good." [30] Plato interpreted 'the One' as Unity, or the principle which sustains the world. He interpreted 'the Beautiful' as Harmony, or the mingling of principles or perçons to a common good. 'The Good' , explains Hall, was interpreted by Plato as the intrinsic nobility, the integrity and rightness which is the only sufficient and appropriate standard of conununity action- These also, he writes, became the criteria of conduct. Bertrand Russell stresses that it was Socrates that led Plato to become pre-occupied with ethical problems and to develop his tendency to find "teleological rather than mechanical explanations of the woxld. 'The Good' dominated his thought ...and it is difficult not to attribute this fact to the influence of Socrates." [31] Another influence, according to Cornford, was that Socrates was very disturbed about the corruption that was occurring during the war and revolution. His main desire was to rebuild the world and the weakened social state, a theme that Plato himself became preoccupied with. Under Socrates' influence, Plato's thought bent chiefly to the question of how society could be reshaped so that man might realize the best or 'The Good' that is in him. This is the theme of al1 of Plato's dialogues, but, above all, the therne of his central work, the Republic. How did Socrates' emphasis on 'The Good' influence Plato's future Theory of Knowledge and his Theory of Ideas/Forms? This will now be discussed.
A. Plato's Theory of Ideas/Fonns: The Essential Kinship of the Sou1 with the World of Thouqht
Plato took up the idea of 'The Good' where Socrates left it- Socrates, as wc have read, said that to be good (at anything) is a matter of knowledge, as we must have true knowledge to be good at the art of living. But knowledge of what? Socrates, writes Irwin Edman, was striving after universals of the permanence of moral values and logical definitions. This suggestion of Socrates, he explains, gave Plato a due in further developing his own position, which described these universals as eternal Ideas or Foms. Edman writes:
"There is a comon quality in al1 things called by the same name. That common quality for Plato is the essence of the thing, and the essences of al1 things constitute the world of ideas. These essences or 'formsr or 'ideas' are Socratic definitions converted into eternal beings, having, or so it appears from at least some of the Platonic writings, their own existence, constituting their own order, the true world of authentic being, whose hierarchy and pattern revolves around and is determined by the Idea of the Good." 1321
Plato taught that the world of sense is unreal, fleeting and constantly changing. However, the world that was 'good' was the real world of pure, unchanging Ideas; al1 that we experience with our sense are mere copies. This 'real worldr -is the world of Ideas based on Plata's fundamental "belief in eternal, unchanging, universal absolutes, independent of the world of phenornena, in, for example, absolute beauty, absolute justice, absolute goodness, from which whatever we cal1 beautiful, just or good derives any reality it may have." [33] One interpretation of the relation between particular things and Plato's Ideas or Forms is given by Frost, Jr. He writes that these Ideas or Forms (eg. ideal tree of which al1 trees which we see are copies) 'were never created, but have existed from the very beginning in just the perfect state in which they will always exist. They are independent of al1 things, and are not influenced by the changes which take place in the world which we experience through our senses. These objects which we experience are reflections of these 'eternal patterns.'" [34] Plato also taught that al1 Ideas or Forms are arranged in the ideal world in a hierarchical order and that the Idea of perfect Goodness was the highest Idea. To be good, he said, is a matter of the knowledge of these eternal Ideas. Edman writes that in Plato's Republic, both knowledge and virtue become clarified in their meaning. He explains:
'To know is to know Reality, the eternal invariant nature of things. To have knowledge of the Real as contrasted with having opinions about the apparent, to know the real in nature, in society, in one's own soul, is for Plato the foundation of the Good Life. To know the real in the universe is to know the valid in the state and in one's own being, as a matter of course. To know the truth is inevitably to choose the good .... Truth itself is a manifestation of the supreme and encompassing Idea of the Good. A virtuous action is a true, valid, just action, the functioning of a sou1 according to its unswerving following of a clear vision of eternal order." [35]
Both Socrates and Plato stressed the importance of practicing philosophy, since it is the only way that one can acquire knowledge - not technical knowledge, but knowledge of the eternal Ideas. Grube elaborates:
"The object of the supreme knowledge is clearly the Ideas. And a knowledge of the Ideas means not only an understanding of Truth, of the structure of the world, but also of the moral and aesthetic realities in it, of its purpose, and the reason why in al1 things. It then includes what we should cal1 a sense of true values; the knowledge of good and evil, of beauty and gooàness as well as of truth .... Technical knowledge may tell us how to do sornething, the philosopher knows why and when things should be done- The knowledge of supreme reality as truth is the knowledge of the laws of nature, to know it as goodness gives a sense of moral values. Al1 this belongs to the philosopher through his knowledge of the eternal Forms." [36j
3. The Influence of Sacrates' math on Plato
In 399 B.C., when Plato was 28, Socrates was executed. To Plato, this was outrageous. How could Socrates, whorn he regarded as a most pious and righteous man, be charged with impiety and sentenced to death? The death of Socrates, Plato's beloved master/teacher, appears to have filled Plato with a passionate desire to preserve, protect and perpetuate his memory. According to Will Durant, Plato's efforts to Save Socrates' life led him to be marked out for suspicion by the democratic leaders of Athens, and the city became unsafe for him. His closest friends urged him to leave the hostile Athenians who had brought about the death of Socrates and who were determined to destroy his school. This was "an admirably propitious moment for him to see the world." [37] From this point on, until he was 40, Plato focused on his spiritual growth and development- He set out in that year, 399 B.C., to embark on what 1 conclude was a spiritual pilgrimage or quest for further wisdom and true knowledge. According to Hall, Plato was not fully satisfied with the knowledge which Socrates imparted to him. He yearncd for more and became "determined to perfect himself in a diviner form of wisdom." [38] Not fulfilled until he had made al1 knowledge his domain, recounts Hall, Plato travelled extensively and associated himself with several of the most eminent scholars and philosophers of his the. He was greatly influenced by a variety of sources, which included, as we shall see, the mystery schools of his the. Before we examine the influence of these mystery schools upon Plato's work, let us first explore the basic philosophical and religious teachings of two of them - the Orphic and the Pythagorean, both of which Plato was apparently initiated into. LYKMZNOTeS - PART ONE
1. The Teachinas of Soclrates
Schuré, The Great Initiates, pg. 378. Frost, Jr., Basic Teachings of the Great Philosophers, pg. 84. Hall, The Secret Teachings of Al1 Ages, pg. XIV. Frost, Jr., Basic Teachings of the Great Philosophers, pg. 210, Urwick, The Platonic Quest, pg. 10. Ibid., pg. 11. Ibid., pg. 11. Ibid., pg. 13. Ibid., pg. 11- Schuré, The Great Initiates, pg. 378
2. How Socrates Influenced Plato
28. Ibid., pp. 380-381. 29. Ibid., pg. 381. 30. Hall, Twelve World Teachers, pg. 156. 31, Russell, B., A History of Western Philosophy, pg. 123.
A. Platols Theory of 1deas/fozms: The Essential Kinship of the 9ouï with the World of Thouqht
32. Edman, Iruin, The Works of Plato, pg. XXXVI. 33. Grube, Plato's Thought, pg. 1. 34. Frost, Jr., Basic Teachings of the Great Philosophers, pg, 11. 35. Edman, Irwin, The Works of Plato, pg. XXXIX. 36. Grube, Plato's Thought, pp. 255-256.
3. The Influence of Socrratast Death on Plato
37. Durant, Will, The Story of Philosophy, pg. 13. 38. Hall, Twelve World Teachers, pg. 147. 1. Foundational Teachings of the Orphie and Pythagarean Mystary Schooln
Initiation Into the Orphie Mystery School
The remote source of Plato's knowledge has been attributed to the Orphic Mysteries, which were brought to Greece from the East, most probably from India, nearly a thousand years before he was born. According to Hall and Schuré, Plato was an initiate of this mystery school. Hall writes:
"The Orphic Mysteries were an elaborate metaphysical system, and the deep truths which Orpheus taught at the dam of Grecian civilization exerted a powerful influence on nearly al1 the schools of philosophy and religious thought which developed and flourished in the Hellenic states. Without a knowledge of the Orphic Mysteries it is impossible to interpret the more profound aspects of Plato's thought. His gods were the Orphic divinities, and the whole iramework of his metaphysical system was derived from the sublimity of the Orphic conception." [391
a. The Orphie Religion: Divine or Na-al Lawn
As shall be seen, the Orphic Mysteries/teachings, which were later expanded upon and taught by the Pythagorean Mystery School, eventually influenced the thinking of Plato. The religious teachings of the Orphics were bastd on Natural or Divine Laws. Let us now look at some of the basic Orphic tenets that later influenced Platots future theories of Cosmology, Inmto~tality, Reincarnation and Purification of the Soul, as well as his Spiritual-Psychological Theory of the Soul: (il The Law of One
Orpheus taught his disciples that al1 existence came from one immeasurable Good Principle, The One or First Cause. This Sovereign Principle is the cause of al1 things, It is good because it is the source or manifestor of al1 virtues. It is the first because it is the sdtof al1 nature, anterior to both gods and nature. Hall writes:
"God is revealed as an eternally-abiding good, an ever-flowing fountain of truth and law, omnipotent unity, omniscient reality. In this interpretation Deity is not a being, but the source of beings; not light, but the source of light; not mind, but the source of mind; the hiciden origin of al1 revealed things." [40]
Deity, in other words, was perceived by the Orphics as that which subsists upon itsel f . The One was the object of great devotion and Orpheus honoured Deity with hymns of praise and suitable rites, because he believed that which is the source of al1 harmony must be harmoniously invoked.
(ii) me Law of T)Ltee
From this immeasurable source emerged The Intelligible Triad, consisting of three aspects of The One - Being, Life and Intellect. Eternal Being, the closest to The One, is the first manifested virtue of that which is eternal. Life is the second, and Intellect occupies the third because of its being the least indispensable of these supernal qualities (powers). Thus, Being, Life and Intellect are considered to be the first gods after The One. Each of these was further divided into a trinity, and each of these subdivisions embodied similar qualities of Being, Life and Intellect. According to Florice Tanner, The Supreme Demiurgic and His Progeny (the original Titans) fashioned The Creative Triad, or 3 material spheres - the supermundane, the liberated and the mundane. The three spheres or domains were al1 part of the demiurgic nature (macrocosm). The Third Aspect of the Creative Triad, the mundane sphere, was personified as Zeus. He represented the Father, who was lord of the air, water and earth, as well as the atmosphere, winds, sky and breath. Poseidon ruled the streams, oceans and creatures that lived in them. And Hades ruled the earth and the deep subterranean caverns and mountains. He represented the creative power in al1 physical elements of nature. These three gods, in other words, established spirit, soul and form in the material or mundane universe.
(iii) The tau of Many
It was understood by the Orphics that The One initially divided Itself in order to give birth ta Lifc, yet each part remained an integral unit of the WHOLE. Thus, it was said that God, The One, (the Macrocosrn) lived in the parts (the Microcosm) and the parts lived in The One, In the heart of each aspect was hidden the Essence of Divine Life. As far as the nature of man was concerned (microcosm), the Orphics were taught that buried in the flesh of the body was a spark of vitality (radiant energy) from The One. Al1 modes of human activity were perceived as expressions of the Divine principle of Spiritual Intelligence.
(iv) The Law of Metempsychosis and the Need for mification
A cardinal feature of the Orphic religion was the faith in the inherent immortality of the soul. The initiate, writes Tanner, "learned of a divine, benevolent plan for his desticy. Life had a logical purpose. Only the physical form died, not the soul. Life returned periodically to the material world for experience. The soul's desires, passions, and appetites depended upon physical life for their gratification; so until the soul overcame the desire for sensory experience, it would be pulled back to reincarnate. Until worldliness was no longer dominant, the cycle would continue, giving opportunity for development and experience." [41] The Orphics temed this periodic return of the soul to the material world the 'Law of Metempsychosis' or "the law of recurrent involvement in the spheres of sense until the sensory impulses were overcome at their source, the appetitive nature. The physical world exercises a gravitational pull on al1 natures in which worldliness is dominant. Therefore the establishment of the Mysteries. These institutions sought to purify the inner life so that man, overcoming his own animal soul, might at death become a blessed spirit 'and verge toward the gods,' drawn thereto by the godliness in his own being." [42] S. Radhakrishnan also stresses that the objective of the Orphic religion was the release of the avine from the non-divine elements and that "Man is required to free himself from the chains of the body in which the soul lies bound like a prisoner in the cell. ..wheel of birth goes on until the soul escapes from it by attaining release. It becomes divine, as it was before it entered a mortal body. To seek to become like the gods ...is of the essence of the Orphic religion." [43j According to this belief, there is a continua1 unfoldment of consciousness and fom, as one perfects one's own nature through many returns of the soul to the material world. Radhakrishnan also writes that this religious school had a code of rules of life and a system of purificatory and expiatory rites. Ascetic practices were prescribed such as the abstinence from beans, flesh and certain kinds of fish. Russell explains that the most orthodox of the Orphics were vegetarians abstaining from animal food.
(v) The Law of HJiriiHny and Equilibsium
As part of their purification training, the Orphics were taught the 'Law of Haxmony and Equilibrium'. This was the supreme and universal law of the Orphics. According to Tanner, the techniques related to this law were as follows: - Al1 fom of consciousness exist in a state of harmony. - If harmony is changed to a state of disharmony, then al1 phases affected must adjust through reaction after reaction until hamony is re-established. In other words: - From the point where the cause of change started, a chain of successive action and reaction thus continually follows until the cycle of adjustment brings a new state of balance or harmony - - This just and impersonal law continually brings harmony into every portion of life, in the world of matter as well as in the world of spirit.
Tanner explains further:
"The basic cyclic law as it works in human evolution includes the law of action and reaction, a law that automatically works from cause to ef fect, producing unerring justice. The universal harmony is changed by each person's acts, by each thought and each word, by each event, and by each circumçtance, Every change sets up a sequence of adjustments that modify related circumstances, and the sequence continues until the adjustments finally restore the original harmony. The disturber of harmony is himself responsible for the disturbance, and the law of adjustment immutably follows until the cycle is fulfilled and the disturber has learned a lesson from his experience." [44]
The whole study of harmony (hamonics) was vital in the Orphic Mystery School and it became symbolic of inward adjustment that ultimately enabled one to become a master musician or 'one who can play most perfectly the sacred compositions upon the musical instrument of his own perfected life." [45] It was for this reason that a 7-stringed Lyre became the sacred symbol of the Orphics. The 7 strings were related both to their correspondences in the human body (7-fold nature of man) and to the 7 planets (that they then knew of). It was believed by the Orphics, writes Hall, that the invisible spiritual orgaaisms of each planet, as it revolved, uttered a certain tone according to its magnitude, speed and distance from the Sun. Within the individual it was vital that al1 'stringsf be in tune to create divine melodies from the chords of one's own being, as a result of "bringing harmonic values together according to law and rule." [46] These ideas were pursued more fully by both Pythagoras and Plato, as shall be seen in PART TWO. Plato's future Spiritual-Psychological Theory of the Soul, disclosed later in this section, seems to be very much influenced by this Orphic theory of hamonics within the individual soul.
(vil The Law of Love: The Go&
The chief god of the Orphics was Dionysus who, according to Edouard Schuré, represented the Divine Spirit or, symbolically, the Sun of the initiates. DionysudThe Sun was invoked above the head of the initiate, and shining in his soul, the true initiate, after the long circuit of dark existences finally left the painful circle of births 'as a single body, a single soul, in the light of Dionysus!" 1471 It was believed by the Orphics that this divine spark guides us upon earth and is within us. It becomes a flame when invoked. Besides Dionysus, another significant god of the Orphics was all- powerful Eros, the oldest of the gods. It was Eros who, being the God of Love, when invoked, filled one with Divine Love. Eros taught one to love everything; to love with Light and not with Darkness; that only with a pure heart can one enter into the heart of the mysteries; that it is only through love that one can dedicate oneself to the Mysteries and to the disciplined life, that one can seek divine knowledge and search death to find life. Thus, Eros held the key to all. Schuré wrote about the Orphic gods as follows:
"God is One, and always resembles Himself. He reigns everywhere. But the gods are myriad and varied, for Divinity is eternal and infinite. The greatest are the souls of the stars. Suns, stars, earths and moons - each star has its own soul. . . . Serni-conscious, inaccessible, unchanging, they rule the great Whole with their regular movements...each revolving star leads hosts of demigods or shining stars who once were men ...the breath of His living soul, the rays of His eternal consciousness.~.they direct the worlds. Far and near they surround us.... The impious who deny them, fear th-; the devout man worships them without knowing them; the initiate knows them, attracts them and sees them. . . ." [48]
According to the Orphics, the gods could only be seen with the eyes of spirit but not with those of the body. To achieve this, Schure daims that one had to undergo, through initiation, long tests or great sufferings in order to open the inner eyes.
(hi) The Godzt and the Mystic Vision (Union)
The Orphics believed that the gods distributed divinity according to capacity, that is, they poured out their life for louer beings according to their receptivity. One's receptivity or capacity was determined by the state of pu~ificationattained. The goal of the Orphics was to experience a mystical union with the god which they sought because this was the only way to acquire mystic or true knowledge, not obtainable, writes Russell, by ordinary means. Russell elaborates :
"To the Orphic.. .our true life is the stars, but we are tied to earth. Only by purification and renunciation and an ascetic life can we escape from the wheel and attain at last to the ecstasy of union with God." E491 It was this mystical element, claims Russell, that "entered into Greek philosophy with Pythagoras, who was a reformer of Orphisrn .... From Pythagoras Orphic elements entered into the philosophy of Plato, and from Plato into most later philosophy that was in any degree religious ." [501
B. Initiation Into the Pytaaso~caaMyatezy School
Pythagoras was born about 582 B.C. on the island of Samos. When he was 40 years old, he moved to southern Italy which was then known as 'Greater Greece' because of the numerous Greek colonies established on its Coast. It was there, in Crotona, that Pythagoras founded a somewhat monastic brotherhood that endured some two hundred years. He was recognized by his immediate followers as one of those divine men born from the god, Apollo, by a mortal woman. The accurnulated wisdom, as well as most of the tenets that Pythagoras taught, were attributed to the knowledge and experience gained through extensive travels. While accounts of his travels differ, historians agree that he visited many countries and studied at the feet of many masters. According to Hall, Pythagoras travelled among the Jews and was instructed by the Rabbis concerning the secret traditions of Moses, the lawgiver of Israel. The great sage was also initiated into the Egyptian, Babylonian and Chaldean Mysteries, Hall explains that after having acquired al1 which it was possible for him to learn of the Greek philosophers and, presumably, after having become an initiate in the Eleusinian and Orphic Mysteries, Pythagoras went to Egypt where, after many rebuffs and refusals, he finally succeeded in securing initiation in the mysteries of Isis, at the hands of the priests of Thebes. Pythagoras then travelled into Phoenicia and Syria, where the mysteries of Adonis were conferred upon hfm, and crossing to the valley of the Euphrates, he remafned long enough to become versed in the secret lore of the Chaldeans, who still, claims Hall, dwelt in the vicinity of Babylon. Finally, he made his greatest and most historic venture through Media and Persia into Hindustan, where he remained several years as a pupil and initiate of the learned Brahmins of Elephanta and Ellora. According to Hall, Frank C. Higgins, in his book Ancient Freemasonry, claims that the name of Pythagoras is still preserved in the records of the Brahmins as 'Yavancharya', the Ionian Teacher. E.J. Urwick writes:
" .. .every one of the doctrines, which we know formed the 'gospel' of Pythagoras and of the Pythagorean brotherhood at Crotona, was an almost exact reproduction of the cardinal doctrines of the Indian Vidya and the Indian Yoga - so much so that Indian Vedantins today do not hesitate to clah Pythagoras as one of themselves, one of their great expounders, whose very name was only the Greek form of the Indian title, Pitta Guru, or
Father-teacher. " 1511
After returning from his wanderings, Pythagoras ultimately established himself at Crotona, a Dorian colony in southern Italy, where he founded, like the Orphies, the Eleusinians, the Egyptians and the Brahmins befoie him, three things - a society or community (brotherhood), a religion, as well as a school, or as it has been sometimes called, a university. The three were intercomected. He gathered around him a small group of sincere disciples (as Plato reveals in the Republic) whom he instructed in the secret wisdom which had been xevealed to him, and also in the fundamentals of occult mathematics (numbers, arithmetic and geometry), music and astronomy, which he considered to be a triangular foundation of al1 the arts and sciences. (These will be discussed in PART TWO.) Pythagoras is described by Georgio de Santillana as having taken on the traditional figure of an initiatic teacher, whose intention was to transform and reinterpxet the ancient Orphic rites. Bertrand Russell as well mentions that Pythagoreanism was a movement of reform in Orphism. Edouard Schuré also agrees, emphasizing:
"The evolution of which we speak had many CO-workers. It gave birth to physicists like Thales, legislators like Solon, poets like Pindar ...; but as an officia1 leader it had an initiate of the first order, a sove~eignintelligence, creative and disciplined. Pythagoras is the master of secular Greece, as Orpheus is the master of sacerdotal Greece. Pythagoras interprets and continues the religious thought of his predecessor, applying it to the new age. But his interpretation is a creation. For he coordinates the Orphic inspirations into a complete system; he furnishes its scientific proof in his teaching, its moral proof in his institute of education, embracing them in the
Pythagorean order, which outlives him. " [52]
Like Pythagoras before him, Plato dedicated his life to the discovery of truth and, according to Hall, travelled into any country where wisdom might prevail, seeking it in al1 the accessible sources of the ancient world. According to Wi11 Durant, we cannot Say for ceztain exactly where Plato travelled. He writes: "there is a merry war of the authorities for every turn of his route." [531 However, according to Schuré, Hall and Tanner, Plato, in the footsteps of Pythagoras, visited Egypt where he also received knowledge from the Hermetic Rites of the Egyptians. It is now generally acknowledged, claims Hall, that the Egyptians, of al1 the ancient peoples, were the most learned in the Occult Science of Nature. The wisest of philosophers £rom other nations travelled to Egypt to be initiated in the sacred Mysteries by the priests of Thebes, Memphis and Hermopolis. Thales, Solon, Pythagoras and Plato visited Egypt in quest of knowledge. While in Egypt, Plato studied astrology (arithmetic and celestial speculation) with the wise priests (as did Pythagoras before hint), as well as those subjects concerning the origin of the universe, the immortality of the soul and the transmigration of the soul through earthly bodies (reincarnation). According to Thomas Taylor, Plato, like Pythagoras, underwent the initiation of Isis while in Egypt. [54] This is confimed by Schuré. There is a consensus among scholars that there is an Egyptian influence in the works of Plato that would appear to be derived from the mysteries of Isis and Osiris. A.E. Taylor affirms that there are "frequent allusions in the dialogues to Egypt and Egyptian customs...." 1551 The greatest philosophe1 influencing Plato, besides Socrates, was Pythagoras. Plato was considered to be a legitimate disciple of Pythagoras, the sage of Samos, whom Hall considers to be the first true philosopher of our age. Plato was deeply influenced and indebted to the teachings and disciplines of Pythagoras, so it was natural for him to visit southern Italy where he could learn more by attaching himself to the Pythagorean School. According to Tanner, Plato studied the Orphic Mysteries with the disciples of Pythagoras 'as did most of the wise thinkers of his the. " [56] Why? Though the Orphic Mystery School was separate from the Pythagorean Mystery School, the Orphic Mysteries were very much embodied in the Pythagorean teachings. Hou Pythagoras incorporated the Orphic teachings will be revealed in the next section. a. The mgorean Religion
As explained previously, Pythagoras drew heavily on the teachings of the Orphic Mystery School. The religious and philosophical teachings of the Pythagoreans, which later influenced Plato, were as follows:
(i) The Law of Rebirth: The Need for Purification
The comunity of Pythagoras had much in comrnon with the Orphic communities that sought 'by rites and abstinences, to purify the souls of its followers and free them from the wheel of life." 157) The body, they believed, was the tomb of the soul. The main tenet of the religion which Pythagoras founded was the Orphic theory of the irmnortality and transmigration of the soul, a theory based on the kinship of al1 living things. He taught first that the soul is, of its own nature, immortal, that is, divine; that its original body is a star, a body of 'intelligent fire' , from which it enters into earth where it can enter only a mortal body. When this mortal body dies, the soul, in accordance with its deeds, that is, Divine Law, passes or transmigrates into other forms of life of man or animal or plant. There are differing points of view about the theory of transmigration. Hall writes:
"Concerning the theory of transmigration as disseminated by Pythagoras, there are differences of opinion. According to one view, he taught that mortals who during their earthly existence had by their actions become like certain animals, returned to earth again in the form of the beasts which they nad grown to resemble. Thus, a timid person would return in the form of a rabbit or a deer; a cruel person in the form of a wolf or other ferocious animal; and a cuming person in the guise of a fox. This concept, however, does not fit in to the general Pythagorean scheme, and it is far more likely that it was given in an allegorical rather than a literal sense. It was intended to convey the idea that human beings become bestial when they allow themselves to be dominated by their own lower desires and destructive tendencies. It is probable that the tenu transmigration is to be understood as what is more comonly called reincarnation, a doctrine which Pythagoras must have contacted directly or indirectly in India and Egypt." [58]
Related to this is the Pythagorean doctrine that "whatever comes into existence is born again in the revolutions of a certain cycle, nothing being absolutely new; and that al1 things that are born with life in them ought to be treated as kindred-" [59] According to Frost Jr., Pythagoras and his followers believed that the destiny of the soul, after it left the body, was determined by the quality of life within the body. As a result of this belief, long and involved rules, very similar to the Orphics', were prepared by Pythagoras, in order that each student should know and follow them with intense strictness. This was to insure an auspicious existence after death. One such rule for purification was the abstaining from eating the flesh of animals (vegetarianism). This is, in origin, writes Sybil Leek, a taboo relying on the blood brothership of man and beast. Santillana stresses this idea as well when he discusses this Pythagorean doctrine:
"The body is no better than a temporary prison house or 'tomb' of the living soul. But the incipient spiritualisrn here only accents the unity of al1 life: there is a bond of kinship uniting man to the gods above us and to the beasts below, for any soul may climb or descend to any rung in the ladder of existence. And the sin for which the fallen soul has been condemned to its round of mortal births was a mysterious breach of this unity, symbolized on earth by the shedding of blood." 160)
The Orphics, too, it will be recalled, had abstained from killing animals or eating flesh, sharing the same belief that the unity of life should be inviolate. Also, like the Orphics, the soul was viewed as being bound upon this wheel of birth or reincarnation until it became pure, at which point it regained a place in a star, joining in the Company of the immortal gods. (ii) The Law of One: Wnity
The god of Pythagoras was called the Monad, or The One, that is, Everything. God was described by him as "the Supreme Mind distributed throughout a11 parts of the universe - the Cause of al1 things, the Intelligence of al1 things, and the Power within al1 things." [6I] Pythagoras also taught that the motion of God was circular, that God's ~odywas composed of the substance of light, and that the nature of God was composed of the substance of truth. God, which is indivisible, has, as a number, the Unity (#Il which contains Infinity.
(iii) The Law of Tb@@: The Triune Nature of the Universe
As far as the 3-fold nature or tciad of the universe (#3) was concerned, like the Orphics before him, Pythagoras also declared that everything in nature could be divided into three parts; that "Al1 things consist of three." [62] Thus, the universe was divided by Pythagoras into three parts - the Supreme World, the Superior World and the Inferior World. The highest or Supreme World, which was a subtle spiritual essence interpenetrating al1 was, writes Hall, the home of Supreme Deity itself. This omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient and omniactive Deity pervaded each of the two lower worlds. The Superior World was the home of the immortals or superhuman men. Dwelling in this world were the archetypes (Pythagoras called them 'the sealsr) whose nature did not partake of material or earthly material. These archetypes cast upon the Inferior, or lower material World of form, reflections and were recognized only through their shadows or reflections. Pythagoras taught that each species had what he termed a seal (archetype) and that the physical form of each was an imprint in physical substance of its archetype (seal). In other words, each body was stamped with a divine pattern, given to it by God. Pythagoras indicated that it was the potential within man to reach a state whereby his gross nature would be cast off and "function in a body of spiritualized ether which would be in juxtaposition to his physical fom at al1 tirnes.... From this he would ascend into the realms of the immortals, where by divine birthright he belonged." 1631 The lowest or Inferior Woxld of Pythagoras, writes Hall, was the home of those partaking of material substance and labouring with or upon this substance - angels, mortal gods, daemons, mankind and the lower kingdoms; "those temporarily on the earth but capable of rising above that sphere by reason and philosophy." (641 The universe was also divided by the Pythagoreans into three concentric spheres - the natural world, the human world and the divine world. The threefold law also applied to the individual, who was seen to be composed of three elements which were distinct but interconnected - body, soul and spirit. Just as the Universal threefold law is centered in the unity of God, or in the Monad, so human threefoldness, daims Schuré, is centered in the consciousness of self and in the will, which integrates the faculties of body, soul and spirit into a living unity. Schuré writes that human and divine threefoldness, summed up in the Monad, constituted the sacred Tetrad of the Pythagoreans. We shall later see an application of this law in Plato's Spiritual-Psychological Theory of the Soul. The Triad, or the threefold law, was considered to be the most essential law of al1 things and the actual key to life. It symbolizes The One (#l), the Monad or the Divine Father; the whole or sum of the parts in a unit (Unity). It also contains the Duad (#2), a symbol of polarity, the masculine (Divine Father) and feminine (the Great Mother) . The Triad(t3) was thus made of these two, explains Tanner, and syrnbolized that God gave birth to his worlds. In other words, The One (androgenous) becomes the creative aspect when it divides into the Duad (masculine and ferninine) which is then capable of becoming a parent of progeny (the worlds). This threefold symbol of the txiangle (Triad) represented the three aspects of the spiritual body - body, soul and spirit.
(iv) ~ilcnce/Con~la~on/Mbtion: The &lystic~ision/~evelation
Pythagoras taught nothing to his disciples before the discipline of silence, for the soul had to be kept clear and purified to receive the true, unspoken 'secret language of the godsf in al1 its fonns, from rhythm, number and proportion to astronomy, and to grasp, writes Santillana, the connections between those formç that are not accessible to discursive thought. Silence was considered the first rudiment of contemplation. Contemplation, for Pythagoras, though intellectual and resulting in mathematical knowledge (which will be discussed in PART TWO), still retained, writes Russell, an element of ecstatic revelation. Cornford explains this:
"In approaching the moment of illumination... the soul must have reached out with every power intent.... The final act of recognition must be overwhelming, because the truth, in such a moment of insight, is not presented as an intellectual formula, compact and comprehensible. It cornes rather as an undefined mass of significance, fused in a glow of intense feeling. It may take years or generations for al1 the meaning and implications to be expressed in words, ... When the feeling has passed, the thought is felt, an intellectual content distilled into
the language of prose. " [65]
b. Conclusion
Rs previously explained, the wheel of life and death signified the periodic descent of spirit into matter. However, this law of birth and death could be transcended by initiation into the Mysteries and through a certain process that was known as operative theology, both of which were very much a part of the Pythagorean Mystery School. It was the belief of Pythagoras that during the course of physical existence, part of the spirit which is dormant in form could be awakened without the intervention of death, and thus consciously reunited with the overshadowing substance of itself through initiation rites, silence, purification, study and contemplation. This is and was the primary purposc and consummate achievement of the Mysteries, "that man shall become aware of and consciously be reunited with the divine source of himsclf without tasting of physical àissolution." [66] The core curriculum of the Pythagorean School will be presented later in PART TWO in conjunction with Plato's Scheme of Higher Education to which it clearly relates.
2. The ûrphic and Fytbaqerean Influence on Plata's Reliqious and Philorophical Doctrine8
A. Platofs Cosmology: Gad and 'the qodsv
A discussion of Plato's Theory of Ideas would be incomplete without discussing, somewhat briefly, his cosmology, which was very much influenced and in harmony with Orphic and Pythagorean cosmology. Will Durant writes that "Everything in Plato's metaphysics turns upon the theory of Ideas." [67] He explains, like the Orphics and Pythagoreans before him, that God, which is the Prime Mover Unmoved or the Sou1 of the World, moves and orders al1 things according to eternal laws and what Plato refers to as Forms, perfect and changeless Ideas, which Durant daims the Neo-Platonists viewed as the Logos or Divine Wisdom or Mind of God. The highest of the Ideas is The Good, and at times, Plato identifies this with God hhself. More frequently, The Good is "the guiding instrument of creation, the supreme fom towards which al1 things are drawn. To perceive this Good, to vision the moulding ideal of the creative process, is the loftiest goal of knowledge." [68] Plato, writes Grube, uses the word God and 'the gods' in distinct ways. At times, he is stressing the existence of one supreme Reality (God). This supxeme Being is both static and dynamic. The static aspect of the Divine was described by Plato, writes Grube, as the ultimate, supreme reality, the highest form of being, the eternal absolute, This ultimate existence is the highest Platonic Form or Idea, which remains suprme to the end. God is also spoken by Plato as the creator of everything in the universe; the source of al1 souls; the life of al1 nature; the goal of al1 human life. This, for Grube, represents the dynamic aspect of the Divine, which represented "God as the creator, the first link in the chain not of existence but of causation, the maker, an active force causing movement and life." [69] The first and therefore ultimate existences are the Platonic Forms or Ideas. The Ideas of Truth, Justice, Goodness and Beauty, for instance, are of the God of Plato, as they are al1 aspects of The One. Plato never calls his Ideas gods. The Platonic 'gods' are "those more than human faces personified, in whom we may find help and guidance in living the good life." [70] These are the gods of the Orphic and Eleusinian myths. The Platonic gods must confonn to an eternal scale of absolute values. They did not create them, alter them or indeed desire to do so, explains Grube. The gods are only divine because of their relationship with the Ideas, in the contemplation of which they too find happiness of their eternal life. Plato firmly believed that there were some kind of higher forces which worked fox go&. Eros and Aphrodite, two gods described in the Phaedrus, represented for Plato the love of truth and beauty, which makes one a lover of wisdom, a philosopher. For Plato, they are real forces, real deities, explains Grube, and Plato believed in them in that sense. Like the Orphics, he believed also that such a god is a higher power which may be invoked to act within its domain and affect some aspect of the world. Plato often describes Socrates using the power of invocation and prayer, calling often upon the gods to help him in arguments, 'for such a formula could be used in al1 sincerity by any one with a sense of the power of such forces as the gods represent." [71] Plato believed, like the Orphics and Pythagoreans, that one cannot achieve The Good without the assistance and guidance of those Higher Sources, In his book, Timaeus, Plato explains the creation of the universe by using a Demiurge, or world architect, who takes already created 'Ideas' and matter and moulds the universe. He also describes how the Demiurge endowed the world (universe) with a soul - The World Soul - which Plato considers to be the cause of motion, beauty, order and hamony. He explains that this world soul is between the world of 'ideas' and the world of things which we see and experience, Plato's Soul of the World acts, writes Frost Jr., "according to definite laws, the laws of its own nature, and is the cause of al1 law, hamony, order, of life, mind and knowledge." [72] According to Plato, this Demiurge also created the souls of al1 the planets and al1 individual souls. He taught tnat the individual souls are eternal, having existed before they came into bodies. It is during this pre-existence that each immortal soul is able to see and contemplate the pure and Beautiful world of perfect Ideas. However, coming into the body is like entering a prison, for the body clouds the soul, which then forgets al1 that it has seen. The soul is pulfed down, debased by the body. Thus, Plato's emphasis that the goal of the soul is to free itself £rom the hold of the body in order that it may see truth clearly. He explained, like the Oxphics (and Egyptians), Pythagoreans and Eleusinians before him, that the ultimate goal of life is to release the sou1 from the body so that it may return to its star (which the soul occupied before incarnation), where it may once again eternally contemplate the Beautiful and pure world of Ideas. If the soul succeeds in mastering control of the lower physical appetites and passions/feelings/desires of the material world, it will return to its star and dwell there forever. However, if it fails, the soul will return, moving from one body to another, until it succeeds. Here again, writes Frost Jr., is the connection to the familiar early Orphic idea of the transmigration or reincarnation of the soul. The soul, however, whether or not it succeeds in being freed from matter and its temptations, cannot be destroyed. The eternal pre-existence and inmtortality of the soul is a fundamental Orphic doctrine well accepted by Plato. Therefore, knowledge for him, writes Frost Jr., is not a new thing for the soul, but is simply a recollection of what was forgotten because of the limitation of embodiment. B. Plators Conception of the mrtality, Reincarnation and Purification of the Sool: The Doctrine of Remembrance
The conception of the soul as the highest part of man was central to each of the rnystery schools that we have so far examined. Grube explains :
"The conception of the soul as the highest part of man seems to have been imported into Greece by those mystical teachers and prophets who are usually somewhat surmnarily lumped together as the Orphics. Their doctrines came £rom the East; they seem to have taught an immortality that was no longer a pale reflection of earthly life, but a release from the body and a deliverance. The body to them was the prison or tomb of the soul.. . . Man then aims at the purification of this soul, and after many incarnations rises to perfection and is absorbed, or reabsorbed, into the divine. It was probably under Orphic influence that the Pythagoreans developed their way of life as a gradua1 process of purification. But to them this immortal psyche was the intellectual power of man and purification lay to a large extent through a strictly scientific, which to them rneant a mathematical, training .... From them must have corne the conception of the intellect as the noblest and inmortal part of man, of salvation through knowledge.. .." [73]
This conception of the soul is very much at the heart of Plato's religious philosophy. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul first appears at the end of the Gorgias in the myth of the day of judgement. Grube daims that Plato added this as in inducement to the good life. In the Meno, Plato emphasizes the hortality of the soul to introduce the theory of recollection, for example, in the way we can elicit from within ourselves, mathematical knowledge that we could not have learned in this lifetime. Knowledge, says Plato, is only recollection; learning is only remembering what our soul knew before birth and from past lives. Plato's Socrates speaks of the ancient rnystery of the immortality of the soul and the doctrine of remernbrance when he says to Meno (81a-e): '...I have heard from certain wise men and women who spoke of things divine.... They spoke of a glorious truth.... Some of them were priests and priestesses who had studied how they might be able to give a reason of their profession ...they Say that the soul of man is immortal, and at one time has an end, which is temed dying, and at another the is born again, but is never destroyed. And the moral is that a man ought to live always in perfect holiness .... The soul, then, as being immortal, and having been born again many times, and having seen al1 things that exist, whether in this world or in the world below, has knowledge of them all; and it is no wonder that she should be able to cal1 to remembrance al1 that she ever knew about virtue and about everything; for as al1 nature is akin, and the soul has learned al1 things, there is no dîfficulty in her eliciting, or as men say 'learning' , out of a single recollection, al1 the rest... for al1 inquiry and al1 learning is but recollection." [74]
The doctrine that knowledge is reminiscence is pursued further by Plato in the Phaedo, where Socrates, on the day of his death, is attempting to prove the imortality of the soul. Here, recollection is linked with the theory of Ideas, explains Grube, which enables Plato to reveal his belief in the essential kinship of the human soul with the world of thought. This doctrine writes Fulton Anderson:
"rests on the hypothesis that while inhabiting an intelligible reaim in a previous mode of existence the soul has been in direct contact with Forms. On its entry to the present world the soul is enclosed in a body and is consequently rendered subject to the darkness of sense and the disturbance of physical appetite. It forgets the objects which it has formerly entertained. On the occasion of the presentation of particulars it is reminded of the Forms which it has already known and through memory recognizes
In the Phaedo, the soul is thought by Platonic Socrates to be that part of man by which he 'knows8 these eternal objects of knowledge, that is, the Forms or Ideas. It is only by reasoning, and not through the bodily senses, passions, pleasures and pains, that the mind can attain truth and apprehend the eternal Forms- The soul at this point does not include any other aspect beyond the reason. "The way of philosophy is to withdraw oneself as far as possible from al1 these bodily affections, to 'purify' oneself from th-, to grant them no mercy and to keep them rigidly under control" [76] in order to attain this knowledge of true reality, that is, of the Forms. Plato's Socrates explains, however, that this purification cannot be fully realized until the separation of the soul from the body is conrplete after death; when the inmiorta1 soul, totally unencumbered by the physical body, is able to acquire that knowledge. Death is revealed by Socrates, in his final day, as the separation of the soul from the body. The philosopher, he says, does not fear death because during his life "he has been preparing himself to live as nearly in a state of death as he could,,.rejoicing to go to the place where he hopes to gain the wisdom that he has passionately longed for al1 his life...fidy convinced that there and nowhere else will he meet with wisdom in its purity." 1771 1 do not believe that Plato's Socrates is here suggesting that the object of life is to get out of life. The aim of the philosophic soul, interprets Grube, is tu free itself, even during life, from any obstacles which beset the embodied soul, such as distracting pleasures and confusing sensations which the body puts in the way of the soul's development, and to transscend to a reah of pure and absolute being, with his pure intellect alone. The following sentiment of Plato's theory of purification from the body (66-b Phaedo), says Grube, is strongly charged with Orphic association:
"As long as we have our body, and the soul is confused...we shall never satisfactorily attain the object of our desires, which we Say is truth. For the body keeps us busy in a thousand ways ...fills us with desires, passions and fears, al1 kinds of imaginings and nonsense, so that we can never understand by means of it anything in truth and in reality, as we cal1 it.... Worst of all, when we have some respite from it and proceed to some investigation, it interferes once more at every point in our search, interrupts, disturbs and intimidates us, so that we carmot, because of it, contemplate the t~uth. We have in fact proved that, if we are ever to have any pure knowledge, we must escape from the body and consider things in themselves with our soul (mind) alone. Then ...we shall realize the wisdom that we desire and love. . .." [78]
The philosopher, writes Anderson, welcomes death as the final step of a long and narrow path that leads to an initiation into true being. The mythical description of the earth and a vision of judgement after death is provided by Plato at the end of the Phaedo to show what a sensible thing it is to spend one's life in caring for the soul. Plato's emphasis in the Phaedo on pure intellectualism and neglect of emotion is most likely, says Grube, due to the influence of the Orphics, who laid great stress on the immortality of the soul, and of the Pythagorean idea of the purification of the soul through experience of intellect. In the Symposium, however, Plato's emphasis on the nature of the soul is on love, on beauty and on life. The suprmacy of the intellect, stressed Grube, did not mean that Plato denied emotion. The goal of the philosopher is not to cut himself off completely from al1 pleasure and desire but to recognize that it is only through emotion (Eros), through desire and love, that one can rise from the inferior infatuation for an individual to the adoring contemplation of supreme/divine beauty. The ahof the philosophez, interprets Grube, is intellectual creation in that beauty. Plato is now revealing, he says, an offshoot of the soul which is mortal.
C. Platots Spiritrial-Psycboloqical Thcory of the Sou1
a. E. J. Urwick '8 Interpretation of Plato' 8 Transpersonal Psychologid Theory of the Sou1
(i) Introdnction
1 specifically chose E.J. Urwick's analysis of Plato's spiritual- psychological theory of the soul because he offers us a unique interpretation based on Plato's diagram of 'The Divided Liner (509D in his Republic), which assumes the existence of two very distinct worlds. According to Plato, the path of the human soul through life consists of two very distinct segments, which Urwick describes as 'the lower arc' and 'the upper arcf The lower arc or segment is referred to by Urwick as the life of the citizen soul in the world whereas the upper arc or segment is called the life of religion. The first represents the world of visible objects while the latter, the world of knowable objects- 1 would like the reader to note that Plato 's Spiri tua1-Psychological Theory of the Sou1 seems to be very much influenced by the previously mentioned Orphic and Pythagorean Law of Three, the Law of Hamony and Equilibrium within the individual, and the Need for Purification.
(ii) The Distinction Between the Path of Pursuit of Ends in the World Fr- the Path of Religion
The conduct of life in the world (lower arc) is motivated and guided by three faculties or qualities which both constitute and explain the nature of the soul within the individual psyche and within society. These three are physical appetites/desires, emotions/passions and intelligence. The Greek terms that Plato uses are Epithumia, Thumos and Logistikon. These three faculties 'form the human equipment of the soul which fits it for the attainment of whatever ends a man may set before himself in his passage through the life in the world." 1791 This part of Plato's conception of the life of the soul reflects what Urwick perceives as the 'path of Pursuit' of ends in the world. Each faculty, explains Plato, has its own particular expression in the world. Epithumia is the desiring element, that is, that part of the psyche which aims at the satisfaction of the senses. Its highest end, daims Plato, is sense-pleasure, while ignorance is its constant characteristic. It does not possess any virtue, but when submissive to control and guidance by the higher faculties, an individual is called temperate. Urnick explains this faculty further:
'The lowest faculty, imperfectly translated desire, or better appetite, corresponds to Inertia, as well as to illusion (the two chief characteristics of matter) because it is totally unprogressive .... It can never lead beyond a ceaseless recurrence of wants and satisfactions - of a feeling of emptiness and a temporary filling of the void. It is therefore really a stagnant condition; but we usually imagine that it is leading us to some end, and therein lies its illusory character." [8Oj
Thumos is emotional energy and passion as well as ambition and the impulse to dominate, succeed, get on in the world. It embodies, says Urwick, a 'pushfulness' coupled with excitability and restlessness. The gentler side of this faculty is the motion which, when attached to others, becomes affection. Power and Profit are the obvious ends of this faculty. However, at its best, it possesses a virtue of devoted loyalty to the orders given to it by the highest faculty, as well as fortitude, courage and devotion to those whom it serves. It stands midway between ignorance and knowledge. Urwick interprets this faculty further: "The intermediate faculty (which of course contains a large element of what we cal1 desire) is rather better, because the 'aimsr of ambition and the feelings of attachent to perçons and interests are at any rate progressive in the sense that they lead us on to the attainment of some sort of ends or achievements. They do not merely, as appetite does, involve movement oscillating between two fixed points. They move us in the direction of a changed state of being." [81]
Logistikon denotes the faculty of knowing and understanding - intelligence - together with the quality of goodness and stability of character. This faculty alone is capable of guiding the whole individual, for on it, says Urwick, depend al1 the virtues. The virtue peculiar to this faculty is the practical wisdorn which Urwick claims the Romans called prudentia. The 'endr pursued, that is, the peak O£ its attainment, is the right performance of al1 duty. Its function as intelligence is to attain scientific knowledge of the phenornenon of this world and by doing so, this faculty is said to know and understand. Urwick explains further:
"The highest faculty, intelligence or prudence, alone leads to a condition which is at once balanced and really progressive; for it alone can produce a state of 'moving equilibriumf (the very antithesis to inertia), and a state of progressive harmony (very different £rom restless struggling towards some imperfect goal)." [82] Aîthough al1 human beings (and al1 states) possess these three qualities or faculties in their souls, each is not functioning in the same degree in every soul. However, when al1 three faculties are functioning, the virtue of dutifulness (the virtue of each faculty doing its proper work well and doing the right thing rightly, i.e. 'right' activity, 'right' being, 'rightf attitude) is attained by the soul, and the citizen, now temperate, steadfast, prudent and just, attains the highest level of human excellence. This not only implies, says Urwick, the performance of al1 'duef or right actions but also the impulse of right motive throughout. At this stage, al1 of the three qualities or faculties of the soul are now working together harmoniously to perform al1 the duties required of the good individual or citizen. This is the goal of the sou1 on the lower arc or path. Urwick explains that the lower arc encompasses the entire life of the citizen who is conditioned on al1 sides by the fact that he is a member of a social group, industrial community and political state. A good life is reached when the individual learns to do his duty as a good citizen, a good householder, a good administrator, obeying the law, honouring the accepted gods and living his/her life with temperance, obedience, prudence and justice. This duty involves, in other words, what custom and law enjoin. The righteous man, living the right life in al1 his social relations, illustrates, says Urwick, only excellence of the soul on the lower arc. Plato, however, claims Urwick, asserts that this goodness is only a reflection of Reality; it is not True Righteousness and is therefore a lower form of excellence - that this attainment of perfected dutifulness is actually superseded by something that is intangible and which transcends altogether the excellence attained on the lower path. The true life of the soul and the conditions of its perfection are not yet experienced at all. These are to be found only on the upper arc, "an arc resembling an unseen and unsuspected pathway out of the cave of our present life, to be found only when the soul - even the soul of the 'righteous' man - has been converted, and a new sight has been given to it." 1833 The goal of the soul is no longer after the pursuit of ends in the world. The goal (excellence) now is of the spirit, that is, union with the Idea of 'The Good' or with God. This is the 'duty' or Righteousness of the spirit, the virtue of this higher faculty, the spirit, doing its work well, doing the right thing rightly, writes Urwick. This is the Righteousness of the purified soul on the upper path. The righteous individual now illustrates right attitude and right activity in relation to the divine rule of the world; the realization of the spirit of righteousness as the source of al1 our conduct. This upper arc embodies the path of life for the free soul conditioned only by its relation to the Supreme Reality, which Plato views as being beyond al1 societies and above al1 worlds. It is only when the performance of al1 duties has been learned and becomes habitua1 that this pathway opens up to permit the prepared soul 'to pass on to the life of single-minded devotion to the Good, of ceaseless performance of duties which are not primarily social, of unwearying pursuit of the wisdom which leads to the knowledge of God." 1841 Urwick interprets this arc as the Path of Religion, though he acknowledges that Plato did not imply that the lower arc is without religion. Urwick explains:
'We in the West, with our intense absorption in the path of pursuit, in attainments and satisfactions and achievements, in this world and the things of it, are almost content to identify religion with the goodness of the lower path - a religion of morality touched with emotion and linked to occasional worship, which satisfies us because it can be made quite compatible with a life of pursuit of
ends, and with a virtuous worldliness. " [85]
This conception of religion in the lower arc is very different, says Urwick, from Plato's conception of religion in the upper. The latter brings into play new powers or gifts of the soul which are dormant and unused upon the former. These powers of the soul in the upper arc are the three qualities or faculties of love (selfless devotion to 'The Goodf or God), faith (the attainment of powers to be used only in the service of 'The Goodf and the ceaseless activity for others without any care about results), and wisdom (the attainment of the knowledge of 'The Good' or God, as God is, in or behind al1 created forms. Wisdom is also discrimination or right discernnent in ail things, with no aim except to know 'Good' from the not-Good; God £rom the not- God) . Love, faith and wisdom, writes Urwick, are the perfect Forms of which desire, emotion and intelligence are the earthly copies. Wisdom is the greatest and "this is the emphasis which hamonized with al1 Plato's attitude, so much so that for him the one predominating quality which marks the soul on the upper path is wisdorn, and wisdom alone, not faith or love-" 1861 For entrance to the upper Path of Religion (Wisdorn), Plato taught that there was one great condition - 'the sou1 must first renounce al1 the desires and interests and attachments of the separate self, and so become free - bound by no law but love, subject to no restraint Save that of the chosen path itself. For this reason the life of the upper arc is called the life of renunciation or of detachment, or - best of al1 - of liberation; for its righteousness is no longer dutifulness, even of the completest kind; there is in it no element of restraint, or of conscious subordination of self-will to law; it irnplies identity of thought and ahand aspiration with the supreme will." [87] It is only the soul, says Urwick, which is fully prepared and made perfect upon the lower path, that can awaken to the realization of the existence of the upper. For only then 'can the eye of the soul be opened; then, and then only, can the righteous man corne to the use of that supreme faculty whose power is known only to the religious in the sense of seers of God." (88) Plato called this faculty 'Nous', a faculty not of the natural individual but a faculty whose function on the upper path belongs to the spiritual individual. Urwick explains:
"A part of the soul that is neither desire nor motion nor intellect, but Nous, the faculty of knowing reality, awakes from its long sleep, and soars upward to the real world, The upper arc is reached by the conversion which gives new sight. And not knowledge now, but wisdom is found, the wisdom which means God-knowledge. The shadows of the puppets of the world-life pass away; the eternal spirit of the man, set free and purified by the discipline of earth, goes forth to find the great Eternal Spirit of al1 worlds." 1891
Thus, to the lower arc belong intellect, mind and reason, with their results - prudence, knowledge, science, speculation and discovery of facts; to the higher arc belong Nous and spiricual discernment, with their results - wisdom, certainty and discerment of Reality and Truth - writes Urwick. These latter are faculties that should be consideted distinct fromthose faculties of the lower path. Urwick explains why:
"This is the supremely important thing, if we are to understand the scheme of life which Plato and his teachers held as true. And this is just what is most difficult. Our thought is so little religious, it is concerned so wholly with the path of pursuit that every single term is debased, as it were, by being applied to use on the lower level, and not reserved for its proper use on the
higher. " [go]
The upper path, or Path of Religion (Wisdom), is an extremely hard path to salvation and is open only to those who have, as Plato puts it, become 'fit for philosophy'. This is because, unlike the lower path which focuses on knowledge of the phenomenal universe, the upper Path of Religion deals with knowledge as direct perception of the spiritual universe. Plato's Nous is the spiritual consciousn~ssthat is awakened when al1 three qualities or faculties of the soul are working together harmoniously to perform al1 the duties required of the good man/woman in the world; to hamonize the whole soul or State into the condition of 'Justicef or Righteousness. However, this is not always the case.
b- Mental Conflict and Disease in the Sotrl: Plato ' s Contributions to the Field of Spiritual-Psycholq
In the precedîng section, P.latots triune conception of the soul (based on The Law of Three) on both the lower and upper arcs, and the virtues associated with each were examined. By extending the meaning of the soul on the iower arc (the Path of Pursuit of Ends in the World) to include physical desires/appetites and emotions/feelings/passions, Plato, explains Grube, is brought to the notion of mental conflict within the individual psyche or soul. Plato deals with the question as to how this conflict is to be solved, based on which part of the soul is in the ascendant. The good life (justice) is the proper functioning of every part of the soul in its proper place. One is only master of oneself when one's physical desires/appetites and feelings/passions are obedient to intellect or reason - symbolized by the charioteer of the allegorical myth of Plato's Phaedrus. This division of the individual soul into three parts Fs far from being a 'primitive view', but rather, this is very advanced, stresses Grube, '...one of the most startlingly modern things in Platonic philosophy is just this discovecy of the importance of conflict in the mind." [91] Although an individual is a creation of the Divine Creator, s/he may so order his/her life as not to live justly and wisely. In other words, the appetites or the passions may gain control and refuse to obey the dictates of the highest part of the soul - reason or mind. As explained, the ideal is a just individual with each part of his/her nature functioning in its proper way. But one can destroy this hannony (443c - Platof s Republic) : "In truth then, justice ...is not concerned with external actions but with the inner state of a man and his several parts. He must not allow every part of himself to interfere where it has no business, the different kinds of soul must not hinder one another. The just man puts his own house in order, thus ruling over himself, friendly with himself, harmonizing the three parts like the three notes of a melody - the high, the low and the middle, and any others there may be between - binding them al1 together so that £rom a rnultiplicity he becomes a unity, controlled and harmonious...he believes and declares a just and beautiful action to be that which preserves or achieves this state of harmony, and wisdom to him is the knowledge that presides over such deeds, whereas an unjust action is that which ever destroys the harmony, and ignorance is the belief that presides over that," [92]
Plato calls this dishamony between the different parts of the sou1 (between the physical desires/appetites, emotions/feelings/passions and the reason/intellect) disease of the soul or 'madnessf (in the Timaeus). This dishamony, as previously explained, relates to the vice which is the opposite of self-control or tentperance/moderation and righteousness in the Republic. It is caused when reason does not maintain its rule over the louer aspects of the soul. Teniper, anges, fear, envy, greed, etc., are called vices/sins by Plato whether they cause harm or not, and correspond to the second aspect of the soul. Excess pleasure, corresponding to the lowest ( first aspect) or physical appetite/desire level of the soul, is a madness or vice/sin that is attributed to physiological causes - eg. the excessive desire for sexual intercourse, food or drink. Both excess physical pleasure, temper and ignorance each seek their own satisfaction and are the direct result, interprets Grube, of civil war (conflict) in the soul between the fears and physical desires, and they correspond to what Plato calls 'disease in the soulf . Plato believes that no one would willingly harbour such disturbance/conflict (disease) in his soul (Timaeus 86d). In other words, no one really is mad/sins on purpose, for all, he daims, desire the good but a bad man is bad because of some flaw in his physical make- up (connection made between physical disease and lack of balance in the soul) OE an imperfect understanding of 'The Good' and hou it can be attained (due to lack of education), neither of which he prefers or chooses. However, crime/wickedness (disease of the soul) due to lack of control must be punished. Plato also explains that there is another vice or class of errors which are due to ignorance - simple ignorance and that worse kind in which it thinks it knows. In Plato's view, the former does little damage, writes Gntbe. However, the latter, when accompanied by strength and power, does the greatest damage. Yet, Plato claims that whatever action is taken by a disciplined soul while under the influence of ignorance and wrong opinion, that is, by those who think they know what they do not know, or who hold wrong moral beliefs, is not a sin. Why? Plato explains that this is due to ignorance or lack of philosophic knowledge about 'The Good' ; in other words, misdirected good. It is ignorance that does most harm in the world, not sinfulness. In fact, he refers to al1 evil as being a lack of wisdorn. Plato believes that corrective justice/ punishment cannot help to remedy this vice. The only way to heal this is not so much by corrective punishment but by knowledge and education, which is a far more powerful fighter against evil. (This theme will be discussed in PART TWO). Thus, it is Plato's aim (as well as Socrates' who influenced him in this areal "to show that injustice is a disease, in the individu21 as in the state. If a man or state were truly 'healthy,' with al1 parts integrated in a hamony, then that man or state would not commit injustice, even if given the power to do so." [93) This brings us to a second contribution of Plators, that of the very close connection between physical disease and a lack of balance in the soul, which is briefly hinted at by Plato in his Charmides, when he writes (156e-157c):
"...just as one must not attempt to doctor eyes without head or head without body, so also not body without soul; and that the cause of many diseases eluding the doctors among the Greeks is that they are ignorant of the whole, to which care must be given, because if it is not in beautiful condition, the part is not able to be in good condition. For he said that everything starts from the soul, both bad and good things for the body and for the entire human being, and they flow £rom there just as from the head to the eyes, and so one ought first and foremost to treat that, if the head and the rest of the body are going to be in beautiful condition. He said that the soul is treated, blessed one, with certain incantations, and that these incantations are beautiful speeches; that from such speeches sound-mindedness cornes to be in souls, and once it has corne to be and is present, then it is easy to provide health both for the head and for the rest of the body .... Let no one persuade you to treat his head with this drug unless he first submits his soul to be treated by you with the incantation...this is the error common among human beings, that some attempt to be doctors of these things separately, sound-mindedness and health." [94]
Plato here seems to be suggesting a wholistic medical approach where al1 parts of the body are 'doctored' in relation to the whole, and particularly in relation to the soul. Mso, the incantations appealing to that of mind and the non-physical realms are not unlike prayer, affirmations or Eastern mantras that may be used today, and which link body, end, and emotions, our soul, to Spirit ('The One' 1.
c. Conclusion
Several questions arose for Plato, as for al1 initiates before him, as to how the soul may be healed from the experience of mental conflict within, that is, how the soul may free itself from the bonds (vices) of the body while remaining in a world of changing shadows of real things. Mso, how can we corne to Know the Forms of 'The Good' (True Wisdom) in order that we may Be good and a source of good in the world? Plato firmiy believed that this was possible, however only as long as the rational part of man, Logistikon, rules his every action and al1 three parts are functioning in perfect order and hamony and as a unity. To attain this, the soul must be completely turned around from the path of pursuits in the world to the higher path of religion (wisdom). But how? Platots answer to these questions was through purification of the soul through an intensive educational system. This theme will be discussed in the latter section of PART TWO: The Education of the Sou1 as Portrayed in Plators Republic. POOTNOTES - PART ONE
1. Foundatiod Teachinqs of the Ozphic and Pythaqozean Mystery Schools
Hall, Twelve World Teachers , pp. 149-150. Ibid., pg. 59. Tanner, Mystery Teachings in World Religions, pg. 156. Hall, Twelve World Teachers, pg. 62. Radhakrishnan, S., Eastern Religions and Western Thought, pg. 136. Tanner, Mystery Teachinqs in World Religions, pg. 117. Hall, Twelve World Teachers, pg. 63. Ibid., pg. 63. Schuré, The Great Initiates, pg. 243. Ibid., pg. 246. Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, pg. 41. Ibid., pg. 39. Urwick, The Platonic Quest, pg. 18. Schuré, The Great Initiates, pg. 268. Durant, The Story of Philosophy, pg. 13. Hall, The Secret Teachings of Al1 Ages, pg. LVfL. Taylor, The Mind of Plato, pg. 11. Tanner, The Mystery Teachings in World Religions, pg. 45. Leek, Sybil, Numerology - The Magic of Numbers, pg. 4. Hall, The Secret Teachinqs of AU Ages, pg. LXVïI. Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, pg- 52. Santillana, Giorgio de, The Origins of Scientific Thought, pg. 57. Hall, The Secret Teachings of Al1 Ages, pg. W. Ibid., pg. LXVïI. Ibid., pg. -1. Ibid., pg. WI. Santillana, The Origins of Scientific Thought, pg. 58. Hall, The Secret Teachings of Al1 Ages, pg. EUWï.
2. The Orpbic and Pythaqorean Influence on Plato8s Religions and Philosophicaï Doctrines
67. Durant, Will, The Story of Civilization, vol, 2, pg. 516. Ibid., pg. 516. Grube, Platots Thought, pg. 151. Ibid., pg- 152. Ibid., pg. 156- Frost Jr-, Basic Teachings of the Great Philosophers, pg.157 Grube, Plato's Thought, pg. 121. Jowett, B., Plato-Meno, pg. 37. Church, F. J., Platots Phaedo, pg. XIV. Grube, Plato's Thought, pg. 126. Church, Platots Fhaedo, pg- 13. Grube, Platots Thought, pg. 125. Urwick, The Platonic Quest, pg. 22. Ibid., pg. 29. Ibid., pg. 29. Ibid., pg. 29, Ibid., pg. 24. Ibid., pg. 22. Ibid., pg. 26. Ibid., pg. 27. Ibid., pg. 24. Ibid., pg. 25. Ibid., pg. 39. Ibid., pg. 25. Grube, Plato's Thought, pg. 133. Ibid-, pp. 134-5. Rauch, Leo, Plato s The Republic and Phaedrus : Symposium; Apology; Crito; Phaedo; and Other Works, pg. 138. West, Thomas and West, Grace, Charmides, pp. 19-20. Another Greek Mystery School that was influential during Platots time was the Eleusinian. Plato was also initiated into the teachings of this mystery school, generally believed to have been founded by Eumolpos about 1400 B.C.. The principles behind the Eleusinian Mysteries have been preserved to modern times through the Platonic systern of philosophy. The Eleusinian cult is very close to the Orphic and both are believed to be branches of the earlier Isis and Osiris Mysteries of Egypt (2500-2000 B-C.). The rites of the Eleusinian Mysteries were divided, as we shall see, into two degrees: called the Lesser and the Greater Mysteries. Most of the material covered in this section will be taken from the work of Manly Hall, who specialized in the field of the ancient mystery schools (The Mysteries) and provided us with a great deal of information about th-, including details of the initiatic process.
A. The Lesser Eiysteries
The Lesser Mysteries were dedicated to Persephone. Hall writes that Thomas Taylor, in his Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries, sums up the purpose of the Lesser Mysteries as follows:
"The Lesser Myste~ieswere dcsigned by the ancient theologists, their founders, to signify occultly the condition of the unpurified soul invested with an earthly body, and enveloped in a material and physical nature." [95]
Central to the Lesser Mysteries is the legend of the abduction of the goddess Persephone by Pluto, the Lord of the Underworld, which was also known as Hades. This myth signified the soul or psyche (symbolized by Persephone) in an earthly body, wandering in darkness because it is overcome by the animal nature. The Eleusinian teaching was that man, the psyche (Persephone), must rise above ignorance, that is, his cravings, habits, viewpoints and limitations of his Plutonic personality. He must outgrow the desire for material possessions and al1 lesser values during his life. Why was this teaching emphasized? Because it was the belief of the Eleusinians flike the Orphies) that the soul or psyche is in essence a spiritual thing, whose 'true home is in the higher worlds, where, free from the bondage of material form and material concepts, it is said to be tmly alive and self- expressive. " [96] According to this doctrine, the human or physical nature of man is like a tomb, which, because it is a false and impermanent thing, is the source of al1 suffering and sorrow. The body is described by Plato as the sepulchre of the soul and, according to Hall, Plato means not only of the human form but also the human nature. Hall elaborates on the gloom and depression of the Lesser Mysterics, writing:
"...the Lesser Mysteries represented the agony of the spiritual soui unable to express itself because it has accepted the limitations and illusions of the human environment. The crux of the Eleusinian argument was that man is neither better nor wiser after death than during life. If he does not rise above ignorance during his sojourn here, man goes at death into eternity to wander about forever, making the same mistakes which he made here. If he does not outgrow the desire for material possessions here, he will carry it with him into the invisible world, where, because he can never gratify the desire, he will contitiue in endless agony. " 197 1
Thus, it was the Eleusinian belief that man is destined by law to wander endlessly in lives and deaths, until that point when spiritual awareness is attained and he could be freed. (Transmigration and reincanation were also taught in these Mysteries). In the minds of the Eleusinian philosophers, birth into the physical world (first birth) was therefore considered death and that "the only true birth was that of the spiritual soul of man rising out of the womb of his fleshly nature-" [98] This is what was meant by twice born. Radhakrishnan also writes: "Our first birth is the physical one; the second is unto what is real in us, to be changed in our nature. The yearning of religion is this desire for union with our true self." (993 And it was through initiation that one entered into an awareness of our real self-hood, which is divine. a. Initiation Into the Lesser Mysterics
The Eleusinian philosophers claimed that the majority of people were ruled by their animal personalities, which they symbolized as living in the undemoxld of death, and not by their higher living spirit. Thus initiation was considered to be of great importance, though it was understood that only a small percentage of those attending the ceremonies were capable of grasping through union with their real self (the divine flame within), the full meaning of what they saw and heard. The rituals were highly involved and a deep study of Greek mythology was required to understand them. Secret keys were necessary to interpret the myths in their mystic light. Thus many of the initiates-in-training did not understand the mystic meaning of the allegory. Most, claims Hall, believed that it referred solely to the succession of the seasons since the Lesser Mysteries were celebrated annually in Spring (probably at the vernal equinox) . Plato himself wrote in Phaedra that many are the thyrsus bearers, but feu are the 'mystes' . Where did Plato get the word 'mystes'? Hall answers this when explaining the initiation of the Lesser Mysteries:
"As the degree dealt largely with the miseries of those who failed to make the best use of their philosophic opportunities, the chambers of initiation were subterranean and the horrors of Hades were vividly depicted in a complicated ritualistic drama. After passing successfully through the tortuous passageways, with their trials and dangers, the candidate received the honorary title of Mystes. This meant one who saw through a veil or had a clouded vision. It also signified that the candidate had been brought up to the veil, which would be tom away in the higher degree. The modern word mystic, as referring to a seeker after truth according to the dictates of the heart along the path of faith, is probably derived from this ancient word, for faith is belief in the reality of things unseen or veiled." f1001
It was not required by the initiates to grasp anything with usual understanding (they were not supposed to leam anything), but rather to undergo an inner experience (mystical) that put thern into a particular frame of mind (what the Orphics described as 'ecstatic' ) . God was not perceived by the Eleusinian initiates, claims Radhakrishnan, as a word or a concept, but rather as a higher state of consciousness that can be realized by us here and now in the flesh. Not all, however, were capable, he says, of experiencing this frame of mind. Those initiates that did then went on to The Greater Mysteries. Before we move on to the Greater Mysteries, f would like to add that, like Plato, the Eleusinian mystics deeply stressed the evil of suicide (as did the Orphics), explaining that there was a deep mystery concerning this criminal act of which they were not pennitted to speak, but warned their students that a great sorrow cornes to al1 who succeed in taking their own life.
B. The Greater Xysteries
Hall writes that Thomas Taylor synthesizes the doctrine of the Greater Mysteries with the following statement: "The Greater Mysteries obscurely intimated, by mystic and splendid visions, the felicity of the sou1 both here and hereafter when purified from the defilernent of a material nature, and constantly elevated to the realities of intellectual (spiritual) vision." [101] Plato rnakes reference to this mystic and splendid vision of the Greater Mysteries when he has Socrates say, in the Phaedrus (#250):
"...But beauty! We were once able to behold it shining clear at the time when we followed in the happy troop, some of us with Zeus, others with another god; and we saw this blessed vision and were initiated into that mystery which it is right to cal1 the most blessed of all. This we celebrated. ... Whole and unblemished also, steadfast and blissful were the spectacles we gazed at in the pure light of final revelation, pure initiates as we were, not disfigured by this so-called body that we carry about with us, imprisoned in it like oysters in a shell." (1021
Both women and children were permitted admission into the Eleusinian Lesser Mysteries and, as a result, there were at one time thousands of initiates. However, most of this vast group were not at al1 prepared for the highest spiritual and mystical doctrines of the Greater Mysteries, so a division within the society itself necessarily took place. The higher teachings were taught to only a small number of initiates who, as a result of their unusual superior mentality, easily comprehended the deep, underlying philosophical concepts inherent within them. Unlike the Lesser Mysteries, which dealt with the first or physical birth, when consciousness descends into the sphere of illusion and assumes the veil of unrcality, once the second birth was experienced within, "the Greater Mysteries discussed the principles of spiritual regeneration and revealed to initiates not only the simplest but also the most direct and complete method of liberating their higher natures from the bondage of material ignorance." (1031 The initiates were taught how to intercede with Pluto (like Ceres) to permit Persephone (the initiate's soul) to ascend from the dark side of his material nature (cravings or appetites, habits, viewpoints, attitudes, limitations, etc.,) into the light of understanding or true knowledge. Once freed from the chains of clay and crystallized concepts, Hall writes that the initiate was liberated for al1 eternity rather than only for a period of his life. This was due to the belief that the initiate no longer held ont0 those soul qualities that bound him, by divine law, to the wheel of rebirth. According to Hall, the secret exercises that were given to the disciples of the higher degrees for the purpose of spiritual unfolciment are unknown. However, he believes that they were similar to those given in the Brahmanic Mysteries, since it is known, he writes, that the Eleusinian ceremonies were closed with the Sanskrit words, "Konx Om Pax'' - "Go in Peacefl. The initiates were to depart with their minds serene
a. Initiation Into the Greater Mysteries
It was only after be had successfully passed through the ordeals of the Lesser Mysteries that the candidate was acfmitted into the Greater, where in his initiatory wanderings the candidate passed through two gates. The first descended into the lower chambers (worlds) and symbolized his birth into ignorance. The second gate, however, led upwards, where the disciple entered chambers that increased, progressively, in brilliancy by unseen lamps, symbolizing the spirit's ascent from the lower worlds into the realms of bliss. In the final chamber stood the statue of the Goddess Ceres, which symbolized the upper world or the abode of Light and Truth. It was here, in the presence of the hierophant and surrounded by priests, that the initiate was instnicted in the highest of the secret teachings or mysteries of the Eleusinian School. On completing thïs ceremony, the initiate was then hailed as an 'Epoptes' , which means, according to Hall, "one who has beheld or seen directly." 11041
2. Conclusion
It is difficult to obtain satisfying information concerning the Eleusinian rnysteries, for the candidates, including Plato, were bound by inviolable oaths never to reveal their inner secrets to the profane. Nevertheless, some of their secrets have been preserved. Hall tells us that the initiates of the Eleusinian School were famaus throughout Greece for both the baauty of their philosophical concepts and the high standards of rnorality which they demonstrated in their daily lives. Their intellectual understanding of the One Source of Light and Truth profoundly influenced the great minds of the world. For instance, Aesychylus, Sophocles, Euripedes, Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar al1 availed themselves of the initiatory rites, Pindar, Plato, Cicero and Epictetus al1 spoke about the Mysteries of Eleusis with great admiration, In fact, Hall writes that Cicero claimed the Eleusinian Mysteries to be the greatest of al1 philosophical institutions, teaching men not only how to live but also how to die. He also mentions that, according to author Heckethorn, the Eleusinian Mysteries "survived al1 others and did not cease to exist as an institution until nearly four hundred years after Christ, when they wete finally suppressed by Theodosius.. ., who cruelly destroyed al1 who did not accept the Christian faith." 11051 Edouard Schuré, along with Hall, claims that Socrates however refused to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries. He realized that if he became a member, he would be obliged, under oath, to keep his tongue sealed. He already 'knew', understood and believed in the total and supreme Truth which the great Mysteries taught, writes Schuré, and believed it his 'callingf to discourse with whoever was willing to listen.
Chief among the dialogues that deal with the rnysteries, in my opinion, are the Meno, Phaedo, Symposium, Republic, Phaedrus and Timaeus. One can find inherent within each of these dialogues a synthesis of much of what Plato had learncd as a result of his being initiated into and studying the secret doctrines of the mystery schools - the idea of the supremacy of the Absolute Spirit (The Doctrine of One God); the idea of Cosmic or Divine Order; the existence of the gods (divine assistance); the reality of mystic consciousness; the imrnortality and godlike character of the soul; the idea of rebirth (detedned by the laws of Nature); the idea of the wheel of birth until release or liberation of the soul is realized; the idea of the bondage of the soul in the body and the possibility of release by purification; the insistence on ascetic discipline; the distinction between higher and lower knowledge; the idea of initiations that lead to expansions of awareness or consciousness; the benefits of educating with respect to the soul, and how to do this. Plato, however, because he was an initiate of some of the sacred orders or mystery schools, was not allowed to reveal the secrets of human regeneration comunicated to candidates for initiation. He was severely criticized "because in his writings he revealed to the public many af the secret philosophic principles of the Mysteries." 11061 Hall also reveals that even in Plato's own the, "he was accused of veiling too thinly the divine arcana. Throughout Plato's writings are hints of secret knowledge and allusions to mysteries concealed from the profane." [107] If one looks closely at several dialogues of Plato, one begins to becorne aware of references to initiation and the initiate, as well as the mysteries. For instance, in the Meno (76c-77b), Socrates confides to Meno:
"...I am sure that you would be of the same opinion if you would only stay and be initiated, and were not compelled, as you said yesterday, to go away before the mysteries." [108]
In the Gorgias, Socrates sarcastically tells Callicles (497):
"You are a lucky man, Callicles, to be initiated into the Greater Mysteries before the Lesser. 1 didnlt think they allowed it." [log]
In the Symposium, Diotima, whom Socrates describes to Agathon as "a woman wise in this and in many other kinds of knowledge..,was my instructress in the art of love ..." [Il01 reveals to Socrates (209e- 210e). some aspects of the 'Mystery of Love' : "These are the lesser mysteries of love into which even you, Socrates, may enter; to the greater and more hidden ones which are the crown of these, and to which, if you pursue them in a right spirit, they will lead, 1 know not whether you will be able to attain- But 1 will do my utmost to inform you, and do you follow if you can." [Ill]
In the Phaedo (69 c+d), Socrates is revealing a great deal about the Lessor and Greater Mysteries, when he says to Sidas:
"And 1 fancy that the men who established our mysteries had a very real meaning: in truth, they have been telling us in parables al1 the the that whosoever cornes to Hades uninitiated and profane will lie in the mire, while he that has been purified and initiated shall dwell with the gods. For 'the thyrsus-bearers are many, ' as they Say in the mysteries, 'but the inspired few. ' And by these last, 1 believe, are meant only the true philosophers. And I in my life have striven as hard as 1 was able, and have left nothing undone, that 1 might becorne one of them." [112]
In the Phaedrus, there are several references to the initiate, initiation and the mysteries in Socrates' Second Speech to Phaedrus. For instance, he says (#249), when discussing 'the gods' :
'...if a man makes a right use of such entities as memoranda, always being perfectly initiated into perfect mysteries, he alone becomes t~ly perfected. " El131
The Eleusinian emphasis on the 'Principle of Initiation' involving the initiate's journey front the Lessor to the Greater Mysteries (an evolutionary initiatic process of purification that at various stages involves a series of 'trials' or tests) can be seen in Plato's scheme of education which he outlined in his Republic (discussed in PART TWO). Hall, The Secret Teachings of Al1 Ages, pg. XXIX. Ibid., pg. XXIX. Ibid., pg. XXIX. Ibid., pg. XXIX. Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought, pg. 139. Hall, The Secret Teachings of Ai1 Ages, pg- XXX. Ibid., pg. XXX. Helmbold, W-C. and Rabinowitz, W.G., Phaedrus - Plato, pg. 33. Hall, The Secret Teachinqs of Ai1 Ages, pg. XXX- Ibid., py. XXX. Ibid., pg. XXXI.
2. Conclusion
Hall, The Secret Teachings of Ail Ages, pg. XXI. Hall, Twelve World Teachers, pg. 157. Jowett, Plato-Meno, pg. 31. Helmbold and Rabinowitz, Plato-Gorgias, pg. 69. Jowett, Plato-Symposium, pg. 43. Ibid., pg. 51. Church, Platovs Phaedo, pg. 15. Helmbold and Rabinowitz, Phaedrus-Plato, pg. 32. Besides being initiated into the Egyptian, Orphic, Pythagorean and Eleusinian mystery schools, according to Hall's research, Plato also attached himself to Cratylus, of the sect of Heraclitus, and it seems that he was initiated into this sect, too. Latex, he studied with Hermogenes. Plato also travelled to Cyrene, where he studied geometry with Theodorus. Russell writes that sorne researchers daim that Plato met with the Persian Magi and learned their doctrines in Phoenicia. Urwick and Hall state, quite ernphatically, and Radhakrishnan, quite subtly, that Plato was also influenced by those well-versed in the philosophical doctrine of ancient India, even though the Eastern wars had prevented him from journeying to India. It is rny conviction that Plato was not deterred from seeking the wisdom of India's ancient doctrine within the Vedanta. Plato was deeply influenced by Pythagoras and there are strong arguments that Pythagoras did visit India, remaining and studying there for several years, under the influence, writes Hall, of a Brahmin priest. If Plato, who was deeply influenced by Pythagoras, was not able to physically travel to India, then, 1 believe, being the dedicated investigator that he was, with evidently the financial means and connections to attain whatever was appropriate to Eurther his understanding of spiritual truth, it seems plausible that he would have searched for this wisdom elsewhere, seeking out books, teachers, priests and travellers, especially in Egypt, in order to learn more about the ancient Indian doctrines from them. 1 agree with Urwick who insists that this Indian doctrine which influenced Pythagoras pervades Plato's dialogues, especially his Republic. PART Two:
OF PLATO ' S MXSTERX SCIIOOL AND EUS VLSION OF EDUCATION AS PûRTRAPED IN HIS 'REPUBLIC8
In addition to the illumination which preceded from his own soul, Plato appears to have sought out knowledge and philosophical inspiration from every source known to him, seeking and embodying their secret teachings. As Hall writes, he thirsted after, sought out and integrated the wisdom of the ancients. Now he was ready to return home to continue serving others for the rest of his earthly life, as was expected from an initiate. After returning £rom his wanderings, at approximately 40 years of age (Schuré writes at 50), Plato established himself in Athens, where he founded, like the Egyptians, Orphics and Pythagoreans before him, a society or community (brotherhood), a religion and a school. The three were interconnected. The emphasis of each was on education with respect to the Sou1 and Spirit ( 'The One' ) . Plato's school was called 'The Academy', named after a wooded place of exercise located in the suburbs of the city. Cornford writes that if Plato could not rule Athens, then at least, indirectly, he could influence the course of politics by inspiring and animating the future rulers of other States with his ideals. His fame spread quickly, explains Cornford, and disciples came to him not only £rom nearby cities but from distant lands. The Academy was primarily a school of philosophic statesmen. Some of the features of Plato's Academy were modelled on the Pythagorean comunities and mystery school, which found a central location at Tarentum, which was under the rule of Archytas, a Pythagorean. It was, for example, a firm belief of Pythagoras that in oxder to attain a rational understanding of God, man or nature, a study of mathematics (numbers, arithmetic and geometry), music and astronomy was essential. In order to accompany Pythagoras as a disciple, one had to have been thoroughly familiar with these sciences. According to Hall, an applicant was dismissed if, after being tested on these subjects, was found to be ignorant. Likewise, in Plato's Academy, it is said that over the entrance of his school, Plato placed the words: "Let none ignorant of geometry enter here", It was required that al1 of Plato's students should have a thorough acquaintance with mathematics, music and astronomy:
"He followed the Pythagorean persuasion that music was one of the essential forms of learning, indispensable to the successful development of the human personality. Music consisted of theory and practice. The theory of music was mathematical; the practice of music was philosophical.,.. To live without music is to die without peace, but to be enriched by its gentle persuasions is to find God and beauty everywhere. Only the heart that hows the beautiful, the hand that serves the good, and the mind that has contemplated the nature of the One Supreme Cause can be united to the advancement of the human estate." [il41
A wide circle was permitted admission to Plato's lectures. However, in the actual teaching, the conventional rnethod of Socrates was used. Aristotle came to Plato at the age of 17 and remained with him till Plato's death, at 81 years of age. While at the Academy, Plato wrote Socratic dialogues, "setting forth his own development of the Socratic philosophy in a form which would reach the educated public throughout the Greek world and attract pupils to the Academy." Cl151 Plators Republic became the most famous.
114. Hall, Manly, The Therapeutic Value of Music Including The Philosophy Of Music, pg. 52. 115. Cornford, The Republic of Plato, pg. XXVII. 1. Introduction
In PART ONE, 1 established a fairly direct exposure and influence upon Plato by several of the ancient mystery schools. ALso examined was how Plato's thought, influenced as well by Socrates, was bent chiefly on the question as to 'how' society could be reshaped so that one may realize the best or 'The Good' that is inherent within one's Soul. This major theme incorporated several lesser questions, as previously discussed in PART ONE:
How can the soul free itself from the bonds (vices) of the body while remaining in a world of changing shadows of real things? How can the soul be healed from the experience of mental conflict within? How can we corne to really know the forms of 'The Good' (True Wisdom), that we may be good and a source of good in the world? o How can the Soul be cornpletely turned around from the path of pursuits in the world to the higher path of religion (wisdom) ?
Plato's answer to al1 these questions is singular - through purification of the soul by means of an intensive educational system, envisioned by Plato in his Republic. Plato's educational scheme is based largely upon the religious and philosophical thought of these mystery schools, which al1 shared one objective in cornmon - education with respect to the Soul and Spirit and the training involved to become a true Initiate or 'Philosopher-King'.. Plato tells us himself that his only aim is to create a program to awaken the spiritual faculty (Nous) which every soul contains, by 'wheeling round the soul' from the worldly to the spiritual. The art of true education, then, is concerned with this very question as to 'how' one can most completely be turned around. Plato's aaswer to this question - through purification of the soul - was a theme endorsed and practiced by the Orphic, Pythagorean and Eleusinian Mystery Schools (as well as the Egyptian). It was believed by Plato that there is a need to purify the soul £rom the disharmonious elements which every normal soul contains and to set it in tune with the Spirit of Goodness. This purification of the soul, according to Plato, is two-fold: 1) by the education of the citizens through the indirect influences of a structured social environment/ community and the ordinances which regulate it, as Urwick explains, and 2) by the education of the young through direct teaching- Plato stresses that both types of education are required to achieve the realization and vision of the Divine Good. However, for the purpose of this paper, only the latter will be discussed. Plato's direct system of education focuses, especially at the earlier stages, on encouraging only those features which will help produce the type of character his Guardians are to express: "to reproduce the divine nature in themselves so far as man may." (1161 His complete educational scheme was envisioned by him as an evolutionary initiatic process of purification that, at various stages, culminates with a series of tests and initiations. This system of education is very mch based upon the Principle of Initiation of the ancient mystery schools. The school of Pythagoras, for example, apparently incorporated a series of initiations. His pupils had to pass through a series of 'degreesr before they were actually permitted persona1 contact with him:
"According to his biographess, his degrees were three in number. The first, that of 'Mathematicus', assuring his pupils proficiency in mathematics and geornetry, which was then.. .the basis upon which al1 other knowledge was erected. Secondly, the degree of 'Theoreticus', which dealt with superficial applications of the exact sciences, and lastly, the degree of 'Electus' , which entitled the candidate to pass forward into the light of the fullest illumination which he was capable of absorbing. The pupils of the Pythagorean school were divided into 'exoterici', or pupils in the outer grades, and 'esoterici', after they had passed the third degree of initiation and were entitled to the secret wisdom. Silence, secrecy and unconditional obedience were cazdinal principles of this great order." 1117)
The above is confirmed by Edouard Schuré [118] as well as Giorgio de Santillana [119]. Like Pythagoras, each stage of Plato's educational training, as will be seen, is followed by a series of tests to screen out those who are unfit for philosophy. Only those who succeed can be 'initiated' and pass on to the next stage of training. This process continues until one becomes a true Initiate or 'Philosopher-King'. 1 concur with Urwickrs view that the Republic, and especially the outline of his educational system, is really Flato's "supreme attempt to show us how the human soul can fit itself for that realization of the divine Good which is the goal of every soul's life." [120] Please keep in mind that a key to Plato's educational system and inherent within it, are the Orphic and Pythagorean principles of Simplicity, Harmony, Order and Unity. Also note the strong interconnection between Plato's scheme of education (3 main stages of purification) and his Spiri tua1-Psychological Theory of the Soul (3 elements or aspects of the Soul)
A. Purification of the Body (Physical -tites and Desires) : Preparation for Initiation
This stage is divided into two parts - the first ten years of the child's life and then the years from 10-18. Plato does not provide details about infant education in his Republic. However, in his Timaeus, Plato describes a soul's first contact with the world by explaining that a great confusion arises after the soul's entry into the world at birth, due to the mingling of the mortal aspects of the soul (physical desires and appetites, and unreasoning feelings and passions) with the immortal (reasoning intellect). The immortal aspect of the soul is tied dom into the body which, because it is matter, has motion of its own and is thus in a state of perpetual flux. Also, sensations from external sources pour in and cause further disturbance. Al1 this inner turbulence has to be reduced to order and thus Platols emphasis on the importance that continua1 rhythmic movement (eg. rocking the child) plays in the first three years of life - to still and to bring to peace this unmly confusion within. Therefore, the first duty of the child is to master this inner chaos and to balance him/herself. This process goes on throughout life. The child must, at this stage, both learn to perceive accurately and gain self-control over her/his physical desires such as hunger and thirst, "and here cornes the point of contact with the lowest part of the soul where such desires have their being." [lZl] From beginning to end, Plato insists upon the extreme importance of training in the earliest years of life. Why? It is then that the soul of the impressionable infant and child can be moulded to take on that which one wants to irnpress upon it (II 377). Thus, the tremendous influence of stories that reveal only the truth about the gods as good, told by nurses and mothers to small children. Plato explains (II 378):
"A poet ...ought always to represent the divine nature as it really is. And the truth is that that nature is good and must be described as such," [122]
For the first 10 years of a childrs life, Plato's education is predominantly focused on the physical body and on developing good health. Every school, therefore, must have a gymnasium and playground. Play and sport are to be the core of the curriculum, At 10, the child leaves the city and is sent out into the country in order to be protected from the corrupt 'habitsf of his/her parents and other elders (VïI 540)- We must begin with a clean slate, says Plato, who also emphasized that full equality of early educational opportunity be given to every child, male and female, and in every class (III 415). Why? In his allegory of the metals (III 41S), Plato explains that it is impossible to know where the most precious quality, gold (the composition of those fit to rule), will be revealed and so we must seek it in all. What PLato is here suggesting is universal education.
B. Purification of Both Body and Rnotions Leading to First Initiation
Between the ages of 10 and 18, the child, interprets Grube, becomes increasingly focused upon the outer world. Having achieved a greater level of order within, the student is now ready to deal with desires to possess things and thus must face the temptations and ambitions (2nd aspect of the soul) that result when one turns one's attention to objects outside hixdherself. There is, therefore, the need to develop the appropriate foundation for healthy desires, feelings and passions, and Plato suggests in Chapter IX that this can be done by the influence of the arts and by the inculcation of sound beliefs as to which pleasures are to be sought and which avoided. We must therefore have, says Plato, a form of curriculum that is simple, direct and in consonance with the child's control of his/her emotions. The two Orphic and Pythagorean themes of simplicity and harmony are at the heart of Plato's choice of teaching forms at this stage. Plato insists, for example, in the straightforward narrative style of poetry, in which there is no imitation of the words or voices of others. This is because the Guardians are not to learn any art of imitation, for that would not be in hamony with the singleness of function which runs throughout the State (III 395)- Also, the melodies/hymns must be linked to a rhythm which is appropriate to a life of courage and self-control, be in harmony with the nature of the good individual, and express steadfast endurance in al1 actions and peaceful sobriety in al1 relaxations. Plato explains in III 401:
"Hence ... the decisive importance of education in poetry and music: rhythm and harmony sink deep into the recesses of the soul and take the strongest hold there, bringing that grace of body and mind which is only to be found in one who is brought up in the right way." El231
In the teaching of religion (moral and religious instruction) in its simple form, al1 stories, myths, scriptures and poems must speak of a god as 'a being of entire simplicity', the author of good and only of good, and the source of Truth in both word and deed, incapable of both change and deception (II 382). Like the gods, is not the good man, the bravest and wisest, least disturbed by external influences (II 379)? Therefore, al1 writings that make death seem a thing to be larnented rnust be banned from the curriculum. Plato's students must learn to love the divine virtues which they must themselves acquire. The aim of a healthy development of body and emotions (the spiritual expression or feelings) is effected, says Plato, by gymnastics and music- The aim of physical training is to permit the sou1 to do its part unhindered. A physical culture makes for good health. Plato emphasized that only a 'good' soul, by its own excellence alone, can bring about the excellence of the body, but not vice-versa. The Platonic student cornes to understand why s/he must keep fit. The real work is on the improvement of the soul (111 410). Simplicity is once more the key, especially in a strictly vegetarian diet, like the Orphic's and Pythagorean's. Mere athletics and gymnastics make an individual too rough and quick-terripered. How can we find a gentle nature which also has great courage? Plato's answer to this question is through music. In 'musike', simplicity makes for self-control. Plato writes that it is through music that the soul learns harmony and rhythm as well as a disposition to justice. Music is therefore a vital part of the curriculum because it not only brings refinement of feeling and character (2nd aspect of the soul), but it also preserves and restores health (to the lowest aspect of the soul influenced by physical excesses). Like Pythagoras, Plato suggests that some diseases of the mind can be healed through music. Will Durant writes: "The unconscious sources of human thought are touched and soothed by such methods...." [124] Too much music, however, says Plato, leads one to be melted and soft beyond what is good. Thus, the two, gymnastics and music, must be combined to bring forth a proper balance within this aspect of the soul - gentle, yet courageous and spirited. Durant writes that by the completion of this stage, minds, now freely growing and bodies, now strong by sport and outdoor life, "have a firm psychological and physiological base broad enough for every possibility and every davelopment." [125] Grube explains that at this stage, the whole of Plato's educational system, so far described, "aims at implanting in the young right habits and ways of thinking, that is 'right beliefs', for the virtues of the (auxiliary) guardians simply consist in their ability to hold on to these beliefs in spite of temptation, throughout Iife (412e). The health of the state as a whole depends upon the right education of the guardians, and we must beware of too f requent innovations. " [126] This first stage of educational training is followed, at 17/18 to 20 years old, by a testing period (III 414) to see what the students have learned in al1 the years of equal education. This testing involves an intensive course in physical and military training. What results from this is a ruthless weeding out, what Durant describes as the 'Great Zlimination'. As Plato writes, there shall be toils, pains and conflicts prescribed for them and, as interpreted by Durant, every type of ability wifl be given the opportunity to be revealed, as well as every kind of stupidity, which will be brought out into the Light. Those students who do not succeed will step out of the educational training to become Producers and Craftsmen. Those who pass this first testing period will be initiated into the next phase and will receive ten more years of education and training, in body, mind and character (higher education) . As Plato writes (III 411) :
'If we find one bearing himself well in al1 these trials and resisting every enchantment, a true guardian of himself, preserving always that perfect rhythm and harmony of being which he has acquired from his training in music and poetry, such a one will be of the greatest service to the commonwealth as well as to himself." [127]
The successful candidates will, by now, demonstrate the appropriate qualities of a philosophic soul - memory, intelligence, goodheartedness, grace, courage, moderation and above all, a love of truth. The students, at this point however, do not have or experience within what Plato calls True Knowledge or Wisdom. The intellect is trained only in 'practical' science and cannot reach beyond it. Plato explains (III 402) :
"...we and these Guardians we are to bring up will never be fully cultivated until we can recognize the essential Forms of temperance, courage, liberality, high-mindedness, and al1 other kindred qualities, and also their opposites .... We must be able to discern the presence of these Forms themselves and also of their images in anything that contains thern... to recognize either, the same ski11 and
practice are required. . . ." [128]
Thus, the next stage atternpts to cultivate the mind more fully, using the reason in study*
3. Hiqher Education of the Candidate: Purification of the Body, Ehotions and Und baclinq to the Second Initiation
A. Introduction: A Rrthaaorean Hodel
If the eaxly education is sound, the successful student will, according to Plato's scheme, move into the next and higher stage of education, which focuses on the development of intellectual activity. According to Plato, the power of seeing, that is, the faculty of knowledge or the instrument by which one may learn the truth, is already inherent within the soul of everyone. The eye of the soul, however, is turned in the wrong direction and therefore is unable to see. As previously explained, Plato's educative art aims at mending this defect, wheeling round this faculty or instrument, together with the whole soul which contains it, away from the perishing, ever-changing visible 'world of becoming' "until its eye can bear to contemplate reality and that supreme splendour which we have called the Good" [129] or the 'world of Seing' . Guthrie explains that the Supreme Cosmic Good, that 'divine and orderly' on which individual justice/ righteousness depends and which, by knowing it, makes the philosopher hidherself divine and wise as far as an individual may, "demands for its understanding an intensive intellectual program extending oves many years." [130] Plato thus outlined a higher educational path of true philosophy which leads to wisdom, a steep ascent up the mount, as he describes it, until a vision of Goodness is attained. Plato writes (VïI 517):
"In the world of knowledge, the last thing to be perceived and only with great difficulty is the essential Form of Goodness. Once it is perceived, the conclusion must follow that, for al1 things, this is the cause of whatever is right and good; in the visible world it gives birth to light and to the lord of light, while it is itself sovereign in the intelligible world and the parent of intelligence and truth. Without having had a vision of this Form no one can act with wisdom, either in his own life or in matters of state." [131]
Plato's prescription for the preparation of this ascent is a series of sciences or studies, each of which is marked by its power of turning the focus of the soul's eye or attention with the material world of forms, experienced in the visible world by the senses, to objects or Forms of pure thought. The philosophic intelligence, writes Plato, can be raîsed to a point where theze is both a contemplation and comprehension (perfect vision) of this essential Form or nature of Goodness itself. The true purpose of these sciences or studies, stresses Plato (VI1 5271, is knowledge - "knowledge ...of what eternally exists, not of anything that cornes to be this or that at some time and ceases to be." [132] What exactly were the sciences/studies that Plato prescribed? And from what source did Plato derive this vision? As explained above, some of the features of Plato's Academy were modelled on the Pythagorean Mystery School. According to Hall, knowledge was defined by Pythagoras as the fruit of mental accumulation, obtained principally through observation. Wisdom, however, was "the understanding of the source or cause of al1 things, and this could be secured only by raising the intellect to a point where it intuitively cognized the invisible manifesting outwardly through the visible, and thus became capable of bringing itself en rapport with the spirit of things rather than with their forms. The ultimate source that wisdom couid cognizc was the Monad, the rnysterious permanent atom of the Pythagoreans." [133j Pythagoras stressed that ta attain a rational understanding of God, man or Nature, a study of mathematics (numbers, arithmetic and geornetry), music and astronomy was essential. Plato, in the footsteps of Pythagoras, also demanded these same subjects and insisted that al1 of his students be acquainted with them, as revealed in Chapter XXVZ: of his Republic. Cornford writes (VI1 521):
"The Pythagorean Archytas, Plato's contemporary, enurnerates as sister subjects (mathemata) geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music. Plato adopts these four, adding solid geometry. These sciences are here described and criticized with respect to their power of turning the soul's eye £rom the material world to objects of pure thought. They are the only disciplines recognized by Plato as sciences in the proper sense, yielding a priori certain knowledge of hutable and eternal objects and truths. For him there could be no 'natural science', no exact knowledge of perishable and ever-changing
sensible things ." [ 134 ]
Before we examine the details of these studies, let us first take a good look at Pythagoras' core curriculum as we know it, since it had such a major influence upon the vision of what Plato deerned appropriate for higher education. This will also assist the reader to gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of Plato's intention and what was perhaps residing within his mind when he prescribed each of his sciences. Plato, possibly because of the secret oath he took as an initiate, did not go into the more esoteric nature of these studies. This, however, can be inferred from the philosophy behind the core curriculum of the Pythagorean Mystery School, which, as explained, very much influenced Plato's scheme of higher education.
a. The Cora Curriculum of the Pythagorean l4ysw School and Its Relationship with t&e Orphie Teachhcp/~aws: A Foumüation for Plato
(ia) The ~tudyof mr:!i!he -hic Law of
Schuré explains that Pythagoras perceived the universe as a living being animated by a great Soul and pemeated with Intelligence, The human sou1 was perceived as a part of the great Soul of the world; a spark of the Divine Spirit; an imortal monad. At the heart of al1 that was studied was the belief that bath man and the universe were made in the image of God and if both were made in the same image, then an understanding of man predicated a knowledge of the universe and vice versa. The students of Pythagoras were taught that there was a constant interplay between what was called the Grand Man (the universe or macrocosm) and man (the little universe or microcosm) . Frost Jr. writes that the Pythagoreans were convinced that the universe, including man, was a closed system which could be understood if one understood the relations of the parts. These relations, they claimed, could be expressed in terms of number. They were convinced that if one could penetrate the secrets of numbers, one would then know the secrets of the universe as well as the destiny of man. This led to a careful study and analysis of numbers in an effort to predict man's future. The Science of Numbers, writes DE. Juno Jordan, a modern-day Pythagorean numerologist, "deals with the living force of the divine faculties in action in man and in the Universe" (1351 as welf as in man in relation to the Universe. In other words, the nature of the universe was such that man's fate could be deterxnined. And the secrets of this fate are locked within numbers which, if one understands their rneaning, could be unlocked. Consequently, in order to know what will happen to man, one must comprehend fully the language of numbers. The Pythagoreans, according to Frost Jr., devoted most of thair energies to this effort. Pythagoras believed that number was the 'stuff' which philosophers were seeking. He was convinced that numbers were real entities and taught that the whole univexse was built of numbers. It was his belief that Divine Law is defined and accurate and therefore could be computed and figured with mathematical precision, and so he developed a most complicated system of numbers in an effort to show how everything in the universe (macrocosm and microcosm) was actually made of numbers . Dr. Jordan explains to his readers:
"Pythagoras taught his students an exact mathematical precision. 'The principles governing the numbers wexe understood to be the principles of real existence; the elements of numbers were the elements of realities.' His instructions were given according to the law of mathematics and this relationship of numbers to experience is the divine law, the foundation of the modern system of analysis called Numerology. " [136] Pythagoras taught that the point or dot symbolized the power of the number 1; a line, the power of the rider 2; the surface, the power of the number 3; and a solid, the power of the number 4. This is represented diagramatically as follows:
1
0 dot
The holy Tetraktys was a triangular number made up of the first four nurnbers: I + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10, the perfect number that was generated by the Monad. It was conceived as generating, writes Giorgio de Santillana, al1 the other combinations of number and figures which made up the kosmos.
The new unit 10 was considered by the Pythagoreans to be the great number of al1 things, that is, the archetype of the universe. Theon of Srnyrna declared "that the ten dots, or tetraktys of Pythagoras, was a symbol of the greatest importance, for to the discerning mind it revealed the mystery of universal nature." 11371 Pythagoras also made a significant contribution to the science of mathematics and geometry, speaking of numbers as shapes, squares and cubes, as oblong numbers, triangular numbers, pyramidal numbers and so on. It is to Pythagoras that we attribute the basic truth that 'the square on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle equals the sum of the squares on the other two sides'. Pythagoras, based on his knowledge of rnathematics, thought of the world as atornic and of bodies built up of molecules composed of atoms arranged in various shapes. Bertrand Russell writes of the Pythagorean influence of geornetry:
"The influence of geometry upon philosophy and scientific method has been profound ...- It thus appeared to be possible to discover things about the actual world by first noticing what is self-evident and then using deduction. This view influenced Plato.. . ." [138]
Russell explains that mathematics deals with the belief in eternal and exact truth, as well as in a super-sensible intelligible world. Geometry deals with exact shapes. However, in actual physical form, no sensible object is exactly circular. This suggests, writes Russell, that al1 exact reasoning applies to the ideal and not to sensible objects. It is thus natural, he says, to argue that "thought is nobler than sense, and the objects of thought more real than those of sense- perception." [139] Russell also explains, in reference to Pythagoras, that "Mystical doctrines as to the relation of time to eternity are also reinforced by pure mathematics, for mathematical objects, such as numbers, if teal at all, are eternal and not in time. Such eternal objects can be conceived as God's thoughts. Hence Plato's doctrine that God is a geometer ...." [140]
(iia) The Study of Music: The Orphic Law of Uny
As mentioned previously, Pythagdras was very much influenced by the Orphic doctrine that music possesses a magical influence over the sou. Pythagoras took this doctrine to heart and brought it to greater 'proportions' as a result of his contemplations that perhaps, in the principle of life itself, in the souï of man and within universal nature, were specific chords that manifest harmonious sound. Pythagoras, like the Orphics, taught his students that the sou1 is or contains an 'hannonia', meaning both "the orderly adjustment of parts in a complex fabric, and, in partidar, the tuning of a musical instrument." El411 With this understanding and knowledge, Pythagoras proceeeded to do research into sound and made his one physical discovery that became the starting point of mathematical physics. He discovered that the concordant intervals of the musical scales could be expressed in terms of simple ratios. Through the use of a moveable bridge, he changed the length of strings on a monochord, only to find that the ratio of the octave is 1:2; of the fourth, 4:3; of the fifth, 3:S. These fixed intervals were common to al1 Greek scales. The numbers, thus, which occurred in these ratios are 1, 2, 3 and 4 whose sum is 10, the perfect number, which Pythagoras called (as already discussed) the Divine Ungenerated Tetraktys - "The source having the roots of ever- flowing nature - a symbol of the Higher Unity wherein the One is unfolded." El421 The theory that 'Al1 things are numbers' was born. If mean proportions wece discovered to spring from musical theory, could this principle not also be found to underlie the whole universe? The Pythagorean Philolaus of Tarentum, wrote:
"This is how it is with Nature and Harmony: the Seing of things is eternal, and Nature itself requires divine and not human intelligence; moreover, it would be impossible for any existing thing to be even recognized by us if there did not exist the basic Being of the things from which the universe was composed, namely both the Limiting and the Non-Limited. But since these Elements exist as unlike and unrelated, it would clearly be impossible for a universe to be created with them unless a harmony was added, in which way this hamony did corne into being. Now the things which were like and related needed no hamony; but the things which were unlike and unrelated and unequally arranged need the fastening of the attunement, through which they are destined to endure in the order ...." [143]
Thus, the mean proportions or 'geometric harmonies' are "the actual bond or fastening which holds together the disparate or unrelated elements of reality and welds them into a whole. Al1 of Pythagorean and Platonic physics rests on that certainty." (1441 Pythagoras applied his newly-found law of harmonic intervals to al1 the phenomena of Nature, claims Hall, demonstrating the harmonic relationship of the planets, constellations and elements to each other. After discovering these harmonic ratios, Pythagoras:
'gradually initiated his disciples into this, the supreme arcanum of his Mysteries, He divided the multitudinous parts of creation into a vast nrmnbe~of planes or spheres, to each of which he assigned a tone, a harmonic interval, a number, a name, a color, and a form. He then proceeded to prove the accuracy of hîs deductions by demonstrating them upon the different planes of intelligence and substance ranging from the most abstract logical premise to the most concrete geometrical solid. From the common agreement of these diversified methods of proof he established the indisputable existence of certain natural laws." [14S]
(iib) Xusic as a Therapsutic Tool: The Orphic Law of Hanaony and Ecrpilibrium
Pythagoras recognized the profound effect of music upon the senses and emotions and, as a result, developed a 'musical medicine' that influenced both the mind and body. While investigating the therapeutic value of harmonies, claims Hall, Pythagoras discovered that the seven keys of the Greek system of music could enhance or alleviate various emotions. Thus, through the use of specially prepared musical compositions which were played before the sufferers, Pythagoras cured many ailments of the body, soul and spirit. Iamblichus describes the therapeutic music of Pythagoras as follows :
"And there are certain melodies devissd as remedies against the passions of the soul, and also against despondency and lamentation, which Pythagoras invented as things that afford the greatest assistance in these maladies. And again, he qloyed other melodies against rage and anger, and against every aberration of the soul. There is also another kind of modulation invented as a remedy against desires." (1461
Plato was deeply influenced by this doctrine, writes Hall, when he said that music was intended not only to create cheerful and agreeable emotions, but more iniportantly, it should inculcate a love of al1 that is noble and a hatred of al1 that is mean (III 401), and that melody and rhythm could deeply influence one's innemost feelings in a most beneficial way. He also believed that music which ennobled the mind was far superior to that which merely appealed to the senses. (iii) The Sbdy of Astroncmy (!Che Gods): The =sic of the Sphares
Pythagoras, like the Orphics before him, believed that al1 the heavenly bodies were alive and that the forms of the planets and stars were merely bodies that encased souls, minds and spirits in some manner. Thus, the visible human form is but the encasing vehicle for an invisible spiritual organism, which is, in reality, the conscious individual. The planets were regarded by Pythagoras as magnificent deities worthy of the adoration and respect of man. Al1 these deities, however, were considered by him to be subservient to the One First Cause within whom they al1 existed temporarily, as mortality exists in the midst of kortality. Although the Babylonians knew the planets well and were extremely accurate in computing their positions, it was the Pythagoreans who invented the astronomical systems of the world as we understand it. They thought of orbits as celestial spheres and imagined them to be circular like the rest of the heavenly motions. These orbits were proper motions £rom west to east. The moving stars were considered to be planets or 'wanderersf and the different speeds suggested different distances, with Mercury closest to the center and Saturn farthest off. The yearly period of the Sun placed it between Venus and Mars. The cosmos was perceived by Pythagoras to be an ordered system that "could be expressed in numerical ratios and which had partly revealed itself in the connection between the length of vibrating strings and their notes. The different radii of planetary spheres must then have harmonic ratios; they become comparable to the lengths of the string, and the angular velocities to the frequencies of vibration. Thus was born the idea of the 'music of the spheres.' The' ones that revolve faster give a higher note than the slow ones, and al1 make up a harmony." 11471 In other words, music, to Pythagoras, stood for an intrinsic union of logos, melody and motion, writes Santillana. Hall explains that Pythagoras conceived the universe to be an immense monochord, with its single string connected to absolute spirit at its upper end and to absolute matter at its lower end - a cord stretched, he says, between heaven and earth, between the sphere of the fixed stars and below to the surface of the physical earth. Counting outwards from the center, Pythagoras divided the universe as follows: The elemental sphere, composed of the four elements fire, air, water and earth; the sidereal sphere (middle sphere), which contained the orbits of the seven then-known planets - Earth, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, and the celestial sphexe of the fixed stars, the dwelling place of the irctraortals which extended upward toward the substance of Deity. These spheres were states of being. The hypothetical cord of Pythagoras extends through the orbits of al1 the planets, and the frets are created by the orbital circles, which break the cord into a series of parts which have ratios to the entire length of the thread and to each other. Hall, in his book entitled The Therapeutic Value of Music Including the Philosophy of Music, explains:
"The intervals between the orbits of the planets are represented as tones and semitones or a combination thereof. The Pythagoreans taught that the universal harmony resulted from the consonances of these intervals. The planets themselves did not actually give forth sounds, rather their motion agitated the vital substance of space which reverberated according to the qualities of the several intervals. As the tuning fork when struck will convey its vibrations to another fork with the same pitch, the universal tones and semitones comunicate their agitation from one sphere of substance to another, so that the various atmospheres of the world are constantly vibrant with combinations of universal sound." (1481
Hall also provides us with a fuller meaning of the 'music of the spheres' :
"The 'music of the spheresf is the song of space, a sublime statement of the joy of the universe, al1 parts of which unite like the voices of an immense chorus hymning its creator. Here are the gods who dance, who write poems on stones, and sing the blossoming of flowers. Here is a world in which nothing actually is wrong. The song is there; the defect is in the ears of men. The beauty is there, but there are none so blind as those who will not see. The motion is there, but mortals and their small pride stamp their way through their careers oblivious to the rhythms flowing around them and through them." (1491
It is interesting to note that the modern day Eckankar spiritual movement trains its followers to hear the universal sound 'Hu' in the fom of silent meditation. An earlier tradition of the Sant Mat Spiritual Path speaks of the sound in the silence which they cal1 'The Sound Currentr or 'Life-Streamf .
B. The Cors Carridm of Plato's Schaœ of Hi- Edpcation
Keeping in mind the philosophy behind the Pythagorean curriculum of mathematics (numbers, arithmetic and geometry) , music and astronomy, one will better be able to appreciate and understand Plato's choice of these same subjects as well as the one he added, Stereometry. Aiso keep in mind that each of the following sciences or studies that Plato prescribed prepared the candidate fox his/her steep ascent up the mount and was chosen by its power to turn the soul £rom the fleeting to the real. The Orphic and Pythagorean principle of Unity is the key. The first of Plato's sciences emphasized is the Pythagorean study of Number or Calculation, because it natuzally leads to discrimination and reflection, drawing the soul toward higher reality by discovering the universal concepts in our sense-experience (VI1 523c). Plato's philosophic students must know mathematics, not as we do, explains Rauch, "where we perform certain procedures mechanically, bisecting angles or using numbers without knowledge of the principles involved, but on the level...where the nature of number is known by our reason. In this way, the soul is lead upwards to study higher and still higher principles, leading to a knowledge of the eternal, the Sun itself." {1SO] Mathematics thus helps one to get out of the sensory world into the world of thought. For Plato, "Nothing in Arithmetic is a single whole, apprehensible by itself: every number requires other numbers to be grasped and thought of, or else it is quite meaningless ... the science of numbers, if rightly presented, positively forces the mind to compare, reflect, and discriminate, and so take the first steps on the road to tath." [151] The study of numbers, explains Guthrie, leads the philosophic mind on to reason about pure numbers (Forms) rather than collections of visible and tangible objects. Plators science of nubers "teaches us a meaning of unity and plurality. It teaches us how al1 these qualities, though a plurality in so far as they appear in many phenornena, are yet in a sense one, (523b-525b) and thus help us to reach the truth." 11521 The next science in Plato's series is, as the Pythagoreans would express, numbers in two dimensions of space, or geometry. The proper object of geometry is not bodies at all, says Grube, but bypothetical perfect planes, for actual matter nowhere exists in two dimensions. Geometry thus serves as a mental stimulant, writes Urwick, to lead us upwards to the contemplation of the Good. Plato treats Geometry, he says, "as a study pursued merely for the sake of know1edge.-.of what is real and eternal, not of what is transitory and perishable-..shall deal only with lines and figures as abstract and ideal, never confusing these with any lines or figures which our senses can perceive." [1531 The third of Plato's sciences, after Geometry, is a science called Stereometry, which deals with spatial relations in three dimensions, that is, with concepts of solid bodies at rest. In fourth place is (Pythagorean) Astronomy, which deals with solid bodies in motion. Once again, it is not taught as we teach it, as the study of the motions of visible objects, that is, the stars and planets. It is Astronorny in a new sense, as the study of pure motion among real solids, visible only to the mind's eye - the heavenly bodies are left alone. Thus, Plato's study of astronomy is concerned exclusively with "those true revolutions which real velocity and real slowriess, existing in true number and in al1 true forms, accomplish relatively to one another." 11541 The instrument used for this study is thought, not sight. Cornford writes that Plato treats the study of astronomy as a branch of pure mathematics and his primary purpose is not to teach physical science but to train the mind to think abstractly. The fifth of Plators science is Hannonics, which is treated, writes Cornford, on the same principle as astronomy. Hamonics is a science of orderly movements among audible objects. However, pure Harmonics deals not with audible concords but rather with the pure fom of which the sounds we hear are only the reflection. Plato wishes to extend the Pythagorean science of Hamonics "beyond the consonances exemplified in a few agreeable combinations of sounds within the accidental range of our hearing to a general theory of 'consonant numbers. ' " [155] Plato writes (VIX 531) : The Pythagoreans "do not rise to the level of formulating problems and inquiring which numbers are inherently constant and which are not, and for what reasons ..-1 would rather cal1 it a 'useful' study; but useful only when pursued as a means to the knowledge of beauty and goodness." [156] After corrrpleting this 10-year program in mathematical sciences, a further selection is made at the age of 30. The student must face a second initiatory test far more severe than the first. It is especially stxict, interprets Grube, because "the course of dialectics which follows, being a questioning of first principles, is fraught with danger for any but the most balanced, and many precautions must be taken." [157] Urwick writes that the potential Rulers must be selected now by tests "to see whether they are really able to divest themselves of their eyes and other senses, and whether they are faithful enough in their love of truth to be able to stand the shock of discovering that ail their previous knowledge has been but an illusion and a sharn. For Dialectic is a terrible solvent of a11 accepted beliefs and estimates: no youth must be allowed to meddle with it, nor anyone who is not fidy rooted in the love of truth, and able to stand fast by her whatever the cost may be." [158] Those who are unsuccessful will become the Auciliaries or military officers of the state.
4. Hiqher Edmcation of the Gmdidat4: Trua Philosophy Leadinq to Thid Initiation
A. Ths Final Purification of the ad
This third 'degree' is divided into two parts:
a. Theoretical EdPcational TxUgin Diaiectic
Ai1 the mathematical sciences studied so far are only the preparatory stage to the final 5-year study of Dialectic (between the ages of 30-35), the keystone of Platols educational scheme. This highest science deals with the contemplation of the real world and the brightest part of it - the Absolute Good. Plato, according to Cornford, believes that the weakness inherent in the mathematical program up to this point is that the various sciences are not yet seen synthetically as one connected whole. Each is pursued separately through deductive reasoning. There is no link to any absolutely self-evident and unconditional principle. Thus, Platots object of Dialectic, writes Cornford, "is to secure this final confirmation and the synoptic view of al1 mathematical knowledge in connexion with the whole of reality." [159j Dialectic is the method of question and answer that Plato inherited from Socrates; a method that enables the mind to grasp the universal above and beyond the particulars. Dialectic helps to strengthen and develop the highest spiritual faculty of the Sou1 or Plato's 'Nous', in that one rnust 'see' the comn properties. As Grube explains, there is a jwp or leap of the mind. One 'sees' or grasps an idea or Form with the 'eyes of the soulr. Grube elaborates:
"We may cal1 this process intuition... it will not corne to those who have not followed... scientific education. It is...the culmination of intellectual research, the flash of insight that cornes to those, and only to those, who have made a thorough study of their subject. That seems to be what Plato meant by Nous, the supreme knowledge which 1 have called understanding for lack of a better word: the grasping by the mind of the universal above and beyond the particular and with it a knowledge of ultimate moral and aesthetic values, the power to think clearly and logically and to see universal relations in the phenomenal world, the faculty of leaping to a right conclusion based on a full knowledge of the facts available." Cl601
Urwick agrees. He describes Plato's Dialectic as "the unflinching pursuit of every reality by the pure exercise of Nous, independently of al1 sensuous information, until the real nature of the Good is grasped, and the sou1 arrives at the very end of the really knowable world...we end with the supreme knowledge of the great cause of al1 things - the Good, thus rising from understanding to wisdom. .. .,, [ 1611
Third Initiatory Pariod Through Practid Exparience
So far, a theoretical education has been provided. Something else is needed, explains Durant. The ruler-in-training must now corne down from the heights of philosophy into the 'cavet and share in the toils of al1 its prisoners. Plato writes:
"For after that they must be sent down again into that Cave we spoke of and compelled to take military cormnands and other offices suitable to the young, so that they may not be behind their fellow citizens in experience. And at this stage they must once more be tested to see whether they will stand firm against al1 séductions. '' [ 1621
Durant explains that the students will be tested by this concrete world, competing in business with individualists who are hard-headed, grasping and cunning. In this way will they learn £rom the book of life itself in the market place of strife. This last and most difficult test will go on ruthlessly for 15 years. Some of the students, though \perfect' products, writes Durant, "will break under the pressure, and be submerged by this last great wave of climination." [163]
5, Self -&diration: The Trve Initiate or Philosopher-King
At the age of 50, having passed al1 the tests and overcoming al1 temptation - physical, emotional and mental - the successful initiates will now undertake the final task:
"They must lift up the eye of the soul to gaze on that which sheds light on al1 things; and when they have seen the Good itself, take it as a pattern for the right ordering of the state and of the individual, themselves included. For the rest of their lives, most of their time will be spent in study; but they will al1 take their turn at the troublesome duties of public life and act as Rulers for their country's sake, not regarding it as a distinction, but as an unavoidable task." [164]
Thus shall the perfect State be realized, within the individual soul as well as within the soul of society. The latter, however, can only corne to pass on the one condition that a genuine philosopher becomes head of state (-1 540d). Why? A Philosopher King, having gazed upon the 'Sun of Righteousness' will scorn al1 existing honours as worthless. His only concern will be to do what is right, accepting only those honours gained from that. Having seen the Good itself, al1 will be reformed, served and maintained according to its pattern, that is, in accordance with the pattern of the soul's structure, conforming to 'human nature'. It is only in a state that is organized for the good of the whole that one will find justice and, with it, happiness- Thus, justice will be the chief quality of the city-state. Urwick emphasizes that when Plato calls his state perfect, he means that 'it is good in relation to the needs of spiritual development; that in it alone can the truc Philosopher or lover of Reality find the conditions necessary to his growth and the discipline compatible with his preparation for the path before him. To these requirements of the good soul the whole social structure and its every detail axe subordinated." [165] This includes the education system. As Cornforci explains of Plato's scheme of education, "The ultimate end of al1 education is insight into the harmonious order (cosmos) of the whole world." 11661 CBAPTER VIX: THE BC: PLATO'S EDu~~ s- KITE RESPECT TO m sotTt Am SPIRIT
116. Cornford, The Republic of Plato, pg. 75. 117. Hall, The Secret Teachings of Al1 Ages, pg. LW. 118. Schuré, The Great Initiates, pp. 297-300. 119. Santillana, The Origin of Scientific Thought, pg. 54. 120. Urwick, The Platonic Quest, pg. VII.
Grube, Plato's Thought, pg. 252. Cornford, The Republic of Plato, pg. 71. Ibid., pg. 90. Durant, The Story of Philosophy, pg. 25. Ibid., pg. 26. Grube, Plato's Thought, pg. 236. Cornford, The Republic of Plato, pg. 105. Ibid., pg. 91.
3. Eiqhar Education of the Candidate
Ibid., pg. 232. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. IV, pg. 519. Cornford, The Republic of Plato, pg. 231. Ibid., pg. 244. Hall, The Secret Teachings of Al1 Ages, pg. LXVI. Cornford, The Republic of Plato, pp. 235-236. Jordan, Dr. J. Numerology: The Romance in Your Niune, pg. 25. Ibid., pp. 17-18. Hall, The Secret Teaching of AL1 Ages, pg. WI. Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, pg. 55. Ibid., pg. 56. Ibid., pg. 56. Santillana, The Origins of Scientific Thought, pg. 58. Ibid., pg. 58. Ibid., pp. 67-68. Ibid., pg. 67. Hall, The Secret Teachings of Ail Ages, pg. LXXXII. Ibid., pg. LXXXII. Santillana, The Origins of Scientific Thought, pp. 84-85. Hall, The Therapeutic Value of Music Zncluding the Philosophy of Music, pp. 54-55. Ibid., pg. 53. Rauch, Plato's The Republic and Phaedrus; Symposium; Apology; Crito; Phaedo; and Other Works, pg. 72 Urwick, The Platonic Quest, pp. 145-146. Grube, Plato's Thought, pg. 238. Umick, The Platonic Quest, pg. 146. Ibid., pg. 147. Cornford, The Republic of Plato, pg. 249. Ibid., pg. 250. Grube, Plato's Thought, pg. 240. Urwick, The Platonic Quest, pp. 149-150.
159. Cornford, The Republic oi Plato, pg. 251. 160. Grube, Plato's Thought, pp. 257-258. 161- Uxwick, The Platonic Quest, pg. 148. 162. Cornford, The Republic of Plato, pg. 261. 163. Durant, The Story of Philosophy, pg. 31.
5. Self-Rœalization : Tha True Initiate ot Philoaoph~-~~
164. Cornford, The Republic of Plato, pg. 262. 6 . Uruick, The Platonic Quest, pp. 65-66. 166. Cornford, The Republic of Plato, pp. 88-89. The tenn that Plato used for one who had completed the spiritual education of an initiate, becoming a true lover of wisdom demonstrating the excellence of a perfected soul dwelling in its own realm of spiritual reality, was 'Philosopher King', an archetype of the perfect initiate. In my opinion, Socrates' character, as portrayed by Plato, was his 'Ideal' and a representation of such a perfected soul. Urwick concurs, writing that whether in the midst of life or in the presence of death; whether a revellec among revellers or a prisoner in a criminal's ce11 awaiting his execution; whether discussing love or death, the fundamental quality of Plato's master is that of perfect equanimity in every sort of circumstances, very simîlar to the character of the enlightened sage. [167] This equanimity or mark of wisdom is portrayed by Plato, explains Urwick, as Socrates' greatest characteristic. There are three dialogues in which Plato provides a picture of Socrates' character - the Apology, the Phaedo and the Symposium. The character of Socrates and the gulf which separates him from al1 other men are consistent. For instance, in the Apology, a clear picture of Socrates' character is given: a confident man, very high-minded, indifferent to material success and God-centered, believing that he is spiritually guided by a divine voice. He very often offers invocations to the gods. In the speech that Socrates made in his own defence at his trial, he concludes with: 'God only is wise' and 'God orders me to fulfill the philosopher's mission of searching into myself and other men - ' In the Phaedo, the Platonic Socrates is fidy cocvinced that he cannot be put to death as his soul is immortal, and proceeds to give reasons for his belief in immortality. According to Edouard Schuré, the serene picture in Phaedo, of Socrates not only dying for T~thbut spending his last hour discussing with his pupils the immortality of the soul, "imprinted this most beautiful of spectacles and holiest of Mysteries upon PlatoBsheart. This was his first, his great initiation. " 11681 Three aspects of Socrates' character corne forth strongly in the Symposium - that of his ability to go into a trance-like state (which today is described as an out-of-body experience); his great endurance (ability to go without food for a long time, enduring cold, going barefoot on the ice and in his oràinary dress, yet marching better than the other soldiers), and finally his mastery over al1 bodily passions, which is constantly stressed (eg: though severely temperate by habit and choice, could out-drink anyone, yet seldom drank; love relationships remained 'platonid even under the strongest temptations). He is shown to us as a lover of al1 beauty, attracted by beauty and form, 'yet loving only with the soul, never with the senses...resolute to find even in the passion of love only a stepping-stone to the love of truth." (1691 Piato portrays Socrates as one who has achieved complete mastery of the soul over the body. The final proof of this mastery cornes at the last with his total indifference to death (The Phaedo) . Yet, thxoughout the dialogues, the Platonic Socrates consistently maintains that hc knows nothing and is only wiser than others in knowing that he knows nothing. In fact, Socrates never claimed that he himself had seen the truth. In fact, he delighted, says Urwick, in confessing his ignorance, putting his work and his power on a lowly level. Yet he was more than a seeker among seekers, he writes. Socrates held some strong convictions of truth that were so sure, never hesitating to cal1 them inspirations. What did he know? He knew, claims Urwick, that "the Reality which truth would reveal is good and nothing but good, and the cause and creator of al1 good everywhere. He knew that this reality could be found, if the search were only earnest enough. And most of all, he knew what was not the road to it: he knew that the way of the world was the wrong road, that most of its estimates were false estimates, its knowledge unreal knowledge, its wisdorn little better than foolishness. " [170] Socrates' unfaltering faith caused him to tell his world and rnost of its wise men that they were wholly deluded; caused him to expose and prove false to them every convention and dogma and belief behind which cornfortable worldliness entrenches itself. The inevitable wage of such a life-work, in such a world, earned for him his death, 'for corrupting the young and perverting religion.' However, it earned for him the reference and passionate devotion of the greatest of his disciples, Plato, who not only immortalized his name, but also the character, life and mind of his master. Though Plato was to eventually study physics, metaphysics and many other sciences of his day, he always remained Socrates' disciple.
2. Can This Perfected State Actudly Exist on Earth?
Can this state actually exist on earth? Plato, through the mouth of Socrates, responds by saying (592b) that perhaps there is a divine pattern existing in the heavens for one who so desires to see it, and, seeing, to establish within one's own self; that it makes no difierence whether it exists anywhere or ever will exist; it is the only commonwealth in whose 'politics' or personal affairs one can take part. In other words, the quest is less for a city than for personal righteousness. Guthrie explains:
"Essentially..,the Republic is not a piece of political theory but an allegory of the individual human spirit, the psyche. The city is one which we may 'found in ourselves' by directing the stream of eros within us so that it flows most strongly towards wisdom and knowledge, under whose guidance the passions and appetites too can find fuller satisfaction than in the mindless alternation of want and surfeit. ..." [171]
This was ultimately the goal of Plato's scheme of education, which was actually, writes Urwick, a religious education - the excellence of the perfected soul dwelling in its own realm of spiritual reality. His entire scheme of education, he stresses, was designed firstly for wheeling round the soul from the 'mud and miref of worldly preoccupation (physical appetites and desires, passion/feelings, achievements, success, honour, ambition, competition, reputation, etc.) to the spiritual, by awakening the spiritual faculty which every soul contains within, and secondly, for opening up the eye of the soul, thus bringing into manifestation the hidden gift/power of the soul - spiritual vision - which Plato also believed lies dormant within al1 of us and which, as Urwick writes, is the key to al1 true knowledge or wisdorn- Plato's only requirement was spiritual purification - physically, emotionally and mentally - and so he defined and described the conditions of training appropriate for a human soul "which must become master of itself in order that it may be able to find its way to Gad." [1721 Plato, in his Republic, is not thinking of a worldly society at all, nor is he interested in preparing his student for a citizen life. He is solely pre-occupied with preparing a human soul to pursue a path which is neither social nor earthly, explains Urwick, but a path which contains the conditions of developrnent for those who may be fit for the kingship of wisdom. This, to Plato, was the task of true education. Let the early education reveal those 'rare charactersf who are naturally fitted for this spiritual quest, and these feu will be the privileged ones to pursue the higher education which enables the mind of the philosopher to ultimately align with the eternal and perfect realities, by the contemplation of which "he himself becomes divine and orderly so far as a man may." il731 1 agree with Urwick when he stresses that Plato's vision of education has little or no relation to the principles and systems which we 'modern' educators are so busy elaborating. Yet, he writes, modern educators like to claim Plato as one of their forerunners- But how could they? Plato's aims were spiritually-oriented while 'modern' educators are thinking of worldly concerns. Their emphasis, I believe, is at the heart of our social and education crisis today. This theme will be discussed in PART THREG. Perhaps we still have much to learn £rom Plato's wholistically-oriented scherne of soul-centered education, which was as already explaineci, very much influenced by the Orphics (and Egyptians), the Pythagorcans, the Eleusinians and Socrates - i.e. the entire sacred tradition and wisdom of the Ancients.
-S - PART m0
CfiAPTER VXII: CONCLUSION
167. Urwick, The Platonic Quest, pg. 14. 168. Schuré, The Great Initiates, pg. 387. 169. Urwick, The Platonic Quest, pg, 15. 170. Ibid., pg. 7, 171. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. iv, pg. 561. 172. Urwick, The Platonic Quest, pg. 78. 173. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. iv, pg. 500. TaE EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL CRISIS TODAP: A POSSIBLE SOLUTION
The Academy offered Plato an opportunity to share with others the wisdom and teachings of Socrates and the Orphic (and Egyptian), Pythagorean and Eleusinian Mystery Schools. He was a gifted synthesizer:
"The Platonic philosophy may be regarded as a summary of the best and noblest in Greek thought, but it should not be accepted as a mere compilation. Everywhere throughout his writings is evidence of a naster intellect digesting, assimilating, and arranging, so that al1 ideas becorne part of one idea, and al1 knowledge becomes part of one magnificent summary. Plato was an inclusive thinker, the finest type of mind the race has yet produced. He synthesized the arts, sciences, philosophies, and religions, uniting them al1 and forming from their compound the enlightened man's philosophy of life." (1741
The central theme which appeared in al1 the mystery schools discussed, including Plato's, and which was based on the core Spiritual Law of Unity, was the importance of educating with respect to the Sou1 where al1 thought was related to 'The One', The Source and Creator of al1 Good. In other words, al1 was perceived by Plato to be an integral part of the Whole, including each science or study of his core educational program. To recapitulate, there is, according to Plato and the rnysteries, a Universal, Supreme and Absolute Power (The Law of One) greater than ourselves, which rules upon the order of things - seen and unseen - and which is known as God or the Divinity. The Orphics called this Power 'The One' or 'First Causer . The Pythagoreans called it 'The Monad' . Socrates called it 'The Goodf. Plato described it as 'The Idea of The Good' . 'The Onef divides itself in order to give birth to Life, yet each part remains an integral unit of the Whole (The Law of Many) . Md, the Macrocosm, lives in the parts, the ~crocosrn,and the parts live in 'The Onef- Thus, everything is a part of this Divinity and is in some way animated by it, which points to the essential Unity of al1 life and to the ideas of Oneness and Wholeness. (Today, we use the 'Holographie Principle' to expiain this law.) In my opinion, the emphasis of educating with respect to this law, with respect to the Sou1 and Spirit, was the greatest contribution of the mysteries to Plato's philosophical and religious teachings and scheme of education, where al1 thought, where each science or study of his core curriculum, was viewed as an integral part of the whole and related to or identified with 'The One'. 1 also believe that this was Platops greatest contribution to us who are approaching the 2lst Century. Why? He was, in actuality, describing what is called today 'Wholistic Educationr, or what 1 refer to as 'Soul-Centered Education'. This is to be understood basically as encompassing body, mind, motions and spirit, or body, sou1 and spirit, where al1 dimensions of the individual are: 1) experienced as part of the Whole, and 2) assisted into balance by addressing the imbalances within and between the physiological, emotional, cognitive or mental, social and spiritual aspects of one's life. The message is that a full and hamonious life can be achieved when al1 dimensions are brought into balance. For this reason, a great deal of Platofs teachings (and those of the ancients who influenced him, as revealed in PARTS ONE and TWO) were therefore oriented toward an inner understanding of Divine or Natural Laws, for example: The Law of One (Unity), The Law of Three, The Law of Many, The Law of Hamny and Equilibrium (which includes The Law of Cause and Effect, The Law of Choice/Free-Wi11 and The Law of Cycles), The Law of Rebirth (Immortality, Reincarnation and the Doctrine of Remembrance), The Law of Purification, and the Law of Love. Plato believed the universe operates according to these divine laws which point to the innate order and intelligence of the universe, forming the basis of al1 human morality. In Unity, however, there is the completion of al1 the laws of Spirit: a state of inner balance and equilibrium. Thus the importance of aligning our life, our consciousness, with the Law of Unity, 'The One', knowing that we are not as separate as we appear to be. Dan Millman writes, "Those who follow the laws prosper and find fulfillruent; those who ignore or resist them meet consequences that instruct them on their journey of awakening, so they can one day find peace in the light of higher understanding." [175] To recapitulate, according to these teachings (Laws), al1 foms of consciousness exist in a natural state of harmony. However, if harmony is changed to a state of disharmony, then al1 phases affected must adjust through reaction after reaction (Law of Cause and Effect), until the cycle of adjustment (Law of Cycles) brings a new state of balance or harmony, The objective of Plato's teachings, and particularly his educational system as outlined in his Republic, was thus to bring Our consciousness back into this state of Harmony, Unity and Order; to release the divine from the non-divine elements within the psyche (soul), freeing oneself from the chains of the body in which the soul lies bound like a prisoner in a ce11 (Plato's Myth of the Cave). It was from the Orphic teachings of harmonies (music) and £rom Pythagoras' study of music and its relationship to the soul and the spheres, that Plato derived his idea of mental conflict within the sou1 and was inspired to develop his spiritual-psychological theory of the soul. Plato was also deeply influenced by the Orphic and Pythagorean doctrine that music possesses a magical influence oves the soul, affecting body, mind and motions, and curing many ailments. The wheel of birth and rebirth, determined by the Laws of Nature (eg. The Law of Cause and Effect) is therefore necessary until the physical appetites - passions, materialistic desires (control, power, greed, ambition, reputation) and emotional reactions (fear, jealousy, anger, hate.-.) are overcome. By attaining release, the soul becomes freed of al1 limitations and entanglements, able to experience and express the god-like qualities of its true nature. Thus, according to The Law of Rebirth (Reincarnation), there is a continual unfoldment of consciousness (expansions of awareness of Self as Divine) and of fom as one perfects one's own nature through many returns of the soul to the material world. With this law came the divine ideas of the inanortality of the soul and the need fot a well-developed system of purification and initiations, which Plato drew from the Orphics, Pythagoreans and Eleusinians, that one may become pure enough - physically, emotionally and mentally - to become one with or completely identified with 'The One', the gods, the universals, the essences, Plato's Ideas/Forms, the natural laws. Hence, the Orphic, Pythagorean and Plato's insistence on ascetic dlscipline and contemplation/meditation. Aiso associated with 'The Law of Rebirthf was Pl ito's (as well as the Orphic and Pythagorean) idea of a divine benevolent plan for one's destiny. Life has a purpose. Related to this law is Plato's theory that, originally, before incarnation, the soul resided in a noetic world, where it beheld the 'Vision of the Good' or God, or what Plato referred to as Ideas/Forms, of which the highest is 'The Goodf . Absolute Justice, Absolute Truth, Absolute Beauty and Absolute Love are examples. These forms are permanent, eternal and perfect. The knowledge of these Forms/Ideas still remains within the memory, that is, within the consciousness of each individual incarnating, and thus can be recovered from the depth of the mind (Plato's Doctrine of Remembrance) . This higher knowledge (as opposed to factual, scientific, technological knowledge) is Plato's TRUE knowledge or WISDOM, and it lies beyond the realm of sensible particulars. We must be able to attain this TRUE knowledge to be good at the art of living. Thus the importance of education. This knowledge can be 'taught' if teaching is understood to be assisting in bringing to birth these truths or inner wisdom that lie buried within. These can be recaptured, but only through an intensive course of study with a soul- centered curriculum where al1 thought is related to and/or identified with the greater Unity. Hence, the reason for the development of the ancient mystery schools. Plato's Mystery School and the comunity and core-curriculum outlined in his Republic were very much Pythagorean. One who attains this Wisdom or knowledge of 'The Good' and experiences this 'Vision of the Good' becomes a true initiate of the ancient mystery schools or what Plato referred to as a 'Philosopher-Kingf, a truly soul- centered Guardian of the people, whose eyes are focused only on 'The Good' , 'The One' , 'The Unity' . To help us achieve this purpose, Plato, along with Socrates, the Orphics and Pythagoreans, hint that we can invoke "the gods", or invisible helpers/divine assistance who partake of the 'Essences'. The most important of Plato's 'gods' was Eros or LOVE. This was also an Orphic God. LOVE is a most important expression of the Divinity and is the most powerful, positive, attracting force that binds al1 together. The persona1 awakening to this love cornes as a result of a fullness of Self that can be experienced through contact with that ('The One') which is greater than self. 1s there something in these teachings, in the wisdom of the ancients as expressed through Plato, that we can benefit from today? This question is discussed in the next two sections,
174, Hall, Twelve World~Teachers, pg. 151 175. Millman, Dan, The Laws of Spirit, pg. 8, As we look at the ancient mystery schools, we leam that they focused on that level of consciousness that we call the Divine and revealed that this level is potentially attainable by all; that it does indeed lie buried within each of us; that we can glimpse and experience it within our own consciousness. In other words, it can be accessed! Chris Griscom, founder and director of the 'Nizhoni School for Global Consciousness' in New Mexico, and author of several books, including Nizhoni: The Higher Self in Education, writes about this truth when she says:
'This is the realm of the genius which is buried within us all. We are accessing a level of consciousness we can ...call 'the divine.' It belongs to everyone. On this octave we become aware that there is a purposeful stream of events in the universe and that we are a part of this stream. Once we glimpse this, we begin to scan our vocabulary for the words to describe it: spirit, soul, God, the Higher Self, cosmic energy." [176]
Unfortunately, we, as educators, and as a society, seem not to be adequately acknowledging this spiritual truth within our schools, nor are we acknowledging and emphasizing the core spiritual taws or Principles that were at the very heart of the philosophical and religious teachings of the ancient mystery schools - principles which were brilliantly integrated and synthesized by Plato. These Spiritual Principles were and are based on Divine Ideas/Realities that are eternal, permanent, universal and unchanging. If this is so, if these are indeed 'Tmthsf, then they should be equally important, present and attainable today as they were in ancient times. So why, then, are we, as educators, and we, as society, ignoring and denying these most important Truths? Why are they not emphasized within Our schools? Why are they not at the core of al1 of our curriculum? Why is our curriculum not written with these Truths in mind? Why are they not a central part of our philosophy of education and our prime objective in education? Why are we not focusing on the whole person and the spiritual-psychological process of purification that is at the heart of inner, persona1 development? Griscom provides a basis for an answer to these critical questions:
"In a frenzied gluttony of technological consumption, we have severed the mind from the body, and - even worse - we have begun a race without the spirit, which is the only part of us that knows where we are going. Mankind is suffering an acute crisis because it has not been taught to discover itself. Knowledge of the self is, ultimately, the only knowledge of value. Until we know who we are, we cannot activate out true potential, feel ourselves a part of the world, or find full meaning in anything we study or seek." 11771
1 believe this statement of Griscom8s is very profound. She also adds that our priority today, as educators, se- to be the preparation of our youth to compete in the marketplace of modern life, with al1 its external rewards and stimulation. Their minds are bsing filled with factual, technological knowledge to equip them 'intelligently' for success in this commercial world. In my opinion (and Griscorn's), we seem not to be equipping them nearly enough with knowledge and tools as to -how to live in harmony with themselves (inwardly), with others and with nature. We are not providing our youth with a training as to hou to MVOW within, through inner direct persona1 experience, what is 'RIGHT8 , 'TRUE' , 'BEAUTIFULf , 'JUSTf and 'GûûD8, and to live by these Divine Realities or Forms of Plato. We are not, in other words, really 'teaching' or drawing forth this 'TRUE Knowledge' which lies dormant within the souls of our students (Plato8sDoctrine of Remembrance) . Like Plato, 1 believe that without an awareness of this Good and the good that is within us, it is impossible to master the physical lusting after food, sex or alcohol, the desires for power, ambition and materialistic wealth, and the deep-seated emotional reactions (hate, f ear, anger, jealousy, depression, etc. ) and rigidly held mind-sets that block us from experiencing this Good, Like Plato, 1 believe we need to heal that part of Our psyche that is not in balance - that is rebellious or resistant and out of synchronization with The Whole - with the Source and Creator of al1 Good. As educators and as a society, we seem to be separated from the central and, 1 suggcst, valuable objective of al1 the ancient mystery schools - education with respect to the Sou1 and Spirit, a topic which is quite removed from our very practical market-economy-based approach. But what kind of a society do we have, writes Griscom, if its participants become disenchanted, drop out or adopt destructive patterns harmful to self and others, because their outer and inner worlds are so out of touch with each other, or so much in conflict about what is 'Rightr for them? Griscorn stresses that young people are eager to fit into society. However, the avenues of escape become appealing when school/society, which is such an important part of their reality, remain so unconnected with their true Self. As students in this situation become more restless, we lose increasing numbers of thern as they escape into drugs, violence, crime, alienation and, at times, death. Too many young people are suffaring from a poor concept and awareness of Self. Can we not teach them about who they are - help them to KNOW themselves as an aspect of the Divine; as an aspect of 'The Oney? Do we not need a new way of thinking about ourselves, about our relationship to the Whole - the Creator and Source of al1 Life - and our relationship to the parts, which includes Our planet, Mother-Earth, and its inhabitants including the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms ? In order for our planet and its life forms to survive, 1 suggest we change Our way of thinking from concentrating on the pursuit of ends in the material world to concentrating Our thought on 'The Good' (God) and The Divine Laws (The Laws of Spirit). We must be educated to corne to an inner 'KNOWING', an inner revelation or vision that al1 life is related to this Divinity and is in some way animated by it, and therefore interdependent; that we, the planet itself and al1 living things are one interwoven design intended for hamony and balance. Unfortunately, this design now seam unbalanced. It has become so, I believe, by our excessive negativity expressed as short-term greed, ambition, desire for power and material wealth, and by our treraendous emphasis on technology without proper regard for long-tenn social and environmental consequences. Yet, we are learning, it se-, but slowly, that to tamper with any part of this Whole - this Unity, this Divine Order, this Divine design - affects everything else, ultimately creating imbalance and consequences.
6. Griscom, Chris, Nizhoni: The Higher Self in Education, pg. 9. 177. Ibid., pp. 7-8. Today, we are often confronted with issues of peace and justice, especially in the domains of ecology, human rights and war. However, as Plato emphasized, peace and justice are "states", which first begin within the consciousness of the individual soul contacting the Divine, eternal, unchanging Ideas of Absolute Realities - Absolute Peace, Absolute Justice, Absolute Truth, Absolute Love, Absolute Beauty, and Absolute Good, which is the 'highestf of all. Peace and Justice are inner states of 'Being' attained when al1 aspects of our personality (body, motions and mind of Plato's lower arc) are in resonance with our Higher Self (Sou1 on Plato's higher arc), which is at one with the essential Unity of al1 Life - 'The Goodf . To accomplish this goal, 1 believe, like Plato, that one must first release onesel£ £rom the 'shadows' within our psyche - physically, emotionally and mentally - and this requires a specific scherne and philosophy of education. Thus, what 1 propose today is the development of a new philosophy and scheme of education that concentrates on the spiritual unfoldment of the whole person - physically (health or wellness oriented); emotionally (how to respond intelligently and lovingly with understanding, versus reacting irrationally to 'externals8); mentally (seeing the essential spiritual relationship - unity, harmony and order - within and between al1 things and maintaining thought-forms and images that are positive and life-supportive); socially (connecting with others in accordance with spiritual values for living in harmonious relationship with al1 of life and seeing that everyone is our Self and part of 'The One'); intuitively (development of the inner, creative potential and spiritual faculties/gifts/ powers of the soul), and spiritually or 'religiously' (at-one-ment with Spirit/God/The Good) . This wholistically-oriented scheme must be such that the Spiritual or Natural Laws are the guiding principles and where one cornes to know oneself as an aspect of the Divine Good/God. I believe it is vital today to prepare our youth in tus more wholistic manner for the 21st century, that more of them may be trained to be 'TN~ Guardiansf of al1 life on our planet. This new training, once again, requires a 'newf way of thinking, which is not really new at al1 but quite ancient and founded on timeless, primordial \Wisdomf . I would therefore also encourage our educators to examine the philosophical and religious teachings and laws of the ancient mystery schools - not to uphold them as models for us to follow, but rather as the carriers of a primordial wisdom and sacred tradition through long and very turbulent times. Clearly, their rituals and practices in a number of cases would be viewed as dcfinitely not applicable or even wrong today (eg, the Bacchic orgies). Because of these superficialities, the whole teaching has tended to lose its credibility, Yet, behind the practices were purposes which related to inner, mystical experiences (an expansion in awareness or consciousness) for the individual soul, ultimately seeking to realize an awareness of universal, eternal, unchanging, immutable Tmth. It is these 'Truths', based on Spiritual Laws, that are the key in the light of development in the last 2500 years. And it is in the 'light' of these truths that 1 suggest examining the teachings of the ancient mystery schools and of al1 world religions - past and present. The mystical states researched by William James, Marilyn Ferguson, Evelyn Underhill and Marsha Sinetar confirm the accessibility of contact with this Universal Presence. That is, we can indeed be touched by, as well as touch, Spirit- According to noted author Marilyn Ferguson, this has been experienced by millions. Thus, it is my suggestion that we actually include the study of mystical states as an aspect of a wholistic educational program, because they do represent an important feature of our consciousness and they tell us something about the great potential within us. An understanding of transpersonal or spiritual-psychology is also most important in such a program. Ken Wilbur, a leading theoretician in the field of transpersonal psychology today, concludes that, "Mind can be viewed as a spectrum of states of consciousness, that these states have a correlation to structures of the unconscious and that the various religions and psychologies refer to different levels of thîs spectrum." [178] This spectrum then includes al1 states of consciousness up to the level of ultirnate Unity with God or 'Cosmic Consciousnessf. It also includes and admits the possibility of mystical experiences, recognizing that these are but aspects of human consciousness. Thus, because transpersonal psychology encompasses the Human Spirit, it is spiritual in essence in that it includes an inter-dunensional sense which relates to higher ideals and 'Forms' and encompasses a realization that life depends on outside influences and forces, on Divine law and order, It relates to the God within, a link to a higher order or principle. As educators, if we are to teach in a new way that evokes and encourages a state and expression of Unity with al1 Life, 1 suggest we become acquainted with the 'expression' of each of these essential aspects of Being, that is, broadly the 'Higher Selff and the 'lower self.' Using Platots conception, we have the lower self (as in his lower arc/path) which is referred to as the self-centered nature, while the Higher Self (as in his higher arc or pathl is referred to as the God-centered nature. According to the Peace Pilgrim, one's lower self sees things from the viewpoint of one's physical well-being only, "while your Higher Self considers your psychological and spiritual well-being. Your lower self sees you as the center of the universe, your Higher Self sees you as a ce11 in the body of humanity. When you are governed by your lower self, you tend to be selfish and materialistic, but insofar as you follow the promptings of your Higher Self, you see things realistically and find harmony within yourself and others. The body, -mind and emotions are vehicles which can be used by either the self- centered nature or the God-ccntered nature." [179] She also wrote, "the self-centered nature uses these instruments, yet it is never fully able to control them, so there is constant struggle. They can only be fully controlled by the God-centered nature .... During the spirituai growing up period, the inner conflict can be more or less storrliy," [1801 and this is what we are seeing today al1 around us, within ourselves, in relationships and between nations. 1s this not a reflection of the core of Plato's Theory of Spiritual- Psychology, that is, the idea of mental conflict within the soul? If, as educators, we are to move towards a future with responsible world-minded citizens where humanity has evolved itself into a more moral and spiritual plane, and where it is easier to express love, goodwill, a reverence for Life, service, brother and sisterhood, understanding, CO-operation, equality, f reedom and self-restraint (ie., those qualities relating to the higher spectrum of our consciousness), then we must develop a 'new' educational approach. This must be an approach that, as Plato emphasized, helps and encourages our students to:
1. Master those expressions (limitations) of the lower self within that tend to take them away from a fuller expression in life, and separate them from others, and,
2. become aware of those states of consciousness, within which they can: (a) discover their Higher Self, which will lead them towards a relationship with that al1 important 'Presence' greater than themselves and to a deep relationship with themselves, with others and with nature, and (b) express those 'Spiritual Values for Livingf related to these states (Plato's Ideas/Forms) which are loving, embracing and inclusive of al1 of Life, 1 believe this program would thus benefit students of al1 ages, by helping them to understand thei~human constitution, that is, -al1 facets of themselves (physical, emotional, mental, behavioral, social and intuitive) in relation to a greater Unity (spiritual). This knowledge would help to enhance their relationships with al1 - with themselves, their family, friends, CO-workers, with those in their cornmunity and elsewhere, with al1 living and non-living things and with the Divine Presence, which is inherent in al1 of Life and which is primarily experienced through the individual's interaction with the environment, How do we help and encourage our students to experience and express those states of consciousness involving their Higher Self, and in addition help thern transform those expressions within them that are separative in nature? Aïso, how can we do this in a practical way, so that our students can truly understand, not just through theory or intellectually, but through actual, direct personal living experience, the reality of the Spiritual Truths/Laws, that one might discover more intensely through persona1 revelation? One answer, I believe, is through a practice £rom the ancient mystery schools (and the religions), also used by monks, poets, artists, philosophers and sages - meditation and contemplation. Meditation is a technique that helps us to become aware of how we are relating (responding or reacting) to the world around us. It is a technique that can help us contemplate, in silence, the higher aspects of consciousness. Meditation is a vital tool for helping us in the process of transformation and ultimate transcendence into those higher states which give direct, interna1 motivation for expression of the Spiritual Values/Truths for Living. Albert Schweitzer wrote:
"Let a man once begin to think about the mystery of his life and the links which connect him with the life that fills the world, and he cannot but bear to bring upon his own life and al1 other life that cornes with his reach, the principles of reverence for life." [181]
To experience this, to find one's connection with 'the liie that fills the world' and 'the principle of reverence for life', requires stillness and silence. Actually, the word mystical derives from the Greek \mystosf or "keeping silence". [182] It is within the stillness that one can hear the 'Voice of the Silence*, the Voice of the Higher Self or Soul, the Voice of God/the gods (Divine Assistance) within, that encourages positive behaviour, loving relations to Life and which brings understanding and insight to Life's situations. Joel S. Goldsmith, in his book Practicing the Presence, says that "meditation is an invitation for God to speak to us or to make Himself known to us; it is not an attempt to reach God, since God is Omnipresent..,. The Presence always is ...." [183] The Presence is aiways within us. To attain the realization of this requires meditation, as through meditation we "achieve such a state of stillness that the awareness of God's Presence permeates us." Cl841 He also reminds us that "God can only be reached through a receptive state of consciousness." [185] When Laurence LeShan wrote How to Meditate - An Acclaimed Guide to Self-Discovery, he asked a group of scientists why they meditated, and it was exprcssed that, "It's like coming home", [186] like coming back in touch with an important part of themselves that they had unknowingly lost. He also observed that meditators could access through meditation "more of ouc human potential or being closer to ourselves and to reality, or more of our capacity for love..-our knowledge that we are a part of the Universe and can never be alienated or separated from it.. .." [187] 1 am thus proposing that educators use this important 'tool' in a classroom setting on a regular basis. It is very important to emphasize that 1 am not talking here about an intensive, highly disciplined program followed by 'disciples' committed to their spiritual growth, but rather a relaxed, periodic use of a variety of techniques which should appeal to and beneiit al1 students. For exaniple, dimming the lights, using candles, sitting on pillows instead of chairs, using tapes of 'Relaxation' music are also beneficial in establishing a relaxed, calm environment. Guided imagery or visualization exercises could be used with children/teens for learning, creativity and relaxation. Maureen Murdock, in her book Spinning Inward, writes: "Guided imagery is a process of going within, focusing attention on breath and bodily relaxation and moving to deeper levels of consciousness where more images are accessible to the conscious mind. This may take the form of a pleasant journay to the beach or mountains, a meeting with an inner figure of wisdom, or visualizing yourself as successful in whatever field of endeavor is your focus, Each time 1 lead an imagery exercise I learn something new about the infinite possibilities for learning, healing, and creativity with this technique." 11881 Deborah Rozman, author of two other excellent books dealing with this subject called Meditating With Children and Meditation for Children, explains that when students are encouraged to make use of the imagination, they can be taught to direct this faculty in a beneficial and creative way, creating images of beauty, harmony and success. As the mind develops, she adds, one can begin to see the patterns and effects the use of imagery has caused (Law of Cause and Effect). 1 would also like to add that 1 am not at al1 suggesting here that students or others following a program of meditation would experience advanced mystical states or reach 'Cosmic Consciousness.' However, there is ample evidence to suggest that by working with the spiritual laws/principlas in meditation, and using creative visualization, a sense of inner-peace, love, greater awareness of Self and the beginnings of an identification with the Unity, with Oneness, with the Loving aspect of Self can and will frequently occur. And these most certainly have the taste of rnystical union with one's Higher Self as an aspect of God within, Many do (£rom my own experience with youth) corne in touch with a sense of something non-material that is greater than themselves, and this is the beginnings of persona1 revelation and contact with the Divinity. Rounan writes :
"By offering techniques ...children consciously become aware of being \wholer . . . . Being whole and unified,..defined as... experience of unity between that which lies within and that which lies without. This unity manifests as an ever-inclusive awareness of Self, revealing the nature of cause and effect as it activates energy in daily life. As much as possible the children are educated.,.to expand their awareness in terms of wholes, to identify and relate themselves through this unifying process to gradually revealed expanded patterns of Being and expanded states of awareness beyond the logical, linear and time-bound patterns presently imposed in education." 11891
Romn also explains that:
"In meditation, we learn to contact Our inner wisdom by quieting our bodies, our feelings and our thoughts. It is only when we quiet these activities of our personality that go on most of the time and get them out of the way that Our Real Self can surface, Then we become very clear, and in that clarity the needed answers come. We may not know hou these answers corne or where they come £rom but we feel an inner sense of certainty about our Self. This is an extremely fulfilling experience and life takes on deeper meaning. We become more aware in whatever we do." 11901
Gabriel Moran, a modern-day religious educator, writes that thes of reflective disengagement are net just for the elderly; that infants, students, parents, laborers,, al1 need times and places of quiet. He stresses that each person should be quiet every day to listen within, for he believes that one's sou1 purpose is contained within. He emphasizes that we must be still lest we miss the whole point of our 'current' life on the planet. 1 wholeheartedly share his thoughts and beliefs. In my opinion, a teacher of wholistic education should provide a central place within the classroom/school setting for persona1 prayer and meditation (Moran thinks likewise), as well as implement a meditation program into the curriculum for those of & ages, beginning with students at the elementary levels. This, to me, is absolutely vital if we are to prepare our youth for the final stages along the journey towards the inner center where peace and justice reside. Meditation is thus a definite process that leads us towards this goal. As educators, we can help our students and ourselves to use these techniques to help in the ultimate discovery of who we truly are. In my om classroom, 1 observed that before 1 began meditation with them, most of my students already were expressing, though not consistently, some higher transcendental states such as Love, understanding, compassion and tolerance, not only for one another but towards people outside the classroom (family, friends) as well. A great sensitivity to others less fortunate than themselves was also so strongly expressed that they, in a very real sense, became my teachers as well. Ail 1 feel we have to do as educators is encourage and help them develop more of this spiritual expression, more of who they already are, through meditation, creative visualization and positive action-oriented projects, in order to develop the consistency of this expression. A meditation program based on spiritual laws and creative visualization was implemented by me in rny classrooms (both regular- Stream and special education) over a period of ten years, and the results proved to be extremely beneficial. 1 therefore tnily believe that meditation can help our students enhance those spiritual values (eg. love) vital fox living in harmonious relationship with al1 of life. It can also help prepare the way for students to discover, experientially, not only the voice of the silence within, but the true meaning of the wora 'Unity' . Why? Because (like the teachings enrphasized in the ancient mystery schools) through meditation/ contemplation, a change occurs in Our state of consciousness whereby we begin to view al1 Life with a sense of sacredness, "emerging fxom an inner communion with the Force of Life dwelling within everything around us..., We discover also the most fundamental underlying reality of our existence: We are One with the whole Universe. We are a microcosm of the universe." [191] We begin to cfiscover the interconnectedness of al1 life, al1 existence, Ml. I would also strongly recomend that the study of 'Philosophy for Youth' be implemented into both the elementary and high school levels, as a complement to both the meditation and spiritual-psychology programs. Philosophical ideas can be used as 'themesr to be reflected or contemplated upon while sitting in rneditation or in the process of attempting to overcome our personality 'limitations'. This program, which has also been implemented in my classroom, stresses not only the spiritual values necessary for living in a just world (and their polar opposites), but addresses questions such as, "Who am I?", "Why was I born?", "What does existence mean?", and "What is the purpose of my existence?" Meditation is used as a technique to inwardly search for answers thereby drawing upon one's own authority (imer wisdom) rather than looking to externals for answers. Thus, the student, practising meditation, begins to think for hdherself, drawing his/her own conclusions, though suggestions can be hinted at by the teacher when necessary. X would also emphasize the importance of our physical body, our emotions and our thoughts (our mind-sets - values, attitudes and beliefs about self, others and nature) not only therapeutically (Spiritual Psychology), but philosophically as well, as they relate to a greater Unity. Rozman explains the importance of this:
"The energy law that every action has an equal and opposite reaction is also a spiritual law and applies to our thoughts and actions as well as to physical energy. If we program something hurtful we will at sometime receive something huxtful to teach us that everyone is our Self and part of the One. Equally, when we program something positive and helpful ue will receive and be helped by it. ... The evolving sou1 is.. . attracted to situations so that it can have the most fertile environment for being confronted with them to work through them." 11921
The role of the wholistic educator is thus extremely important in assisting our youth to become stable and open-minded individuals who 97 have both a sense of purpose and a sense of positive direction in their lives. addition to the above, 1 also suggest bplementing:
Peace/Global Eàucational Projects, to be used as a 'tool' for helping students bring forth and ciirectly live out the Spiritual Principles/Values -values which they have already contacted and gained insight into through the 'transcendentalr states in meditation.
Creative expression (and therapy), such as kt (Color Therapy) , Music (Sound Therapy) , Dance (Movement Therapy) .,. The discovery of individual truth and Our Creative Spiritual Essence/Divinity can be achieved and realized through cxeativity.
Math and a study of archetypal symbols: Numbers (Numerology), Shapes (Geometry) and Planets (Astrology) -
Nutrition with vegetarian awareness.
Sciences: Anatorny, Physiology, Biology, Science, Physics, Mathematics, Chemistry.
Reading; Languages .
What is 'unique' about the curriculum 1 am proposing is that, like the curriculum of Pythagoras and Plato, al1 that is studied - be it mystic states, spiritual psychology (the hunan constitution), meditation, philosophy, religion, art, music, the sciences, reading, math - is to be linked to the Source and Creator of Ail by seeing the correspondences between one subject and another in tem of causes and effects and processes. In this way "al1 subjects studied become integrated as a Unity through understanding the rhythms and patterns that underlie them all. The consciousness of the child then becomes identified with these life-revealing patterns in an expanding dynamic awareness. The various subjects are realized to be part of an integrated Whole, rather than seen as separated, non-related, specialized fields of knowledge. The child then, can corne to terms with the whys and wherefores of what he is being taught in relationship to himself at the center and in context with his total life." [193] With an integrated approach, students can corne to an understanding that the Essence of 'The One' is indeed inherent within al1 of its parts and that al1 of creation is part of 'The One' - and quickly learn to act accordingly- This vision, however, can only be successful if the educators themselves are properly trained and experienced in the philosophy and practicî of wholistic education. Obviously old teaching 'mind-sets' and 'lip-servicer will not do. Yet, what traditional teacher could resist the positive values and heartful expression which should quickly emerge from this 'neut approach. In conclusion, the educator's emphasis is obviously with the youth - tomorrow's citizens and leaders (philosopher-kings?) in training. The school can play a major role in helping Our students to respect the earth and transform it - and not only the earth, but ourselves as well - especially by the curriculum it emphasizes. 1 suggest the curriculum in school should be an integral part of a broader curriculum that emphasizes 'The Art of Living' as well as the skills necessary for today's world. From the school, new values and attitudes can reach out to positively affect parents, the home and the comunity. It certainly would be a challenge to develop a comprehensive 'new' core-curriculum that does justice to the goals of wholistic education. To acco~lishthis, I believe that one should first do extensive research on present-day 'alternative* schemes of wholistic or soul- centered education that exist around the world - for example, The Montessori Schools, The Waldorf Schools (Rudolph Steiner), The Nizhoni School for Global Consciousness, The Robert Mueller School, etc- Clearly, this is a topic for a much more detailed study. However, based on my own admittedly limited persona1 experience, 1 have suggested a possible solution to some of our educational and social challenges today based on recovering the essential primordial 'Wisdom' of the ancient mystery schools as embodied in the religious and philosophical doctrines of Plato and his 'wholistic' or soul-centered scheme of education outlined this paper . Ingram, Catherine, Ken Wilbur, The Pundit of Transpersonal Psychology, Yoga Journal, pg. 40. Compiled by some of her friends. Peace Pilgrim: Her Life and Work in Her Own Words. An Ocean Tree Book, pg. 8. Ibid., pg. 8. Cousins, Norman, The World of Albert Schweitzer, pg. 45. Ferguson, Marilyn, The Aquarian Conspiracy, pg. 371. Goldsmith, Joel, Practicing the Presence, pg. 96. Ibid., pg. 96. Lbid., pg. 96. LeShan, Laurence, How to Meditate, pg. 1. Ibid., pg. 1. Murdoch, Maureen, Spinning Inward, pp. 2-3. Rozman, Deborah, Meditatinq With Children, pp . 5-6. Rozman, Deborah, Meditation for Children, pp. 2-3. Hudon, Jean, Guiding Manual for a New World, pg. 7. Roman, Deborah, Meditation for Children, pg. 2. Roman, Deborah, Meditating With Children, pg. 6. Church, F. J., Plato-Phaedo, The Bobbs-Merrill Co., Inc., (Liberal Arts Press), Indianapolis, 1954
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ARTICLES :
Ingram, Catherine, Ken Wilbur, The Pundit of Transpersonal Psychology, Yoga Journal, Sept./Oct. 198 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (QA-3)
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