Answers Research Journal 8 (2015):37–37. www.answersingenesis.org/arj/v8/blood-flukes-schistosomatidae.pdf

A Baraminic Study of the Blood Flukes of Family

Matthew E. Ingle, %LROD8QLYHUVLW\%LROD$YHQXH/D0LUDGD&DOLIRUQLD M. Aaron,QGHSHQGHQW5HVHDUFKHU

Abstract 6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDHLVDIDPLO\RISDUDVLWHVWKDWLQIHFWWKHEORRGYHVVHOVRIPDPPDOVDQGELUGV7KH SDUDVLWHVKDYHDFRPSOH[OLIHF\FOHWKDWUHTXLUHVDWOHDVWWZRKRVWVDQDTXDWLFVQDLO XVXDOO\IUHVKZDWHU  DQGHLWKHUDELUGRUDPDPPDO%ORRGÁXNHVFDXVHGHYDVWDWLQJSDWKRORJLHVLQKRVWVDQGDUHGLIÀFXOWWR UHFRQFLOHZLWKDFUHDWLRQWKDW*RGGHFODUHVWREH´JRRGµ *HQHVLV 7KLVSDSHUDLPVWRGHWHUPLQHWKH QXPEHURIFUHDWHGNLQGVUHSUHVHQWHGLQWKLVIDPLO\RISDUDVLWHVWKHRULJLQDOKRVWVIRUWKHVHDQLPDOVDQG WKHGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQSDWWHUQDQGHYHQWVWKDWSURGXFHGWKHFXUUHQWVSHFLHV:HHPSOR\HGDVWDWLVWLFDO EDUDPLQLFVWXG\WRGHWHFWHYLGHQFHRIFRQWLQXLW\ZLWKLQIDPLO\6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDHDQGDQ\GLVFRQWLQXLW\ EHWZHHQ PHPEHUV RI WKH IDPLO\ DQG RWKHU EORRG SDUDVLWHV :H DOVR FRPSDUHG WKH SDWKRORJLHV JHRJUDSKLFUDQJHVDQGKRVWVSHFLÀFLWLHVRIELUGVFKLVWRVRPHVDQGPDPPDOVFKLVWRVRPHVWRSURYLGH LQIRUPDWLRQRQWKHRULJLQDOKRVWVDQGGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQSDWWHUQ0HPEHUVRIIDPLO\6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDHDSSHDU WRUHSUHVHQWDVLQJOHFUHDWHGNLQGWKDWLVGLVWLQFWIURPWKHPHPEHUVRIRWKHUIDPLOLHVRIEORRGSDUDVLWHV %LUGVFKLVWRVRPDWLGVDUHJHQHUDOO\OHVVSDWKRJHQLFWKDQWKHLUPDPPDOFRXQWHUSDUWVDQGKDYHZLGHU JHRJUDSKLFUDQJHVDQGOHVVKRVWVSHFLÀFLW\6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDHPD\UHSUHVHQWDVLQJOHFUHDWHGNLQGWKDW ZDVFUHDWHGWROLYHZLWKLQRQHRUVHYHUDONLQGVRIELUGVSURYLGLQJVRPHEHQHÀWWRLWVKRVW$VPHPEHUVRI WKLVNLQGPRYHGLQWRGLIIHUHQWKRVWVRUGLYHUVLÀHGDORQJZLWKLWVKRVWWKH\FHDVHGSURYLGLQJDQ\EHQHÀWWR WKHLUV\PELRWLFSDUWQHU7KHUHVXOWLQJVSHFLHVDUHVRPHRIWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWDQGGDQJHURXVRUJDQLVPV RQHDUWK

Keywords:SDUDVLWHVKRVWVPDPPDOVELUGV*HQHVLVNLQGVDQLPDOGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ

Introduction metabolic rate of their symbiotic partners and cause Parasites are organisms that live inside of or on KRVWV WR LQFUHDVH IRRG LQWDNH WR FRPSHQVDWH 7KHVH DQRWKHU RUJDQLVP EHQHÀWWLQJ DW D ÀWQHVV FRVW WR impacts in host energy reserves can have profound the host by competing with the host for resources or impacts on their reproductive output. Additionally, directly reducing the host organism’s reproductive some parasites directly impede reproduction. The RXWSXW3DUDVLWHVZHUHOLNHO\FUHDWHGDVPXWXDOLVWLF bacterium, Wolbachia, reduces gamete production RU FRPPHQVDO V\PELRWLF RUJDQLVPV ZLWK D VSHFLÀF LQ PDQ\ LQVHFW VSHFLHV )UDQFLV   7KH UDW SXUSRVH DQG IRU VSHFLÀF WDVNV ,QJOH   0DQ\ tapeworm, Hymenolepis diminuta, causes reduced FUHDWHGNLQGVOLNHO\ORVWWKHDELOLW\WREHQHÀWWKHKRVW UHSURGXFWLRQLQWKHÁRXUEHHWOHTribolium confusum RUHQWHUHGDQLPDOVQRWLQWHQGHGWRVHUYHDVKRVWV DQG 6KRVWDN 3DUDVLWHVFDQOHDYHHYLGHQFHV developed parasitic lifestyles. Some organisms that of their infection on hosts long after the pathology DUHQHXWUDORIEHQHÀFLDOLQRQHKRVWDUHGHWULPHQWDO FDXVHGE\WKHLUSUHVHQFH 7KRPDVet al.   LQDQRWKHU'HYNRWDHWDO  SRLQWHGRXWWKDWWKH Several families of parasites contain members relationship of parasites and host organisms is so with the ability to infect and harm . LQWLPDWHWKDWWKHV\PELRQWVDUHRIWHQVXEMHFWWRFR Schistosomatidae contains some of the most extinction events, as the hosts serve as vessels for the GHYDVWDWLQJ WUHPDWRGH SDUDVLWHV LQFOXGLQJ ÀYH parasites that live nowhere else on earth. species that infect humans. These parasites are The most successful parasite individuals, who FROOHFWLYHO\ NQRZQ DV EORRG ÁXNHV DQG LQIHFW WKH produce the most offspring, must compete well for YHVVHOV RI WKH GHÀQLWLYH KRVW 0DQ\ WUHPDWRGH UHVRXUFHV ZLWKRXW NLOOLQJ WKH KRVW (YHQ VXFFHVVIXO parasites have a three-host life cycle, beginning with SDUDVLWHV UHGXFH WKH ÀWQHVV RI WKH KRVW DQG WKXV DQDTXDWLFVQDLO ÀUVWLQWHUPHGLDWHKRVW DQGHQGLQJ SURGXFH VHOHFWLYH SUHVVXUH RQ WKH KRVW /R]DQR with an organism in which the trematode can reach  $FWLYHLQIHFWLRQVUHGXFHKRVWHQHUJ\UHVHUYHV VH[XDO PDWXULW\ GHÀQLWLYH KRVW  0HPEHUV RI WKLV %DUEHU HW DO   DQG WKHUHE\ LQÁXHQFH WKH family are unusual in that they directly penetrate the EHKDYLRUDOWUDLWVRIWKHVHDQLPDOV .RUWHW+HGULFN VNLQRIWKHÀQDOKRVWRUJDQLVPZLWKRXWXVLQJDVHFRQG DQG 9DLQLNND   5REDU 0XUUD\ DQG %XUQHVV LQWHUPHGLDWH KRVW 0RVW VSHFLHV RI VFKLVWRVRPDWLGV  IRXQGWKDWSDUDVLWHVFDQLQFUHDVHWKHUHVWLQJ DUH SDUDVLWHV RI ELUGV 6FKXVWHU $OGKRXQ DQG

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The views expressed are those of the writer(s) and not necessarily those of the Answers Research Journal Editor or of Answers in Genesis. 38 M. E. Ingle and M. Aaron

2·'RQRYDQ   DQG KDYH ZLGH JHRJUDSKLFDO family being discontinuous with all other digeanean GLVWULEXWLRQV $O.DQGDUL HW DO   ,QGLYLGXDOV ÁXNHV 6FKLVWRVRPDWLGV VKDUH PDQ\ XQLTXH within the Austrobilharzia infect shorebirds features that support the apobaraminic status: PDLQO\ VHDJXOOV  DQG DUH JOREDOO\ GLVWULEXWHG WKH\ DUH GLRHFLRXV VH[HV DUH VHSDUDWH  PHPEHUV /RFN\HUHWDO  Other schistosomatids, such as ODFN D SKDU\Q[ DQG SUHSKDU\Q[ WKH JHQLWDO SRUH Bivitellobilharzia nairi, infect and have LV SRVWHULRU WR WKH YHQWUDO VXFNHU WKH YLWHOODULXP YHU\ QDUURZ GLVWULEXWLRQV 'HYNRWD HW DO 2014  are well developed, follicular, and posterior to the The genus, , includes only species that RYDU\HJJVDUHQRQRSHUFXODWHWKH\DUHIRXQGLQWKH LQIHFWPDPPDOVDQGFRQWDLQVÀYHVSHFLHVWKDWLQGXFH YDVFXODU V\VWHP RI ELUGV DQG PDPPDOV DQG WKH\ SDWKRORJ\ LQ KXPDQV /RFN\HU HW DO   7KHUH SRVVHVVDJ\QDHFRSKRULFFDQDO /RFN\HUHWDO  are 14 genera and approximately 100 species of 0DFH 6LPV DQG :RRG   GHPRQVWUDWHG WZR VFKLVWRVRPDWLGV .KDOLO  monobaramins within genus Schistosoma, noted the 0RVW SK\ORJHQLHV RI WKH UHODWLRQVKLSV DPRQJ VLPLODULWLHV EHWZHHQ PRQREDUDPLQV HDFK PHPEHU members of Schistomatidae are based on molecular LVFRQWLQXRXVZLWKDOORWKHUPHPEHUVRIWKHJURXS  characters and focus on Schistosoma. Each cell and postulated the existence of a single schistosome contains multiple copies of the mitochondrial EDUDPLQ KROREDUDPLQ 5HJDUGOHVVRIWKHQXPEHURI JHQRPH PDNLQJ WKH PLWRFKRQGULDO '1$ PW'1$  KROREDUDPLQVZLWKLQWKLVIDPLO\WKHRULJLQDONLQGV DQ DEXQGDQW DQG HIÀFLHQW WRRO IRU PROHFXODU GLYHUVLÀHG LQWR WKH VSHFLHV ZH ÀQG LQIHFWLQJ ELUGV DQDO\VHV RI DOO RUJDQLVPV :HEVWHU DQG /LWWOHZRRG and mammals today.   QRWHG WKH YDULDELOLW\ RI PW'1$ ZLWKLQ Organisms that complete their life cycle in hosts and between species and advocated for its use in FDQRQO\GLYHUVLI\DVWKHLUKRVWVGLYHUVLI\0HPEHUV genetic studies of schistosomatids. While molecular of Schistosomatidae have two hosts in the life cycle, characters are important and useful tools in studying and can diversify with changes in either. The original the associations among groups, morphological NLQG RU NLQGV ZLWKLQ WKLV SDUDVLWH IDPLO\ OLNHO\ and behavioral features sometimes illustrate GLIIHUHQWLDWHGXQGHUWZRFRQGLWLRQVWKH\GLYHUVLÀHG relationships simpler than do molecular features. along with their hosts, and they became more Phylogenies based on morphological information YDULHG DV WKH\ VZLWFKHG LQWHUPHGLDWH RU GHÀQLWLYH have fewer disagreements than those based on hosts. These two patterns of variation are not PROHFXODUFKDUDFWHUV%HOWUDQHWDO  IRXQGWKDW PXWXDOO\H[FOXVLYHDQGOLNHO\ERWKFRQWULEXWHGWRWKH PDWLQJ V\VWHP ZKHWKHU PRQRJDP\ SRO\JDP\ RU relationships among schistosomatid species today. SRO\J\QDQGU\ GULYHVPRUSKRORJLFDOWUDLWGLIIHUHQFHV The purpose of this study is to determine the DPRQJ VFKLVWRVRPDWLGV 0RUSKRORJLFDO FKDUDFWHUV baraminic status of Schistosomatidae and to explain of members of this family illustrate a difference in WKHGRPLQDQWPHWKRGRIGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQLQWKHRULJLQDO the ancestries of the species that infect man and NLQGRUNLQGV:HSUHGLFWWKDWWKLVIDPLO\UHSUHVHQWV demonstrate that the infection of man occurred a holobaramin, and that most variation in the family in several different groups within the family UHVXOWHG IURP WKH GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ RI LQWHUPHGLDWH /RFN\HUHWDO /RFN\HUHWDO  QRWHWKDW KRVWVDIWHUWKH&UHDWLRQ:HHN morphological studies are important to connect Schistosoma ZLWK WKH RWKHU JHQHUD RI EORRG ÁXNHV Methods While many researchers have studied the phylogeny Baraminic status of schistosomatidae of Schistosomatidae, the relationships among the In order to understand the baraminology members of the taxon have not been determined of the Schistosomatidae, we ran statistical using a statistical baraminic study. baraminological analyses on two character datasets 0DFH6LPVDQG:RRG  IRXQGHYLGHQFHIRU of schistosomatids and one character dataset of WKH DSREDUDPLQ IRU GHÀQLWLRQ VHH 7DEOH   VWDWXV VSLURUFKLLGV RQ %',670'6 YHUVLRQ  :RRG of Schistosomatidae, with the members of the 2008b  7KLV VRIWZDUH FRQGXFWV EDUDPLQLF GLVWDQFH

Table 1.'HÀQLWLRQVRIWHUPVRIWHQXVHGLQEDUDPLQLFVWXGLHV

Term 'H¿QLWLRQ A group that contains members, who are discontinuous with all other groups but may or may not be continuous Apobaramin with all members of the group. A group that contains members, who are continuous with all other members of the group and may or may not Monobaramin be discontinuous with all other groups. A group that contains members, who are discontinuous with all other groups and are continuous with all Holobaramin members of the group. This is a complete set of individuals that represent a single created kind. A Baraminic Study of the Blood Flukes of Family Schistosomatidae 39

FRUUHODWLRQ %'& ³WKH VWDWLVWLFDO VLJQLÀFDQFH RI WKHQ XVHG 5 KWWSZZZUSURMHFWRUJ  WR YLVXDOL]H the similarity between two organisms determined WKH %'& ZLWK ERRWVWUDS YDOXHV 0'6 UHVXOWV ZHUH through baraminic distance, which is measured FRQYHUWHGWR.LQHPDJHÀOHVDQGZHUHGLVSOD\HGZLWK YLD OLQHDU UHJUHVVLRQ ,Q %'& VLJQLÀFDQW SRVLWLYH WKH SURJUDP 0DJH KWWSNLQHPDJHELRFKHPGXNH correlation between organisms implies continuity edu/software/mage.php  and probable inclusion into the same monobaramin, ZKHUHDV VLJQLÀFDQW QHJDWLYH FRUUHODWLRQ LPSOLHV 'LYHUVLÀFDWLRQ3DWWHUQVZLWKLQ6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH GLVFRQWLQXLW\ EHWZHHQ WKH RUJDQLVPV 5RELQVRQ 7KH WRWDO QXPEHU RI NLQGV RI LQWHUPHGLDWH KRVWV DQG &DYDQDXJK   $GGLWLRQDOO\ %',670'6 used by schistosomatids was estimated using the plots taxa as points in three-dimensional space number of snail host families that serve as hosts WKURXJKFODVVLFDOPXOWLGLPHQVLRQDOVFDOLQJ 0'6 E\ for the parasites. Using a published phylogeny of reducing the many dimensions of baraminic distance 6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH /RFN\HUHWDO ZHUHFRUGHG to three. This reduction leads to distortion, which is WKH PHWKRG RI GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ DW HDFK EUDQFK LQ PHDVXUHGE\%',670'6DVVWUHVV :RRGE ,I the cladogram. Using each branch to represent a WD[D³UHSUHVHQWHGDVSRLQWVLQ0'6³FOXVWHUFORVHO\ GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQHYHQWZHUHFRUGHGWKHWRWDOQXPEHURI together in multidimensional character space, then GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQHYHQWVDQGWKHQXPEHURIHDFKRIWKH WKLV LPSOLHV WKH WD[D DUH FRQWLQXRXV /DUJH JDSV IROORZLQJ PHWKRGV RI GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ between clusters imply discontinuity. ZLWKRXWKRVWVZLWFKLQJGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQZLWKDFKDQJH 7KH ÀUVW VFKLVWRVRPDWLG GDWDVHW FRPHV IURP D LQ LQWHUPHGLDWH VQDLO  KRVW DQG GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ 3K' WKHVLV E\ &DUPLFKDHO   DQG LQFOXGHV  ZLWKDFKDQJHLQGHÀQLWLYH YHUWHEUDWH KRVW8VLQJ VFKLVWRVRPDWLGWD[D Schistosoma, Bivitellobilharzia, WKHVDPHSK\ORJHQ\IURP/RFN\HUHWDO  WKH Heterobilharzia, Orientobilharzia, Schistosomatium, evidence for a Schistosomatidae holobaramin was Austrobilharzia, New World Macrobilharzia, explored, and the original hosts were predicted. Old World Macrobilharzia, Ornithobilharzia, Sinobilharzia, Bilharziella, , Schistosomes vs Schistosomes Gigantobilharzia, and Dendritobilharzia  QR To determine the original hosts for members outgroup taxa, and 40 morphological characters. RI 6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH ZH DQDO\]HG WKH QXPEHU RI :H FRPSLOHG WKH VHFRQG GDWDVHW E\ WDNLQJ JHRJUDSKLFORFDWLRQVWKDWHDFKSDUDVLWHLVIRXQG 1RUWK 13 reproductive characters from Beltran et al. America, South America, Europe, , southwest   DQG  PRUSKRORJLFDO FKDUDFWHUV IURP $VLD DQG ,QGLD 5XVVLD &KLQD DQG VRXWKHDVW $VLD /RFN\HU HW DO   7KHVH DXWKRUV LQFOXGHG  DQG$XVWUDOLDDQGVXUURXQGLQJLVODQGV WKHQXPEHU VFKLVWRVRPDWLG VSHFLHV )LJ   DQG RQH RXWJURXS RI VQDLO IDPLOLHV WKDW WKH SDUDVLWH FDQ SDUDVLWL]H taxon, Griphobilharzia amoena, which is no longer the fossil record of the intermediate hosts of the FRQVLGHUHG D VFKLVWRVRPDWLG %HOWUDQ HW DO   schistosomatid, and the pathology caused by the :H FRQYHUWHG WKH %HOWUDQ HW DO   FRQWLQXRXV parasite. Each of these four features was grouped characters to discrete characters so that we could for all of the bird schistosomes and compared to the DQDO\]H WKH GDWDVHW LQ %',670'6 DFFRUGLQJ WR grouped data for mammal schistosomes. 5RELQVRQDQG&DYDQDXJK   We calculated the mean and standard deviation for 7KH WKLUG GDWDVHW FRPHV IURP 3ODWW   the number of geographic regions in which a species DQG FRQVLVWV RI VSLURUFKLLG WD[D Spirhapalum, is found for both bird schistosomes and mammal Plasmiorchis, Hemiorchis [now Plasmiorchis schistosomes, and compared the two using a Welch bengalensis], Spirorchis, Henotosoma [now Spirorchis two-sample t-test. We employed a t-test comparing haematobium], Haematotrema [now Spirorchis the average number of snail families infected by the parvus], and Aphanospirorchis  DQG RQH FOLQRVWRPLG parasite for both bird and mammal schistosomatids. RXWJURXS Clinostomum 7RWKLVGDWDVHWZHDGGHGWKH In order to account for the possibility that the taxon Schistosomatidae with values for each character. described species represent cryptic species and This dataset contained 13 morphological characters. control for the amount of taxonomic study in each :H UDQ DOO WKUHH GDWDVHWV WKURXJK %',670'6 genus, we ran two more t-tests for the average values at a 0.95 character relevance cutoff, and no taxa RIWKHJHQHUD LQVWHDGRIVSHFLHV RI6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH were excluded in any analysis. In the Carmichael according to the methods described above. Two linear  DQG3ODWW  GDWDVHWVDOOFKDUDFWHUVZHUH regressions were employed to test the relationship retained, but in the compiled dataset, 10 characters between the number of snail families a species/genus were excluded at the 0.95 relevance cutoff, leaving of parasites infects and the number of geographic 19 characters for the analysis. BDC results from regions occupied by the parasite. We did this to better DOO WKUHH GDWDVHWV ZHUH VXEMHFWHG WR ERRWVWUDSSLQJ understand whether a larger distribution correlates YLD %',670'6 XVLQJ  SVHXGRUHSOLFDWHV :H with more snail families infected. 30 M. E. Ingle and M. Aaron

Data on the pathology of parasites and fossil ,Q JHQHUDO WKH 0'6 UHVXOWV RI WKH &DUPLFKDHO records of intermediate hosts were obtained from the  DQDO\VLVUHÁHFWWKH%'&UHVXOWVZHOO )LJ  literature and compared between bird and mammal 7KHIRXUWD[DWKDWZHUHLQWKHXSSHUULJKWEORFNRIWKH schistosomatids. We used these data to provide %'& )LJ DUHVHSDUDWHGRXWIURPWKHRWKHUWD[D additional information on the original hosts of the 7KHUHVWRIWKHWD[DLQ)LJPDNHDWULJRQDOSDWWHUQ Schistosomatidae parasites. in multidimensional space with couplets of taxa spread almost equidistantly from each other and from Results the center four taxa. Unexpectedly, Schistosoma and Results of the baraminological analyses Orientobilharzia do not cluster with the center four The BDC results of the analysis of the Carmichael taxa as they did in the BDC, but they are instead one   GDWDVHW )LJ   VKRZ WZR PDMRU JURXSV RI of the three couplets. The 3D stress is 0.119, and the VLJQLÀFDQWSRVLWLYH%'&ZLWKVRPHVPDOOHUSDLUVLQ minimum stress is 0.0452 at six dimensions, which between. The group of six taxa in the lower left corner VXJJHVWVWKDWWKH0'6UHVXOWVDUHOLNHO\DUHDVRQDEOH DOO VKDUH VLJQLÀFDQW SRVLWLYH %'& Sinobilharzia representation of the actual pattern. within this cluster of schistosomatids correlates positively with both the New World and Old World Macrobilharzia and with Heterobilharzia. Besides these pairings, the two Macrobilharzia taxa only share positive BDC with each other. Bivitellobilharzia, also ZLWKLQWKHORZHUOHIWJURXSVKDUHVVLJQLÀFDQWSRVLWLYH BDC with Heterobilharzia and Schistosomatium, which in turn share positive BDC with one another. 6RPH WD[D LQ WKH ORZHU OHIW EORFN VKDUH VLJQLÀFDQW negative BDC with taxa in the upper right group, DQGDOOWD[DLQWKHORZHUOHIWJURXSVKDUHVLJQLÀFDQW negative BDC with Dendritobilharzia in the upper Fig. 2. 7KLV PXOWLGLPHQVLRQDO VFDOLQJ 0'6  FRQWDLQV right group as does Schistosomatium. Within the WD[D IURP &DUPLFKDHO   DQG LV EDVHG RQ WKH upper right group, Bilharziella, Gigantobilharzia, characters used in his analyses. Trichobilharzia, and Dendritobilharzia all share The BDC results from the analysis of the compiled VLJQLÀFDQW SRVLWLYH FRUUHODWLRQ H[FHSW IRU EHWZHHQ GDWDVHW )LJ VKRZWZRPDMRUEORFNVRIVLJQLÀFDQW Bilharziella and Dendritobilharzia. Very few positive SRVLWLYH%'&ZLWKVFDWWHUHGVLJQLÀFDQWSRVLWLYH%'& BDC and only one negative BDC have high bootstrap FRQQHFWLQJWKHWZREORFNV$OPRVWHYHU\WD[RQSDLU YDOXHV !  LQWKHXSSHUEORFN FRQVLVWLQJRISchistosoma species, Ornithobilharzia canaliculata, and Austrobilharzia Dendritobilharzia variglandis  VKRZV VLJQLÀFDQW SRVLWLYH %'& Trichobilharzia Bivitellobilharzia nairi VKDUHV VLJQLÀFDQW SRVLWLYH Gigantobilharzia %'&ZLWKWZRRIWKHWD[DLQWKHXSSHUEORFNEXWGRHV Bilharziella QRWVKDUHVLJQLÀFDQWSRVLWLYHRUQHJDWLYH%'&ZLWK DQ\RWKHUWD[DLQWKDWEORFN$OOWD[DLQWKLVXSSHU Schistosomatium EORFNH[FHSWVKDUHVLJQLÀFDQW Heterobilharzia negative BDC with Griphobilharzia amoena, Crobilharzia_Old_World which in turn only shares positive correlation with Crobilharzia_New_World WKUHH WD[D LQ WKH ORZHU EORFN 7KH ORZHU EORFN RI Schistosoma positive correlation is less coherent than the upper Orientobilharzia EORFN DQG FHUWDLQ WD[D³QRWDEO\ Orientobilharzia Bivitellobilharzia turkestanicum³VKDUHVLJQLÀFDQWSRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQ Sinobilharzia ZLWK WD[D LQ WKH XSSHU EORFN Schistosomatium Ornithobilharzia douthitti and Bilharziella polonica are the only Austrobilharzia WZR WD[D IURP WKH ORZHU EORFN WR VKDUH VLJQLÀFDQW negative correlation with more than one taxon from Fig. 1. 7KLV EDUDPLQLF GLVWDQFH FRUUHODWLRQ %'&  WKHXSSHUEORFN%RRWVWUDSSLQJUHVXOWVDUHYHU\SRRU FRQWDLQVWKHWD[DIURP&DUPLFKDHO  DQGLVEDVHG for these BDC results. on the characters used in his analyses. Filled squares LQGLFDWHVLJQLÀFDQWSRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQDQGRSHQFLUFOHV 7KH 0'6 UHVXOWV IRU WKLV VDPH DQDO\VLV )LJ   LQGLFDWHVLJQLÀFDQWQHJDWLYHFRUUHODWLRQ%ODFNV\PEROV SUHVHQWDPRUHGHÀQHGSLFWXUHWKDQWKH%'&JUDSK UHSUHVHQWERRWVWUDSYDOXHVJUHDWHUWKDQRUHTXDOWR Essentially, all of the taxa except for Griphobilharzia DQGJUD\V\PEROVUHSUHVHQWYDOXHVOHVVWKDQ amoena are clustered together on the left side of Fig. 4, A Baraminic Study of the Blood Flukes of Family Schistosomatidae 31

Griphobilharzia_amoena Bivitellobilharzia_nairi Schistosoma_spindale Schistosoma_nasale Schistosoma_rodhaini Schistosoma_rodhaini Schistosoma_malayensis Schistosoma_mekongi Schistosoma_guineensis Schistosoma_curassoni Schistosoma_indicum Schistosoma_bovis Ornithobilharzia_canaliculata Austrobilharzia_variglandis Gigantobilharzia_huronensis Dendritobilharzia_pulverulenta Trichobilharzia_regenti Trichobilharzia_szidati Trichobilharzia_ocellata Schistosoma_hippopotami Trichobilharzia_franki Schistosoma_edwardiense Orientobilharzia_turkestanicum Schistosoma_sinensium Schistosoma_incognitum Austrobilharzia_terrigalensis Schistosoma_douthitti Bilharziella_polonica Allobilharzia_visceralis Fig. 3. 7KH%'&UHVXOWVRIWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKH%HOWUDQHWDO  DQG/RFN\HUHWDO  GDWDVHWFRQWDLQVWD[D from Schistosomatidae and one taxon from outside the family: Griphobilharzia amoena. Filled squares indicate VLJQLÀFDQWSRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQDQGRSHQFLUFOHVLQGLFDWHVLJQLÀFDQWQHJDWLYHFRUUHODWLRQ%ODFNV\PEROVUHSUHVHQW ERRWVWUDSYDOXHVJUHDWHUWKDQRUHTXDOWRDQGJUD\V\PEROVUHSUHVHQWYDOXHVOHVVWKDQ and there is a large gap separating Griphobilharzia 7KH0'6UHVXOWVIRUWKHVSLURUFKLLGDQDO\VLV )LJ amoena from the rest of the taxa. However, the 3D  VKRZ D VLQJOH FOXVWHU RI VSLURUFKLLG WD[D UHG stress for these results is poor at 0.293, with the separated in multidimensional character space from minimum stress of 0.065 occurring at 10 dimensions. Clinostomum JUHHQ  DQG IURP 6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH 7KH VSLURUFKLLG %'& UHVXOWV )LJ   VKRZ D EOXH DQGERWKRIWKHVHRXWJURXSWD[DDUHVHSDUDWHG series of three groups of positive correlation that from each other by an even greater distance than each intersect at a single taxon. Haematotrema, either is separated from the spirorchiid cluster. The Henostoma, and Spirorchis DOO VKDUH VLJQLÀFDQW 3D stress for these results is 0.082, and the minimum positive BDC, as do Spirorchis, Hemiorchis, and stress is 0.077 at four dimensions, which suggests that Plasmiorchis. Plasmiorchis DOVR VKDUHV VLJQLÀFDQW WKLV0'6JUDSKLVOLNHO\DYHU\JRRGUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ positive BDC with Spirhapalum. The spirorchiid of their arrangement in multidimensional space. taxon Aphanospirorchis does not share positive correlation with any other taxon in the analysis, 'LYHUVLÀFDWLRQ3DWWHUQVZLWKLQ6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH EXW LW VKDUHV VLJQLÀFDQW QHJDWLYH FRUUHODWLRQ ZLWK 0HPEHUV RI IDPLO\ 6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH RFFXU LQ the outgroup taxon Clinostomum. Clinostomum at least 15 families of aquatic snails. If each family also shares negative correlation with Henotosoma, represents a separate baramin, the collection of and the outgroup taxon Schistosomatidae shares species of schistosomes use at least 15 separately negative correlation with Spirhapalum. created organisms to complete their life cycles.

Fig. 4.0'6UHVXOWVRIWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKH%HOWUDQHWDO  DQG/RFN\HUHWDO  GDWDVHW6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH taxa are shown in blue and Griphobilharzia amoena is shown in red. 32 M. E. Ingle and M. Aaron

phylogeny of Schistosomatidae. The most derived Schistosomatidae species of Schistosomatidae infect the fewest number RI LQWHUPHGLDWH DQG GHÀQLWLYH KRVWV ZKLFK DUH Clinostomum mammals. 7KHSK\ORJHQ\IURP/RFN\HUHWDO  SRUWUD\HG Spirhapalum WZRJURXSVRIGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ )LJ ZLWKRQHJURXS containing exclusively bird schistosomes and one Plasmiorchis group having both bird and mammal schistosomes. Hemiorchis A phylogeny of 13 of the genera of Schistosomatidae with Griphobilharzia D EORRG ÁXNH RI FURFRGLOLDQV  Spirorchis DVDQRXWJURXSVXSSRUWHGWKLVKLVWRU\ )LJ 7KH second cladogram is built using morphological Henotosoma characters of the parasites, and had Austrobilharzia Haematotrema as a sister group to the rest of genera of the family. 7KHÀUVWSK\ORJHQ\IURP/RFN\HUHWDO  SODFHG Aphanospirorchis Austrobilharzia within the group containing both bird and mammal schistosomatids. Both phylogenies had bird parasites representing the most primitive Fig. 5. BDC results of the analysis of the Platt et al. members of Schistosomatidae. In both cladograms,   GDWDVHW )LOOHG VTXDUHV LQGLFDWH VLJQLÀFDQW most of the bird genera were more primitive than the SRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQDQGRSHQFLUFOHVLQGLFDWHVLJQLÀFDQW ÀUVWPDPPDOJHQXV LQERWK  QHJDWLYHFRUUHODWLRQ%ODFNV\PEROVUHSUHVHQWERRWVWUDS YDOXHVJUHDWHUWKDQRUHTXDOWRDQGJUD\V\PEROV UHSUHVHQWYDOXHVOHVVWKDQ Mammal Schistosomes vs Bird Schistosomes Species of bird schistosomes use more snail families $GGLWLRQDOO\ WKHVH SDUDVLWHV XVH GR]HQV RI IDPLOLHV as intermediate hosts than species of mammal RI ELUGV DQG PDPPDOV DV GHÀQLWLYH RU ÀQDO KRVWV VFKLVWRVRPHV W  S   DQG RFFXU LQ :H UHFRUGHG  GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ HYHQWV IURP WKH more geographic locations than do mammal parasites SK\ORJHQ\RI6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH /RFN\HUHWDO W S  7KHVDPHUHODWLRQVKLSKROGV )LJ   2I WKH  WRWDO SRLQWV RI GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ for geographic locations occupied by schistosomatid these parasites diversify without entering a novel JHQHUD%LUGSDUDVLWL]LQJJHQHUDDUHIRXQGLQPRUH host 20 times. We found two instances of a switch areas than genera that include mammal parasites LQÀQDOKRVWVDQGVL[RFFXUUHQFHVRIFKDQJLQJVQDLO W S  7KHUH ZDV QR VWDWLVWLFDOO\ IDPLOLHV 'LYHUVLÀFDWLRQ ZLWKRXW DFFRPSDQ\LQJ VLJQLÀFDQWGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHQXPEHURIVQDLOIDPLOLHV KRVWVZLWFKDFFRXQWHGIRU  RIWKHHYHQWVLQWKH XVHGDVLQWHUPHGLDWHKRVWVEHWZHHQELUGEORRGÁXNHV

Fig. 6. 0'6 UHVXOWV RI WKH DQDO\VLV RI WKH 3ODWW HW DO 1992  GDWDVHW 6SLURUFKLLGDH WD[D DUH VKRZQ LQ UHG Schistosomatidae is shown in blue, and Clinostomum is shown in green. A Baraminic Study of the Blood Flukes of Family Schistosomatidae 33

Bilharziella polonica

100 Dendritobilharzia pulverulenta 96 100 100 Gigantobilharzia huronensis 100 100 100 100 Trichobilharzia ocellata 100 100 Trichobilharzia szidati

Heterobilharzia americana 100 100 Schistosomatium douthitti

Ornithobilharzia canaliculata 6 100 100 Austrobilharzia terrigalensis 69 97 100 Austrobilharzia variglandis

Schistosoma sinensium 64 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Orientobilharzia turkestanicum

100 Schistosoma incognitum 100 100 67 100 100 Schistosoma rodhaini

Schistosoma nasale 98 65 100 Schistosoma spindale 100 100 100 40 100 Schistosoma margrebowiei 100 Schistosoma leiperi 100 95 Schistosoma mattheei 100 55 87 60 100 97 59 100 Schistosoma curassoni 97 0.05 substitutions/site

Fig. 7.7KLVSK\ORJHQ\LVIURP/RFN\HUHWDO  $EOXHFLUFOHUHSUHVHQWVGLIIHUHQWÀQDOKRVWVLQWKHWZREUDQFKHV connected by the node. An orange circle represents different snail hosts in the two branches connected by the node. Finally, red circles indicate that both branches share at least one snail family as hosts and share the same class of GHÀQLWLYHKRVW HLWKHUELUGRUPDPPDO  34 M. E. Ingle and M. Aaron

Griphobilharzia Bird schistomatids are believed to be less pathogenic to normal hosts than mammal parasites Austrobilharzia /LFKWHQEHUJRYD DQG +RUDN   :KLOH ELUG Bilharziella parasites can cause severe pathology in large numbers, most seem to cause less of an impact in the hosts than Dendritobilharzia GRPDPPDOVFKLVWRVRPHV :RMFLQVNLHWDO 7KH Gigantobilharzia species Trichobilharzia regenti invades the central Trichobilharzia QHUYRXVV\VWHP &16 RIZDWHUIRZOZKLOHPLJUDWLQJ from the vascular system to the nasal passageV, and Macrobilharzia FDQ GDPDJH WKH QHUYRXV V\VWHP /LFKWHQEHUJRYi Ornithobilharzia DQG +RUiN   7KH GDPDJH FDXVHG E\ WKHVH species of parasites is temporary unless the parasite Sinobilharzia occurred in high numbers. Trichobilharzia regent can Heterobilharzia DOVR FDXVH VLJQLÀFDQW SDWKRORJ\ LQ URGHQWV ZKHQ LW moves into the CNS and elicits an immune response Schistosomatium /LFKWHQEHUJRYi DQG +RUiN   6FKLVWRVRPDWLGV Bivitellobilharzia that infect cannot fully mature in mammals DQGGLHSULRUWRUHDFKLQJVH[XDOPDWXULW\ :RMFLQVNL Orientobilharzia HW DO   7KH SDUDVLWHV RI PDPPDO YHVVHOV Schistosoma FDXVH GHVWUXFWLRQ LQ OLYHVWRFN ZLOGOLIH DQG KXPDQ Fig. 8.7KLVSK\ORJHQ\LVDOVRWDNHQIURP/RFN\HUHWDO SRSXODWLRQV 6Q\GHU DQG /RNHU   )LYH VSHFLHV   ,W LV D FRS\ RI D FODGRJUDP IURP 0RUDQG DQG of the genus Schistosoma cause intense pathology 0OOHU*UDII  WKDWXVHVPRUSKRORJLFDOFKDUDcters and collectively infect more than 200 million people WRUHSUHVHQWWKHGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQZLWKLQ6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH ZRUOGZLGH /RFN\HU HW DO  6Q\GHU DQG /RNHU   DQG PDPPDO EORRG ÁXNHV W  S   8 The number of geographic regions a parasite is found in increased with the number of snail families 7

D SDUDVLWH FRXOG XVH )1,27 S )LJ   The variation in the number of snail families used 6 DVLQWHUPHGLDWHKRVWVH[SODLQHGRIWKHYDULDWLRQ in the number of geographic regions. We found the 5 same relationship among genera of schistosomes, with the distribution of the genus increasing with 4

WKH QXPEHU RI VQDLO IDPLOLHV LQIHFWHG )1,27  S )LJ  3

5 Number of Geographic Regions 2

1

123456 4 Number of Snail Families Fig. 10. The range of the genera of schistosomatid VSHFLHVLVSORWWHGDJDLQVWWKHLUKRVWVSHFLÀFLW\7KHEOXH 3 OLQHUHSUHVHQWVWKHOLQHRIEHVWÀW Pulmonate and caenogastropod snails are infected by primitive bird and mammal schistosomes, with 2 ELUGSDUDVLWL]LQJVSHFLHVXVLQJPRUHIDPLOLHVRIWKHVH VQDLOV WKDQ WKH PDPPDO SDUDVLWL]LQJ VSHFLHV 7KH Number of Geographic Regions most common genus of snails infected by Schistosoma 1 spp., Biomphalaria, did not occur in the present range of the parasite until the Pleistocene, demonstrating 123 Number of Snail Families WKDW GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ ZLWKLQ Schistosoma is a recent Fig. 9. The range of the schistosomatid is plotted against SKHQRPHQRQ 6Q\GHUDQG/RNHU DQGRFFXUUHG WKHKRVWVSHFLÀFLW\7KHEOXHOLQHUHSUHVHQWVWKHOLQHRI after the Flood. The Pleistocene Epoch occurred EHVWÀW WRZDUGV WKH HQG RI WKH &HQR]RLF (UD DQG OLNHO\ A Baraminic Study of the Blood Flukes of Family Schistosomatidae 35

UHSUHVHQWV SRVW)ORRG GHSRVLWV Anonymous 2009  7KH%'&UHVXOWVRIWKHFRPSLOHGGDWDVHW )LJ  0DFH 6LPV DQG :RRG   SURSRVHG WKDW WKH suggest continuity within Schistosomatidae to GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ ZLWKLQ Schistosoma may have been the exclusion of Griphobilharzia. This conclusion complete prior to the Flood. /RFN\HU HW DO   LV VWURQJO\ VXSSRUWHG E\ WKH 0'6 JUDSK )LJ   demonstrated the presence of four groups of mammal which shows an obvious gap in multidimensional infecting schistosomatids. Each of these groups occurs character space between Griphobilharzia in a single family of snails: two groups of parasites in and the schistosomatid cluster. Interestingly, /\PQDHLGDHRQHJURXSLQ3ODQRUELGDHDQGRQHLQWKH Griphobilharzia LV WKH RQO\ ÁXNH LQ WKH DQDO\VLV caenogastropod family . Schistosoma ZLWK DQ HFWRWKHUP IRU LWV ÀQDO KRVW Crocodylus spp. may have shifted from using caenogastropods to johnstoni³WKH $XVWUDOLDQ IUHVKZDWHU FURFRGLOH  pulmonate snails to enter into the African continent 3ODWWHWDO  GHVFULEHGGriphobilharzia amoena DQGDFKLHYHDJUHDWGHDORIGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ /RFN\HUHW as a schistosomatid, but they placed it in its own DO6Q\GHUDQG/RNHU  VXEIDPLO\*ULSKRELOKDU]LLQDH,WLVQRZFRQVLGHUHG D FORVHU UHODWLYH RI WKH 6SLURUFKLLGDH³ÁXNHV WKDW Discussion SDUDVLWL]H IUHVKZDWHU WXUWOHV 7KH %'& DQG 0'6 All of the BDC results had few correlations with UHVXOWVWDNHQWRJHWKHUVXJJHVWWKDWWKHUHLVFRQWLQXLW\ high bootstrap values, which suggests that these between the members of Schistosomatidae, and correlations are highly dependent upon the particular there is discontinuity between Schistosomatidae and characters chosen for the original dataset :RRG Griphobilharzia. D . None of the datasets had large numbers of 7KH PRGLÀHG GDWDVHW RI 3ODWW   FRQWDLQHG characters, with the spirorchiid dataset possessing the taxon Schistosomatidae as an outgroup to the only 13 characters. However, :RRG D noted 6SLURUFKLLGDH 7KH %'& UHVXOWV )LJ   VXJJHVW that the number of characters does not seem to have continuity between most of the spirorchiids, and DQ\VWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLÀFDQWHIIHFWRQWKHGHWHFWDELOLW\ there is no evidence of continuity with either of the baraminic status for a group of taxa. The ClinostomumRU6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH7KH0'6UHVXOWV characters in these datasets were not holistic, which )LJ VXJJHVWFRQWLQXLW\ZLWKLQ6SLURUFKLLGDHDQG is the desired state for baraminological analyses discontinuity between , Clinostomum, :RRG DQG 0XUUD\   1HYHUWKHOHVV :RRG·V and Schistosomatidae. D  FUXGH PHDVXUH IRU KROLVP GLG QRW VKRZ D Combining the results of all three analyses, VWDWLVWLFDOO\ VLJQLÀFDQW GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ GDWDVHWV we present the following tentative conclusions. of indeterminate baraminic status and those where Firstly, we conclude that Schistosomatidae is a baraminic status could be determined. monobaramin because there is evidence of continuity 7KH %'& UHVXOWV RI &DUPLFKDHO   )LJ   within the family. Secondly, Schistosomatidae seems to suggest discontinuity within the family appears to be discontinuous from Griphobilharzia, Schistosomatidae between Dendritobilharzia, Spirorchiidae, and Clinostomum, which, combined Trichobilharzia, Gigantobilharzia, and possibly ZLWK LWV PRQREDUDPLQLF VWDWXV ZRXOG PDNH LW D Bilharziella on the one hand, and the other holobaramin. Thirdly, Spirorchiidae also appears to schistosomatid taxa on the other hand. Interestingly, be a holobaramin because of its internal continuity the four taxa that are set apart are forms which and its discontinuity from Clinostomum and DUH RQO\ IRXQG LQ ELUGV +RZHYHU WKH 0'6 UHVXOWV Schistosomatidae. Unfortunately, we were not able )LJ   UHYHDOHG D YHU\ SHFXOLDU JHRPHWU\ ZLWK D to test the relationship between Griphobilharzia trigonal pattern for the taxa that are not solely found in DQG WKH VSLURUFKLLG WD[D DOWKRXJK ZH K\SRWKHVL]H birds. Peculiar geometries such as lines, tetrahedra, or that Griphobilharzia will be found to be within the the trigonal pattern seen here can help inform unusual spirorchiid holobaramin. We assume this based on the %'&UHVXOWV,WLVOLNHO\WKDWWKHFKDUDFWHUVFKRVHQIRU entirely aquatic life cycle of the parasites, and several WKLVGDWDVHWDUHELDVHG FRQVFLRXVO\RUXQFRQVFLRXVO\  shared morphological features. Our conclusions are LQVRPHZD\ :RRGD 7KHFKDUDFWHUVXVHGLQWKH tentative mainly because the datasets were not DQDO\VHV DUH WKRVH WKDW HPSKDVL]H WKH GLVVLPLODULW\ holistic, and they had few characters. Although, as among members of the family Schistosomatidae. QRWHGHDUOLHU:RRG D GLGQRWÀQGDVWDWLVWLFDOO\ 7KLV ELDV FRXOG LQFUHDVH WKH OLNHOLKRRG RI ÀQGLQJ VLJQLÀFDQWGLIIHUHQFHLQKROLVPDQGFKDUDFWHUQXPEHU schistosomatid species to be discontinuous with other between datasets that suggested holobaramins from species of the family. Although the BDC results suggest those datasets that were indeterminate, we still possible discontinuity within this family, the evidence WKLQNWKDWPRUHULJRURXVGDWDVHWVRQVFKLVWRVRPDWLGV IRU GLVFRQWLQXLW\ LV ODFNLQJ LQ WKH 0'6 UHVXOWV :H and spirorchiids should be compiled in the future to conclude that there is no evidence for discontinuity test our conclusions. The results of this study agree within Schistosomatidae in this analysis. ZLWK DQG H[SDQG XSRQ WKH FRQFOXVLRQ E\ 0DFH 36 M. E. Ingle and M. Aaron

6LPVDQG:RRG  WKDW6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDHLVDQ schistosomes and are more globally distributed. apobaramin. These data suggest that this baramin may have 0DFH 6LPV DQG :RRG   DUJXHG IRU WKH been created to dwell in birds, connecting them apobaramin status of Schistosomatidae, and with the ecosystem, and that shifting to mammal described two monobaramins within Schistosoma: hosts reduced variability within the resulting group. one with terminal spines on the eggs, and one with The reduced pathology of bird schistosomes when lateral spines on the egg. The researchers noted compared to mammal schistosomes further supports that both monobaramins might be untied in a single this, although it is important to note that some bird baramin. Our data suggest that all members of VFKLVWRVRPDWLGV VXFK DV Trichobilharzia  GR FDXVH Schistosoma are in the same holobaramin, and all VLJQLÀFDQW SDWKRORJ\ /LFKWHQEHUJRYi DQG +RUiN members of the family Schistosomatidae are also in  7KHSDUDVLWHVZLWKLQWKLVJHQXVDUHFRQVLGHUHG the same holobaramin. Additionally, the phylogeny PRUHVSHFLDOL]HG /RFN\HUHWDO WKDQRWKHUELUG IURP/RFN\HUHWDO  LVFRQJUXHQWZLWKPDQ\ ÁXNHV DQG PD\ EH LQYDGLQJ WKH ZURQJ KRVW RU WKH other phylogenies presented on Schistosomatidae wrong location in the host. Trichobilharzia spp. do WKDWDUHEDVHGRQRWKHUPROHFXODUIHDWXUHV %HOWUDQ migrate through the central nervous system, which is HW DO   PRUSKRORJLFDO IHDWXUHV &DUPLFKDHO XQLTXH DPRQJ WKH VFKLVWRVRPDWLGV /LFKWHQERUJRYi   DQG UHSURGXFWLYH EHKDYLRUV %HOWUDQ HW DO DQG+RUiN    0H\HU HW DO   SRLQWHG RXW KRZ RIWHQ 7KLVVWXG\LQGLFDWHVWKDWDOOEORRGÁXNHVLQIDPLO\ phylogenies supporting universal common descent 6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH DUH SDUW RI D VLQJOH FUHDWHG NLQG GLVDJUHH HYHQ ZKHQ XVLQJ WKH VDPH FKDUDFWHUV  WKDW KDV GLYHUVLÀHG VLJQLÀFDQWO\ VLQFH FUHDWLRQ 7KHODFNRIGLVDJUHHPHQWDPRQJWKHSK\ORJHQLHVIRU As the original group differentiated, more derived Schistosomatidae provides support for holobaramin VSHFLHVEHFDPHPRUHKRVWVSHFLÀFDQGPRUHYLUXOHQW status of schistosomatids. Phylogenies for The bird parasites may represent the original form schistosomatids contain two groups within the family best, and are generalist parasites that cause less /RFN\HUHWDO %RWKWKHVHJURXSVFRQWDLQELUG pathology than the more derived mammal blood parasites with nearly global distributions, further ÁXNHV $GGLWLRQDO VWXGLHV RQ WKH SDWKRORJ\ RI supporting the similarities among species within different schistosomatids and the characteristics this family and the holobaramin status of these of host immune responses are needed to better organisms. understand the intent and design of the schistosome :HQRWLFHGWKDWPRVWRIWKHGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ RXW NLQG 0DFH6LPVDQG:RRG  RIGLYHUVLÀFDWLRQHYHQWV ZLWKLQWKHVFKLVWRVRPH NLQG RFFXUUHG ZLWKLQ WKH VDPH VQDLO KRVW IDPLO\ Acknowledgments )LJ   ,I WKH GLIIHUHQW VQDLO IDPLOLHV UHSUHVHQW We appreciate the valuable comments and separate snail holobaramins, much of the variation suggestions made by Christian Hayes as he edited in the schistosomatid group seems to have generated this manuscript for us. The anonymous reviewers ZLWKLQ WKH VDPH KRVW NLQG $GGLWLRQDO UHVHDUFK RQ provided useful insights that strengthened the RWKHUSDUDVLWHJURXSVZLOOVKHGOLJKWRQWKHHIÀFDF\ arguments in this manuscript. of using the presence of similar parasites as evidence for holobaramin status of the hosts. Our data References indicate that this may be fruitful and a useful tool for $O.DQGDUL:<6$$O%XVWDQ$0,VDDF%$*HRUJH XQGHUVWDQGLQJRUJDQLVPNLQGV DQG %6 &KDQG\  ´0ROHFXODU ,GHQWLÀFDWLRQ RI ,I DOO WKH EORRG ÁXNHV ZLWKLQ 6FKLVWRVRPDWLGDH Austrobilharzia 6SHFLHV 3DUDVLWL]LQJ Cerithidea cingulata Journal of DUHDVLQJOHFUHDWHGNLQGWKHOLIHKLVWRU\DQGFUHDWHG *DVWURSRGD 3RWDPLGLGDH  IURP .XZDLW%D\µ Helminthology   ² LQWHQW RI WKH EDUDPLQ QHHGV H[SORUDWLRQ 0DFH $QRQ\PRXV  ¶7KH 6WRQHV &U\ 2XWµ https:// 6LPV DQG :RRG   QRWHG WKDW WKHVH SDUDVLWHV answersingenesis .org/geology/geologic-time-scale/the- might be invading the wrong hosts, creating the stones-cry-out/. pathology that was not part of God’s design. Ingle %DUEHU,+$:ULJKW6$$UQRWWDQG5-:RRWWRQ   VXJJHVWHG WKDW SDUDVLWHV FRXOG KDYH EHHQ ´*URZWKDQG(QHUJHWLFVLQWKH6WLFNOHEDFNSchistocephalus GHVLJQHG WR SURYLGH D PHFKDQLVP IRU KRUL]RQWDO +RVW3DUDVLWH6\VWHP$5HYLHZRI([SHULPHQWDO,QIHFWLRQ JHQHÁRZFRQQHFWLQJGLIIHUHQWRUJDQLVPVZLWKLQDQ 6WXGLHVµBehaviour² ecosystem. An organism that could move into and %HOWUDQ 6 < 'HVGHYLVHV - 3RUWHOD DQG - %RLVVLHU  out of a variety of different hosts, without causing ´0DWLQJ 6\VWHP 'ULYHV 1HJDWLYH $VVRFLDWLRQV %HWZHHQ 0RUSKRORJLFDO )HDWXUHV LQ Schistosomatidaeµ BMC pathology would function well to move mobile genetic Evolutionary Biology 10: 245. elements among species in a community. Our data Carmichael, A. C. 1984. Phylogeny and Historical Biogeography )LJVDQG VXJJHVWWKDWELUGVFKLVWRVRPDWLGVDUH of the Schistosomatidae.(DVW/DQVLQJ0LFKLJDQ0LFKLJDQ less selective when it comes to hosts than mammal State University. A Baraminic Study of the Blood Flukes of Family Schistosomatidae 37

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