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Trans-Eurasian Convergences in Early Modern Women's Writing

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Trans-Eurasian Convergences in Early Modern Women's Writing Early Modern Women: An Interdisciplinary Journal 2012, vol . 7 Trans-Eurasian Convergences in Early Modern Women’s Writing David Porter n this essay, I’d like to use the rubric of early modern women’s writ- Iing to put some pressure on the implicit Eurocentrism of the category of early modernity. When we speak of the “early modern,” we generally imply a European context. The historical developments we associate with modernity, after all, first appear in Europe, and so we quite sensibly tend to assume that the preconditions and precursors to these developments are likewise to be sought within the same cultural sphere. The often unspo- ken exceptionalist correlatives to this assumption, however—namely, that modernity is a uniquely European phenomenon and that its cultural roots are to be found uniquely in Europe—are far less defensible in either logi- cal or historical terms. How often do we read claims that this or that text (by Shakespeare or Locke or Defoe), or genre (the novel, the periodical essay, the romantic lyric), or historical development (paper currency, coffee shops, consumer culture) in seventeenth- or eighteenth-century England heralds “the birth of the modern subject” or even “the birth of modernity” tout court? And how often is it implied in such claims that these phenom- ena are, in one sense or another, the distinctive products of England’s idiosyncratic cultural brew of Protestantism, imperial ambition, mercantile industriousness, empiricist outlook, love of liberty, and literary genius? We need look no further for the origins of modernity than our own delight- fully verdant back yard, one might be forgiven for imagining, as this is where it all happened first. 203 EMW12.indb 203 8/28/12 12:30:38 PM 204 EMWJ 2012, vol . 7 David Porter The Chinese have a proverb, 井底之蛙 (jing di zhi wa), that asks us to reflect on the situation of a frog living at the bottom of a well, complacent in his assumption that the patch of sky he glimpses overhead is the extent of the known universe. The proverb’s implications resonate with Johannes Fabian’s trenchant critique of the pervasive “denial of co-evalness” in the study of culture, which leads anthropologists and historians alike, entan- gled as they are within the Whiggish teleologies of modernity, to relegate the experience of non-Western societies to a distant and static “traditional” past. Fabian calls upon us to abandon comfortable assumptions of exem- plarity, to resituate Europe and its history within an expansively global context, and even to seek out potential analogues to what we think of as characteristically “early modern” developments outside of Europe.1 A soci- ety’s discursive construction and deployment of gender is often deployed as a critical index of modernity, and I appreciate the opportunity this forum affords briefly to consider what early modern European women writers might look like against the backdrop of a cosmopolitan cultural history of the period. China offers a rich set of parallels to many characteristically “early modern” developments in the cultural history of England, in particular. The two seemingly disparate contexts invite comparison if only for the curious alignment of their political histories. In both China and England, widespread rebellions in the 1630s led first to civil war and eventually to a dynastic revolution in the 1640s, which was followed in turn, in both locations, by a period of imperial consolidation and expansion through the eighteenth century. Historians of both countries date to this same period a dramatic increase in commercial activity, the proliferation and growth of urban trade centers, the wide circulation and conspicuous consumption of new classes of luxury goods, and a notable fascination among the elite with the imitation of foreign arts and architecture, so that we find the Chinese Pagoda at Kew Gardens being erected, for example, within a few years of the European-inspired pleasure palaces at Yuanmingyuan. This expansion of commerce was predictably linked in both contexts to increasing social 1 Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002). EMW12.indb 204 8/28/12 12:30:38 PM Trans-Eurasian Convergences 205 mobility and corresponding anxieties over social promiscuity, debates on the moral effects of luxury, and the reification of taste as a means of adjudicating competing forms of consumption for the purpose of class differentiation. While causal connections become difficult to discern when it comes to matters of personal belief, it is striking to note as well that an increasingly humanist orientation in religion and philosophy led, in both China and England, to a greater emphasis on personal responsibility for self-cultivation through individual interpretation of canonical texts and the careful scrutiny and recording of one’s own behavior. This pattern of broad resonances extends, remarkably, even to the literary domain, where we might typically expect the productions of such disparate locations to be relatively idiosyncratic. Both China and England witnessed during this period a dramatic expansion in commercial publica- tion. New audiences gave rise to new genres, and we find in both contexts a flourishing of newspapers, travel accounts, conduct guides, and manuals of taste. Vernacular fictions, increasingly concerned with depicting, in a widely accessible language, the lives of ordinary people in ordinary settings, proliferated in both places, spawning similar sets of sub-genres along the way, including fictions in the amatory, criminal, sentimental, domestic, and pornographic modes. The novel comes into its own as a dominant and increasingly legitimate popular form at roughly the same time in China and England through an appeal to audiences who apparently shared some comparable tastes and desires. The Dream of the Red Chamber was composed in the mid-eighteenth century and first printed in the 1790s, making it contemporary with the similarly elaborate and psychologically astute feminocentric fictions of Richardson and Jane Austen. Increasingly vocal social criticism found an outlet in the new genre of the satirical- realist novel, whose most important early Chinese exemplar, The Scholars (儒林外史; Rulinwaishi) by Wu Jingzi, was completed in 1750, within two decades of the similarly barbed Joseph Andrews by Henry Fielding (1742), Vicar of Wakefield by Oliver Goldsmith (1761), and Humphrey Clinker by Tobias Smollett (1766). For the purpose of this essay, I will focus on another unexpected literary parallel: namely, the early modern efflorescence, in both China and England, of elite women’s literary activity. Recent scholarship on women’s EMW12.indb 205 8/28/12 12:30:38 PM 206 EMWJ 2012, vol . 7 David Porter reading and writing practices has established the centrality of female author- ship and literacy to the shifting cultural landscapes of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in both societies. In spite of the striking facts that women writers in both countries began to enter the literary profession in record numbers in the eighteenth century and that the corresponding growth in literacy and literary production increasingly gave marginalized women a new sense of agency and a powerful vehicle for exploring issues of authority, subjectivity, and self-fulfillment, very little work has been done by Europeanists to re-think the category of early modernity from a comparative gender-studies perspective.2 The publication, within the past twenty years, of several translated anthologies of Chinese women’s writ- ings and the emergence of a critical mass of high-quality English-language scholarship concerned with contexts and interpretations of these writings have made the linguistic barriers to comparative efforts far less daunting and the imperatives for a more cosmopolitan outlook in early modern studies more difficult to ignore.3 An occasion for a comparative thought experiment along these lines is provided by a striking decorative motif that enjoyed considerable popu- larity in both China and England in the second half of the seventeenth century. The so-called transitional ware porcelains produced in China for wealthy southern merchants in this period often feature clusters of 2 See the two essays Kang-I Sun Chang, “Gender and Canonicity: Ming-Qing Women Poets in the Eyes of the Male Literati,” and Grace Fong, “Writing from a Side Room of her Own: The Literary Vocation of Concubines in Ming-Qing China,” in Grace Fong, ed., Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, (Montreal: McGill University, 2001), 1–18 and 41–63, respectively. 3 See, for example, Peng-hsiang Chen and Whitney Crothers, eds., Feminism / Femininity in Chinese Literature, (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2002); Kang-I Sun Chang and Haun Saussy, eds., Women Writers of Traditional China: An Anthology of Poetry and Criticism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999); W. L. Idema and Beata Grant, The Red Brush: Writing Women of Imperial China (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2004); Susan Mann, Precious Records: Women in China’s Long Eighteenth-Century (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997); Dorothy Ko, Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997); and Ellen Widemer and Kang-I Sun Chang, eds., Writing Women in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). EMW12.indb 206 8/28/12 12:30:38 PM Trans-Eurasian Convergences 207 Figure 1. Porcelain Vase, Chinese, mid-17th century. Author’s photograph. elegantly attired women, lolling about in small groups in garden-like set- tings adapted from the woodblock illustrations of popular romances and plays (Fig. 1). They might be depicted burning incense and making music or admiring paintings and playing board games. They seem invariably at leisure and appear tranquil and content. Their gracefully flowing robes conceal their forms, often giving them, to the jaded Western eye, a curi- ously asexual or even androgynous appearance, and effectively warding off a habitual male gaze reared on Botticelli, Titian, and Boucher.
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