“Augustine”, “Saint Augustine”, and “Augustinus” the 20th century in particular come under attack by such redirect here. For other uses, see Augustine (dis- theologians as John Romanides.[13] But other theologians ambiguation), Saint Augustine (disambiguation), and and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown Augustinus (disambiguation). significant appropriation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky.[14] The most controversial doctrine surround- [15] Augustine of Hippo (/ɔːˈɡʌstɨn/,[1] /əˈɡʌstɨn/,[2] or ing his name is the filioque, which has been rejected by the Orthodox Church.[16] Other disputed teachings in- /'ɔːɡʌstɨn/;[3] Latin: Aurelius Augustinus Hipponen- [note 1] clude his views on , the doctrine of grace, and sis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also [15] known as Saint Augustine, Saint Austin,[4] (/ˈɔːstɨn/ . Nevertheless, though considered to be or /ˈɑːstɨn/)[5] Blessed Augustine,[6] and the Doctor of mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint, and [7] has even had influence on some Eastern Church Fathers, Grace (Latin: Doctor gratiae), was an early Christian [17] [8] most notably Saint Gregory Palamas. In the Orthodox theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced [15][18] the development of Western Christianity and Western Church his feast day is celebrated on 28 August, philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius (modern- and he carries the title of Blessed. day Annaba, ), located in Numidia (Roman province of Africa). He is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his 1 Life writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are and . 1.1 Childhood and education According to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine “es- tablished anew the ancient Faith.”[note 2] In his early years, he was heavily influenced by Manichaeism and afterward by the neo-Platonism of . After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommo- dating a variety of methods and perspectives.[9] Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human free- dom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and made seminal contributions to the development of . When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City.[10] His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. The segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople[11] closely identified with Augustine’s City of God. In the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, he is a saint, a preeminent Doctor of the Church, and the patron of the . His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death. He is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses.[12] Many Protestants, especially Calvinists, consider him to be one of the theological fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation and divine grace. The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. by In the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in Niccolò di Pietro 1413-15

1 2 1 LIFE

Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the a young woman in . Though his mother wanted municipium of Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria) him to marry a person of his class, the woman remained in Roman Africa.[19][20] His mother, Monica or his lover[40] for over fifteen years[41] and gave birth to his Monnica,[21] was a devout Christian; his father Patricius son Adeodatus,[42] who was viewed as extremely intel- was a Pagan who converted to Christianity on his ligent by his contemporaries. In 385, Augustine ended deathbed.[22] Scholars generally agree that Augustine his relationship with his lover in order to prepare himself and his family were Berbers, an ethnic group indigenous to marry a ten-year-old heiress. (He had to wait for two to North Africa,[23][24][25][26] but that they were heavily years because the legal age of marriage was twelve. By Romanized, speaking only Latin at home as a matter of the time he was able to marry her, however, he instead pride and dignity.[23] In his writings, Augustine leaves decided to become a celibate priest.)[41][43] some information as to the consciousness of his African Augustine was from the beginning a brilliant student, heritage. For example, he refers to Apuleius as “the [27] with an eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered most notorious of us Africans,” to Ponticianus as “a [44] [28] Greek —he tells us that his first Greek teacher was a country man of ours, insofar as being African,” and brutal man who constantly beat his students, and Augus- Faustus of Mileve as “an African Gentleman.”[29] to tine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he real- Augustine’s family name, Aurelius, suggests that his fa- ized that he needed to know Greek, it was too late; and ther’s ancestors were freedmen of the gens Aurelia given although he acquired a smattering of the language, he was full Roman citizenship by the Edict of Caracalla in 212. never eloquent with it. However, his mastery of Latin was Augustine’s family had been Roman, from a legal stand- another matter. He became an expert both in the eloquent point, for at least a century when he was born.[30] It is use of the language and in the use of clever arguments to assumed that his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, make his points. on the basis of her name,[31][32] but as his family were honestiores, an upper class of citizens known as honor- able men, Augustine’s first language is likely to have been 1.2 Teaching rhetoric Latin.[31] At the age of 11, Augustine was sent to school at Madau- Augustine taught grammar at Thagaste during 373 and rus (now M'Daourouch), a small Numidian city about 19 374. The following year he moved to Carthage to con- miles (31 km) south of Thagaste. There he became fa- duct a school of rhetoric and would remain there for miliar with Latin literature, as well as pagan beliefs and the next nine years.[35] Disturbed by unruly students in practices.[33] His first insight into the nature of sin oc- Carthage, he moved to establish a school in Rome, where curred when he and a number of friends stole fruit they he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced, did not want from a neighborhood garden. He tells this in 383. However, Augustine was disappointed with the story in his autobiography, The Confessions. He remem- apathetic reception. It was the custom for students to bers that he did not steal the fruit because he was hun- pay their fees to the professor on the last day of the gry, but because “it was not permitted.”[34] His very na- term, and many students attended faithfully all term, and ture, he says, was flawed. 'It was foul, and I loved it. I then did not pay. Manichaean friends introduced him to loved my own error—not that for which I erred, but the the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who had error itself.”[34] From this incident he concluded the hu- been asked by the imperial court at Milan[45] to provide man person is naturally inclined to sin, and in need of the a rhetoric professor. grace of Christ. Augustine won the job and headed north to take his posi- At the age of 17, through the generosity of his fellow cit- tion in late 384. Thirty years old, he had won the most vis- izen Romanianus,[35] Augustine went to Carthage to con- ible academic position in the Latin world at a time when tinue his education in rhetoric. It was while he was a stu- such posts gave ready access to political careers. Al- dent in Carthage that he read Cicero's dialogue Hortensius though Augustine showed some fervour for Manichaeism, (now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting im- he was never an initiate or “elect”, but an “auditor”, the pression and sparking his interest in philosophy.[36] Al- lowest level in the sect’s hierarchy.[45] though raised as a Christian, Augustine left the church While still at Carthage a disappointing meeting with the to follow the Manichaean religion, much to his mother’s Manichaean Bishop, Faustus of Mileve, a key exponent of [37] despair. As a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic Manichaean theology, started Augustine’s scepticism of lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who Manichaeanism.[45] In Rome, he reportedly turned away boasted of their sexual exploits. The need to gain their from Manichaeanism, embracing the scepticism of the acceptance forced inexperienced boys like Augustine to New Academy movement. Because of his education, Au- [38] seek or make up stories about sexual experiences. It gustine had great rhetorical prowess and was very knowl- was during this period that he uttered his famous prayer, edgeable of the philosophies behind many faiths.[46] At [39] “Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet.” Milan, his mother’s religiosity, Augustine’s own studies At about the age of 19, Augustine began an affair with in , and his friend Simplicianus all urged him towards Christianity.[35] Initially Augustine was not 1.3 Christian conversion and priesthood 3

my marriage, my heart, which clave to her, was racked, and wounded, and bleeding.” Augustine confessed that he was not a lover of wedlock so much as a slave of lust, so he procured another concubine since he had to wait two years until his fiancée came of age. However, his wound was not healed, even began to fester.[49] There is evidence that Augustine may have considered this former relationship to be equivalent to marriage.[50] In his Confessions, he admitted that the experience even- tually produced a decreased sensitivity to pain. Augustine eventually broke off his engagement to his eleven-year- old fiancée, but never renewed his relationship with either of his concubines. Alypius of Thagaste steered Augustine away from marriage, saying that they could not live a life together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine looked back years later on the life at Cassiciacum, a villa outside of Milan where he gathered with his followers, and described it as Christianae vitae otium – the Chris- tian life of leisure.[51]

1.3 Christian conversion and priesthood

The earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome strongly influenced by Christianity and its ideologies, but after coming in contact with of Milan, Augus- tine reevaluated himself and was forever changed. Like Augustine, Ambrose was a master of rhetoric, but Angelico, Fra. “The Conversion of St. Augustine” (painting). older and more experienced.[47] Augustine was very much influenced by Ambrose, even more than by his own In the summer of 386, at the age of 31, after having heard mother and others he admired. Augustine arrived in Mi- and been inspired and moved by the story of Ponticianus’s lan and was immediately taken under the wing by Am- and his friends’ first reading of the life of Saint Anthony brose. Within his Confessions, Augustine states, “That of the Desert, Augustine converted to Christianity. As man of God received me as a father would, and welcomed Augustine later told it, his conversion was prompted by a [48] my coming as a good bishop should.” Soon, their rela- childlike voice he heard telling him to “take up and read” tionship grew, as Augustine wrote, “And I began to love (Latin: tolle, lege), which he took as a divine command him, of course, not at the first as a teacher of the truth, for to open the Bible and read the first thing he saw. Au- I had entirely despaired of finding that in thy Church—but gustine read from Paul’s Epistle to the Romans – the so- [48] as a friendly man.” Augustine visited Ambrose in or- called "Transformation of Believers" section, consisting der to see if Ambrose was one of the greatest speakers and of chapters 12 through 15 – wherein Paul outlines how the rhetoricians in the world. More interested in his speaking Gospel transforms believers, and the believers’ resulting skills than the topic of speech, Augustine quickly discov- behaviour. The specific part to which Augustine opened ered that Ambrose was a spectacular orator. Eventually, his Bible was Romans chapter 13, verses 13 and 14, to Augustine says that through the unconscious, he was led wit: into the faith of Christianity.[48] Augustine’s mother had followed him to Milan and ar- Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in ranged a marriage for which he abandoned his concubine. chambering and wantonness, not in strife and Although Augustine accepted this marriage, Augustine envying, but put on Christ, and was deeply hurt by the loss of his lover. He said, “My make no provision for the flesh to fulfill the mistress being torn from my side as an impediment to lusts thereof.[52] 4 1 LIFE

He later wrote an account of his conversion – his very appear by experience rather than the dramatic transformation, as Paul described – in his Confessions artifice of deus ex machina. (Latin: Confessiones), which has since become a clas- sic of and a key text in the history of Throughout the oratorio Augustine shows his willingness autobiography. This work is an outpouring of thanksgiv- to turn to God, but the burden of the act of conver- ing and penitence. Although it is written as an account sion weighs heavily on him. This is displayed by Hasse of his life, the Confessions also talks about the nature of through extended recitative passages. time, causality, free will, and other important philosoph- ical topics.[53] The following is taken from that work:

Late have I loved Thee, O Lord; and be- hold, Thou wast within and I without, and there I sought Thee. Thou was with me when I was not with Thee. Thou didst call, and cry, and burst my deafness. Thou didst gleam, and glow, and dispell my blindness. Thou didst touch me, and I burned for Thy peace. For Thyself Thou hast made us, And restless our hearts until in Thee they find their ease. Late have I loved Thee, Thou Beauty ever old and ever new.[1] 1. ^ Cite error: The named reference jus- tus.anglican.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Ambrose baptized Augustine, along with his son Adeoda- tus, on Easter Vigil in 387 in Milan. A year later, in 388, Augustine completed his apology On the Holiness of the The Consecration of Saint Augustine by Jaume Huguet Catholic Church.[45] That year, also, Adeodatus and Au- [35] gustine returned home to Africa. Augustine’s mother In 391 Augustine was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius Monica died at Ostia, Italy, as they prepared to embark [54] (now Annaba), in Algeria. He became a famous preacher for Africa. Upon their arrival, they began a life of (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be au- aristocratic leisure at Augustine’s family’s property.[55][56] [57] thentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean Soon after, Adeodatus, too, died. Augustine then sold religion, to which he had formerly adhered.[45] his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. The only thing he kept was the family house, which he converted In 395 he was made coadjutor Bishop of Hippo, and be- [59] into a monastic foundation for himself and a group of came full Bishop shortly thereafter, hence the name friends.[35] “Augustine of Hippo"; and he gave his property to the church of Thagaste.[60] He remained in that position until Much of Augustine’s conversion is dramatized in Johann his death in 430. He wrote his autobiographical Confes- Adolph Hasse's oratorio La conversione di Sant' Agostino. sions in 397-398. His work The City of God was written In the libretto for the oratorio by Duchess Maria Antonia to console his fellow Christians shortly after the Visigoths of Bavaria, Augustine’s mother Monica is presented as a had sacked Rome in 410. prominent character that is worried that Augustine might not convert to Christianity. The Duchess took a five-part Augustine worked tirelessly in trying to convince the peo- drama by Franciscus Neumayr and condensed it for the ple of Hippo to convert to Christianity. Though he had purposes of the oratorio. As Dr. Andrea Palent[58] says: left his monastery, he continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence. He left a regula for his monastery that led to his designation as the "patron saint of regular Maria Antonia Walpurgis revised the five- [61] part Jesuit drama into a two-part oratorio lib- clergy.” erty in which she limits the subject to the con- Much of Augustine’s later life was recorded by his friend version of Augustine and his submission to the , bishop of (present-day Guelma, Alge- will of God. To this was added the figure of the ria), in his Sancti Augustini Vita. Possidius admired Au- mother, Monica, so as to let the transformation gustine as a man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator 5

who took every opportunity to defend Christianity against Pertusati, to make a determination. The bishop de- its detractors. Possidius also described Augustine’s per- clared that, in his opinion, the bones were those of Saint sonal traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate Augustine.[65] sparingly, worked tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the The Augustinians were expelled from Pavia in 1700, tak- temptations of the flesh, and exercised prudence in the [62] ing refuge in Milan with the relics of Augustine, and the financial stewardship of his see. disassembled Arca, which were removed to the cathedral there. San Pietro fell into disrepair, but was finally re- 1.4 Death and veneration built in the 1870s, under the urging of Agostino Gaetano Riboldi, and reconsecrated in 1896 when the relics of Au- gustine and the shrine were once again reinstalled.[66][67] Shortly before Augustine’s death the , a Germanic tribe that had converted to Arianism, invaded Roman Africa. The Vandals besieged Hippo in the spring of 430, when Augustine entered his final illness. According to Possidius, one of the few miracles attributed to Au- gustine, the healing of an ill man, took place during the siege.[62]:43 According to Possidius, Augustine spent his 2 Views and thought final days in prayer and repentance, requesting that the penitential Psalms of David be hung on his walls so that he could read them. He directed that the library of the 2.1 Christian anthropology church in Hippo and all the books therein should be care- fully preserved. He died on 28 August 430.[62]:57 Shortly after his death, the Vandals lifted the siege of Hippo, Augustine was one of the first Christian ancient Latin au- but they returned not long thereafter and burned the city. thors with a very clear vision of theological anthropol- They destroyed all of it but Augustine’s cathedral and li- ogy.[68] He saw the human being as a perfect unity of brary, which they left untouched.[63] two substances: soul and body. In his late treatise On Augustine was canonized by popular acclaim, and later Care to Be Had for the Dead, section 5 (420 AD) he ex- recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by Pope horted to respect the body on the grounds that it belonged [69] Boniface VIII.[64] His feast day is 28 August, the day to the very nature of the human person. Augustine’s on which he died. He is considered the patron saint of favourite figure to describe body-soul unity is marriage: [70][71][72] brewers, printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number caro tua, coniunx tua — your body is your wife. of cities and dioceses.[12] Initially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After the fall of humanity they are now experiencing dramatic combat between one another. They are two categorically 1.4.1 Relics different things. The body is a three-dimensional object composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no According to Bede's True Martyrology, Augustine’s body spatial dimensions.[73] Soul is a kind of substance, partici- was later translated or moved to Cagliari, Sardinia, by the pating in reason, fit for ruling the body.[74] Augustine was Catholic bishops expelled from North Africa by Huneric. not preoccupied, as and Descartes were, with going Around 720, his remains were transported again by Pe- too much into details in efforts to explain the metaphysics ter, bishop of Pavia and uncle of the Lombard king of the soul-body union. It sufficed for him to admit that Liutprand, to the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in they are metaphysically distinct: to be a human is to be Pavia, in order to save them from frequent coastal raids a composite of soul and body, and the soul is superior to by Muslims. In January 1327, Pope John XXII issued the the body. The latter statement is grounded in his hierar- papal bull Veneranda Santorum Patrum, in which he ap- chical classification of things into those that merely exist, pointed the Augustinians guardians of the tomb of Augus- those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and tine (called Arca), which was remade in 1362 and elabo- have intelligence or reason.[75][76] rately carved with bas-reliefs of scenes from Augustine’s Like other Church Fathers such as Athenagoras,[77] Au- life. gustine “vigorously condemned the practice of induced In October 1695, some workmen in the Church of San abortion", and although he disapproved of an abortion Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia discovered a marble box con- during any stage of pregnancy, he made a distinction taining some human bones (including part of a skull). A between early abortions and later ones.[78] Nevertheless, dispute arose between the Augustinian hermits (Order of he accepted the distinction between “formed” and “un- Saint Augustine) and the regular canons (Canons Regu- formed” fetuses mentioned in the Septuagint translation lar of Saint Augustine) as to whether these were the bones of Exodus 21:22-23, a text that, he observed, did not clas- of Augustine. The hermits did not believe so; the canons sify as murder the abortion of an “unformed” fetus, since affirmed that they were. Eventually Pope Benedict XIII it could not be said with certainty that it had already re- (1724–1730) directed the Bishop of Pavia, Monsignor ceived a soul (see, e.g., De Origine Animae 4.4).[79] 6 2 VIEWS AND THOUGHT

2.2 Slavery Book of Genesis represents a logical framework, rather than the passage of time in a physical way – it would bear Augustine led many clergy under his authority at Hippo to a spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less free their slaves “as an act of piety.”[80] He boldly wrote a literal. One reason for this interpretation is the passage in letter urging the emperor to set up a new law against slave Sirach 18:1, creavit omnia simul (“He created all things traders and was very much concerned about the sale of at once”), which Augustine took as proof that the days children. Christian emperors of his time for 25 years had of Genesis 1 had to be taken non-literally.[88] Augustine permitted sale of children, not because they approved of also does not envision original sin as causing structural the practice, but as a way of preventing infanticide when changes in the universe, and even suggests that the bodies parents were unable to care for a child. Augustine noted of Adam and Eve were already created mortal before the that the tenant farmers in particular were driven to hire Fall.[89] Apart from his specific views, Augustine recog- out or to sell their children as a means of survival.[81] In nizes that the interpretation of the creation story is diffi- his famous book, The City of God, he presents the devel- cult, and remarks that we should be willing to change our opment of slavery as a product of sin and as contrary to mind about it as new information comes up.[90] God’s divine plan. He wrote that God “did not intend that this rational creature, who was made in his image, should have dominion over anything but the irrational creation 2.5 – not man over man, but man over the beasts.” Thus he wrote that righteous men in primitive times were made See also: Ecclesiology shepherds of cattle, not kings over men. “The condition Augustine developed his doctrine of the Church prin- of slavery is the result of sin,” he declared.[82] However, cipally in reaction to the Donatist sect. He taught that he did on at least one occasion support slavery. In The there is one Church, but that within this Church there are City of God, Augustine wrote he felt slavery was not a two realities, namely, the visible aspect (the institutional punishment. He wrote: “Slavery is not penal in character hierarchy, the Catholic , and the laity) and the and planned by that law which commands the preserva- invisible (the souls of those in the Church, who are either tion of the natural order and forbids disturbance.” dead, sinful members or elect predestined for Heaven). The former is the institutional body established by Christ on earth which proclaims salvation and administers the 2.3 Astrology sacraments, while the latter is the invisible body of the elect, made up of genuine believers from all ages, and Augustine’s contemporaries often believed astrology to who are known only to God. The Church, which is visi- be an exact and genuine science. Its practitioners were ble and societal, will be made up of “wheat” and “tares”, regarded as true men of learning and called mathemath- that is, good and wicked people (as per Mat. 13:30), un- ici. Astrology played a prominent part in Manichaean til the end of time. This concept countered the Donatist doctrine, and Augustine himself was attracted by their claim that only those in a state of grace were the “true” books in his youth, being particularly fascinated by those or “pure” church on earth, and that priests and bishops who claimed to foretell the future. Later, as a bishop, who were not in a state of grace had no authority or abil- [91]:28 he used to warn that one should avoid astrologers who ity to confect the sacraments. Augustine’s ecclesi- combine science and horoscopes. (Augustine’s term ology was more fully developed in City of God. There “mathematici”, meaning “astrologers”, is sometimes mis- he conceives of the church as a heavenly city or king- translated as “mathematicians”.) According to Augus- dom, ruled by love, which will ultimately triumph over tine, they were not genuine students of Hipparchus or all earthly empires which are self-indulgent and ruled by Eratosthenes but “common swindlers”.[83][84]:63[85][86] pride. Augustine followed Cyprian in teaching that the bishops and priests of the Church are the successors of the Apostles,[91] and that their authority in the Church is 2.4 Creation God-given.

See also: Allegorical interpretations of Genesis 2.6 Eschatology

In City of God, Augustine rejected both the immortality Augustine originally believed in premillennialism, of the human race proposed by pagans, and contemporary namely that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyp- kingdom prior to the general resurrection, but later tians) that differed from the Church’s sacred writings.[87] rejected the belief, viewing it as carnal. He was the In The Literal Interpretation of Genesis, Augustine took first theologian to expound a systematic doctrine of the view that everything in the universe was created si- , although some theologians and Christian multaneously by God, and not in seven calendar days like historians believe his position was closer to that of a literal interpretation of Genesis would require. He ar- modern postmillennialists. The mediaeval Catholic gued that the six-day structure of creation presented in the church built its system of eschatology on Augustinian 2.9 Mariology 7 amillennialism, where Christ rules the earth spiritually 2.9 Mariology through his triumphant church.[92] At the Reformation, theologians such as John Calvin accepted amillennialism. Although Augustine did not develop an independent Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is Mariology, his statements on Mary surpass in number and determined at death,[93][94] and that purgatorial fires depth those of other early writers.[103] Even before the of the intermediate state purify only those that died in Council of Ephesus, he defended the ever Virgin Mary communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel as the Mother of God, who, because of her virginity, is for later theology.[93] full of grace.[104] Likewise, he affirmed that the Virgin Mary “conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed virgin forever.”[105] 2.7 Epistemology

Epistemological concerns shaped Augustine’s intellectual 2.10 Natural knowledge and biblical inter- development. His early dialogues [Contra academicos pretation (386) and De Magistro (389)], both written shortly af- ter his conversion to Christianity, reflect his engagement Augustine took the view that, if a literal interpretation with sceptical arguments and show the development of contradicts science and our God-given reason, the Bibli- his doctrine of inner illumination. The doctrine of illu- cal text should be interpreted metaphorically. While each mination claims that God plays an active and regular part passage of Scripture has a literal sense, this “literal sense” in human perception (as opposed to God designing the does not always mean that the Scriptures are mere history; human mind to be reliable consistently, as in, for exam- at times they are rather an extended metaphor.[106] ple, Descartes’ idea of clear and distinct perceptions) and understanding by illuminating the mind so that human be- ings can recognize intelligible realities that God presents. 2.11 Original sin According to Augustine, illumination is obtainable to all rational minds, and is different from other forms of sense See also: Original sin perception. It is meant to be an explanation of the condi- Augustine taught that Original sin of Adam and Eve was tions required for the mind to have a connection with in- either an act of foolishness (insipientia) followed by pride telligible entities.[8] Augustine also posed the problem of and disobedience to God or that pride came first.[note 3] other minds throughout different works, most famously The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not perhaps in (VIII.6.9), and developed what to eat of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil has come to be a standard solution: the argument from (Gen 2:17).[107] The tree was a symbol of the order of analogy to other minds.[95] In contrast to Plato and other creation.[108] Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat earlier philosophers, Augustine recognized the central- of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world ity of testimony to human knowledge and argued that as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and what others tell us can provide knowledge even if we values.[note 4] They would not have fallen into pride and don't have independent reasons to believe their testimo- lack of wisdom, if hadn't sown into their senses “the nial reports.[96] root of evil” (radix Mali).[109] Their nature was wounded by or libido, which affected human intel- ligence and will, as well as affections and desires, includ- 2.8 Just war ing sexual desire.[note 5] In terms of metaphysics, concu- piscence is not a being but bad quality, the privation of See also: Just War good or a wound.[110] Augustine’s understanding of the consequences of the Augustine asserted that Christians should be pacifists as a original sin and of necessity of the redeeming grace personal, philosophical stance.[97] However, peacefulness was developed in the struggle against Pelagius and his in the face of a grave wrong that could only be stopped Pelagian disciples, Caelestius and Julian of Eclanum,[91] by violence would be a sin. Defence of one’s self or oth- who had been inspired by Rufinus of Syria, a disciple of ers could be a necessity, especially when authorized by a Theodore of Mopsuestia.[111] They refused to agree that legitimate authority. While not breaking down the con- libido wounded human will and mind, insisting that the ditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine coined the human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and phrase in his work The City of God.[98] In essence, the to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose pursuit of peace must include the option of fighting for its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to its long-term preservation.[99] Such a war could not be act or not to act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an ex- pre-emptive, but defensive, to restore peace.[100] Thomas ample of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person Aquinas, centuries later, used the authority of Augustine’s can make either good or bad use of it.[84]:355–356[112] Like arguments in an attempt to define the conditions under Jovinian, Pelagians insisted that human affections and de- which a war could be just.[101][102] sires were not touched by the fall either. Immorality, e.g. 8 2 VIEWS AND THOUGHT

fornication, is exclusively a matter of will, i.e. a person Ephesus (431), Orange (529), Trent (1546) and by popes, does not use natural desires in a proper way. In opposi- i.e. Pope Innocent I (401–417) and Pope Zosimus (417– tion to that, Augustine pointed out the apparent disobe- 418). established in his Cur Deus dience of the flesh to the spirit, and explained it as one of Homo the definition that was followed by the great 13th the results of original sin, punishment of Adam and Eve’s century Schoolmen, namely that Original Sin is the “pri- disobedience to God.[113] vation of the righteousness which every man ought to pos- sess”, thus separating it from concupiscence, with which Augustine had served as a “Hearer” for the Manichaeans [84]:371[126] for about nine years,[114] who taught that the original sin some of Augustine’s disciples had defined it as later did Luther and Calvin.[93]:1200–1204 In 1567, Pope was carnal knowledge.[115] But his struggle to understand the cause of evil in the world started before that, at the Pius V condemned the identification of Original Sin with concupiscence.[93]:1200–1204 age of nineteen.[116] By malum (evil) he understood most of all concupiscence, which he interpreted as a vice dom- Augustine taught that some people are predestined by inating person and causing in men and women moral dis- God to salvation by an eternal, sovereign decree which order. A. Trapè insists that Augustine’s personal experi- is not based on man’s merit or will. The saving grace ence cannot be credited for his doctrine about concupis- which God bestows is irresistible and unfailingly results cence. His marriage experience, though Christian mar- in conversion. God also grants those whom he saves with riage celebration was missing, was exemplary, very nor- the gift of perseverance so that none of those whom God mal and by no means specifically sad.[117] As J. Brachten- has chosen may conceivably fall away.[91]:44[127] dorf showed, Augustine used Ciceronian Stoic concept of In On Rebuke and Grace (De correptione et gratia), Au- passions, to interpret Paul’s doctrine of universal sin and [118] gustine wrote: “And what is written, that He wills all men redemption. to be saved, while yet all men are not saved, may be un- The view that not only human soul but also senses were derstood in many ways, some of which I have mentioned influenced by the fall of Adam and Eve was prevalent in in other writings of mine; but here I will say one thing: Augustine’s time among the Fathers of the Church.[119] He wills all men to be saved, is so said that all the pre- It is clear that the reason for Augustine’s distancing destinated may be understood by it, because every kind from the affairs of the flesh was different from that of men is among them.”[128] of Plotinus, a neo-Platonist[note 6] who taught that only through disdain for fleshly desire could one reach the ulti- mate state of mankind.[120] Augustine taught the redemp- 2.12 Free will tion, i.e. transformation and purification, of the body in the resurrection.[121] Included in Augustine’s theodicy is the claim that God Some authors perceive Augustine’s doctrine as directed created humans and angels as rational beings possessing against human sexuality and attribute his insistence on free will. Free will was not intended for sin, meaning it continence and devotion to God as coming from Augus- is not equally predisposed to both good and evil. A will tine’s need to reject his own highly sensual nature as de- defiled by sin is not considered as “free” as it once was scribed in the Confessions. But in view of his writings it because it is bound by material things, which could be lost is apparently a misunderstanding.[84]:312[note 7] Augustine or be difficult to part with, resulting in unhappiness. Sin taught that human sexuality has been wounded, together impairs free will, while grace restores it. Only a will that [129] with the whole of human nature, and requires redemption was once free can be subjected to sin’s corruption. of Christ. That healing is a process realized in conjugal The Catholic Church considers Augustine’s teaching to acts. The virtue of continence is achieved thanks to the be consistent with free will.[130] He often said that anyone grace of the of Christian marriage, which be- can be saved if they wish.[130] While God knows who will comes therefore a remedium concupiscentiae – remedy of and won't be saved, with no possibility for the latter to concupiscence.[122][123] The redemption of human sexu- be saved in their lives, this knowledge represents God’s ality will be, however, fully accomplished only in the res- perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their urrection of the body.[124] destinies.[130] The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings. Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin is transmitted to his descendants by 2.13 Sacramental theology concupiscence,[125] which he regarded as the passion of both, soul and body,[note 8] making humanity a massa Also in reaction against the Donatists, Augustine devel- damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and oped a distinction between the “regularity” and “validity” much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of of the sacraments. Regular sacraments are performed the will.[93]:1200–1204 by clergy of the Catholic Church, while sacraments per- formed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nev- Augustine’s formulation of the doctrine of original sin ertheless, the validity of the sacraments do not depend was confirmed at numerous councils, i.e. Carthage (418), upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (ex 2.16 Pedagogy 9 opere operato); therefore, irregular sacraments are still and lust, which is not on account of God.[142] For Au- accepted as valid provided they are done in the name gustine, proper love exercises a denial of selfish pleasure of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the Church. and the subjugation of corporeal desire to God. He wrote On this point Augustine departs from the earlier teach- that the pious virgins raped during the were ing of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic innocent because they did not intend to sin.[143][144] [91] movements must be re-baptised. Augustine taught that He believed that the serpent approached Eve because she sacraments administered outside the Catholic Church, was less rational and lacked self-control, while Adam’s though true sacraments, avail nothing. However, he also choice to eat was viewed as an act of kindness so that stated that baptism, while it does not confer any grace Eve would not be left alone.[145] Augustine believed sin when done outside the Church, does confer grace as soon entered the world because man (the spirit) did not exer- as one is received into the Catholic Church. cise control over woman (the flesh).[146] Augustine does, Augustine upheld the early Christian understanding of however, praise women and their role in society and in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, saying that the Church. In his Tractates on the Gospel of John, Au- Christ’s statement, “This is my body” referred to the gustine, commenting on the Samaritan woman from John bread he carried in his hands,[131][132] and that Christians 4:1–42, uses the woman as a figure of the church. must have faith that the bread and wine are in fact the According to Raming, the authority of the Decretum Gra- body and blood of Christ, despite what they see with their [133] tiani, a collection of Roman Catholic canon law which eyes. prohibits women from leading, teaching, or being a Against the Pelagians, Augustine strongly stressed the im- witness, rests largely on the views of the early church portance of infant baptism. About the question whether fathers—one of the most influential being Augustine, the baptism is an absolute necessity for salvation, however, Bishop of Hippo.[147] The laws and traditions founded Augustine appears to have refined his beliefs during his upon Augustine’s views of sexuality and women continue lifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians to exercise considerable influence over church doctrinal about his position. He said in one of his sermons that positions regarding the role of women in the church.[148] only the baptized are saved.[134] This belief was shared by many early Christians. However, a passage from his City of God, concerning the Apocalypse, may indicate 2.16 Pedagogy that Augustine did believe in an exception for children born to Christian parents.[135] Augustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education. A work early in Augustine’s writings is De Magistro (On the Teacher), which contains insights about 2.14 Jews education. However, his ideas changed as he found bet- ter directions or better ways of expressing his ideas. In Against certain Christian movements, some of which re- the last years of his life Saint Augustine wrote his Re- jected the use of Hebrew Scripture, Augustine countered tractationes, reviewing his writings and improving spe- that God had chosen the Jews as a special people,[136] cific texts. Henry Chadwick believes an accurate trans- and he considered the scattering of Jewish people by the lation of “retractationes” may be “reconsiderations”. Re- Roman Empire to be a fulfillment of prophecy.[137] He considerations can be seen as an overarching theme of the rejected homicidal attitudes, quoting part of the same way Saint Augustine learned. Augustine’s understand- prophecy, namely “Slay them not, lest they should at last ing of the search for understanding/meaning/truth as a forget Thy law” (Psalm 59:11). Augustine, who believed restless journey leaves room for doubt, development and Jewish people would be converted to Christianity at “the change.[149] end of time,” argued that God had allowed them to sur- Augustine was a strong advocate of critical thinking skills. vive their dispersion as a warning to Christians; as such, Because written works were still rather limited during he argued, they should be permitted to dwell in Christian this time, spoken communication of knowledge was very [138] lands. The sentiment sometimes attributed to Augus- important. His emphasis on the importance of com- tine that Christians should let the Jews “survive but not munity as a means of learning distinguishes his peda- thrive” (it is repeated by author James Carroll in his book gogy from some others. Augustine believed that dia- [139][140] Constantine’s Sword, for example) is apocryphal logue/dialectic/discussion is the best means for learning, [141] and is not found in any of his writings. and this method should serve as a model for learning en- counters between teachers and students. Saint Augus- 2.15 Sexuality tine’s dialogue writings model the need for lively inter- active dialogue among learners.[149] For Augustine, the evil of sexual immorality was not in He recommended adapting educational practices to fit the the sexual act itself, but rather in the emotions that typ- students’ educational backgrounds: ically accompany it. In On Christian Doctrine Augustine contrasts love, which is enjoyment on account of God, • the student who has been well-educated by knowl- 10 4 INFLUENCE

edgeable teachers; shaken by the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. His On the Trinity, in which he developed what has become • the student who has had no education; and known as the 'psychological analogy' of the Trinity, is also among his masterpieces, and arguably one of the great- • the student who has had a poor education, but be- est theological works of all time. He also wrote On Free lieves himself to be well-educated. Choice of the Will (De libero arbitrio), addressing why God gives humans free will that can be used for evil. If a student has been well educated in a wide variety of subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have already learned, but to challenge the student with material which they do not yet know thoroughly. 4 Influence With the student who has had no education, the teacher must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Au- understands, and sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult gustine was greatly influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and student, however, is the one with an inferior education Neoplatonism, particularly by the work of Plotinus, au- who believes he understands something when he does not. thor of the Enneads, probably through the mediation of Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued). student the difference between “having words and hav- Although he later abandoned Neoplatonism, some ideas ing understanding,” and of helping the student to remain are still visible in his early writings.[152] His early and humble with his acquisition of knowledge. influential writing on the human will, a central topic in ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such Under the influence of Bede, Alcuin and Rabanus Mau- as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. He was rus, De catechizandis rudibus came to exercise an im- also influenced by the works of Virgil (known for his portant role in the education of clergy at the monastic teaching on language), and Cicero (known for his teach- schools, especially from the eighth century onwards.[150] ing on argument).[8] Augustine believed that students should be given an op- portunity to apply learned theories to practical experi- ence. Yet another of Augustine’s major contributions 4.1 In philosophy to education is his study on the styles of teaching. He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when Philosopher Bertrand Russell was impressed by Augus- speaking to the students. The mixed style includes com- tine’s meditation on the nature of time in the Confessions, plex and sometimes showy language to help students see comparing it favourably to Kant's version of the view that the beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying. The time is subjective.[153] Catholic theologians generally sub- grand style is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but scribe to Augustine’s belief that God exists outside of is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the time in the “eternal present"; that time only exists within same passion in the students’ hearts. Augustine balanced the created universe because only in space is time dis- his teaching philosophy with the traditional Bible-based cernible through motion and change. His meditations on practice of strict discipline. the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her 1966 study The Art of Memory argues that a brief passage 3 Works of the Confessions, 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields [154] Main article: Augustine of Hippo bibliography of memory clearly indicates that the ancient Romans Augustine was one of the most prolific Latin authors in were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural terms of surviving works, and the list of his works consists metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large of more than one hundred separate titles.[151] They in- amounts of information. clude apologetic works against the heresies of the Arians, Augustine’s philosophical method, especially demon- Donatists, Manichaeans and Pelagians; texts on Chris- strated in his Confessions, had continuing influence tian doctrine, notably (On Chris- on Continental philosophy throughout the 20th cen- tian Doctrine); exegetical works such as commentaries tury. His descriptive approach to intentionality, mem- on Genesis, the Psalms and Paul’s Letter to the Romans; ory, and language as these phenomena are experi- many sermons and letters; and the Retractationes, a re- enced within consciousness and time anticipated and view of his earlier works which he wrote near the end inspired the insights of modern phenomenology and of his life. Apart from those, Augustine is probably best hermeneutics.[155] Edmund Husserl writes: “The analysis known for his Confessions, which is a personal account of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of descriptive of his earlier life, and for De civitate Dei (The City of psychology and theory of knowledge. The first thinker God, consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore to be deeply sensitive to the immense difficulties to be the confidence of his fellow Christians, which was badly found here was Augustine, who laboured almost to de- 4.3 In popular culture 11

spair over this problem.”[156] Martin Heidegger refers to tinued to rely on his thought throughout her career. Augustine’s descriptive philosophy at several junctures in Ludwig Wittgenstein extensively quotes Augustine in his influential work Being and Time.[note 9] Hannah Arendt Philosophical Investigations for his approach to language, began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on both admiringly, and as a sparring partner to develop his Augustine’s concept of love, Der Liebesbegriff bei Au- own ideas, including an extensive opening passage from gustin (1929): “The young Arendt attempted to show the Confessions. Contemporary linguists have argued that the philosophical basis for vita socialis in Augus- that Augustine has significantly influenced the thought of tine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love, Ferdinand de Saussure, who did not 'invent' the modern grounded in his understanding of the common origin of discipline of semiotics, but rather built upon Aristotelian humanity.”[157] Jean Bethke Elshtain in Augustine and and Neoplatonist knowledge from the Middle Ages, via the Limits of Politics finds similarity between Augustine an Augustinian connection: “as for the constitution of and Arendt in their concepts of evil: “Augustine did not Saussurian semiotic theory, the importance of the Augus- see evil as glamorously demonic but rather as absence tinian thought contribution (correlated to the Stoic one) of good, something which paradoxically is really noth- has also been recognized. Saussure did not do anything ing. Arendt ... envisioned even the extreme evil which but reform an ancient theory in Europe, according to the produced the Holocaust as merely banal [in Eichmann modern conceptual exigencies.”[161] [158] in Jerusalem].” Augustine’s philosophical legacy con- In his autobiographical book Milestones, Pope Benedict tinues to influence contemporary critical theory through XVI claims Augustine as one of the deepest influences in the contributions and inheritors of these 20th-century fig- his thought. ures. Seen from a historical perspective, there are three main perspectives on the political thought of Augustine: first, political ; second, Augustinian polit- 4.3 In popular culture ical theology; and third, Augustinian political theory.[159] Augustine was played by Dary Berkani in the 1972 tele- 4.2 In theology vision movie Augustine of Hippo. He was played by Franco Nero in the 2010 mini-series Augustine: The De- was influenced heavily by Augustine. cline of the Roman Empire and the 2012 feature film Restless Heart: The Confessions of Saint Augustine.[162] On the topic of original sin, Aquinas proposed a more [163] optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in that The modern-day name links to the Agostinelli family. his conception leaves to the reason, will, and pas- Jostein Gaarder's philosophical novel Vita Brevis is pre- sions of fallen man their natural powers even after the sented as a translation of a manuscript written by Augus- Fall.[93]:1200–1204 Augustine’s doctrine of efficacious grace tine’s concubine after he became the Bishop of Hippo. found eloquent expression in the works of Bernard of Augustine also appears in the novel The Dalkey Archive Clairvaux; also Reformation theologians such as Martin by Flann O'Brien (the pen name of Irish author Brian Luther and John Calvin would look back to him as their O'Nolan). He is summoned to an underwater cavern by inspiration. While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine an absurd scientist called De Selby; together they dis- taught that Adam’s guilt as transmitted to his descendants cuss life in Heaven and the characters of other saints. much enfeebles, though does not destroy, the freedom of Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s novel A Canticle for Leibowitz their will, Protestant reformers and John cites Augustine as possibly positing the first version of Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed a theory of evolution.[164] He appears prominently in liberty (see ).[93]:1200–1204 Patricia McGerr's novel, My Brothers, Remember Mon- [165] According to Leo Ruickbie, Augustine’s arguments ica: A Novel of the Mother of Augustine. against , differentiating it from miracle, were Bob Dylan recorded a song entitled "I Dreamed I Saw St. crucial in the early Church’s fight against Augustine" on his album John Wesley Harding. Pop artist and became a central thesis in the later denuncia- Sting pays an homage of sorts to Augustine’s struggles tion of witches and . According to Pro- with lust with the song “Saint Augustine in Hell” which fessor Deepak Lal, Augustine’s vision of the heavenly appears on the singer’s 1993 album Ten Summoner’s city has influenced the secular projects and traditions Tales. Christian rock band Disciple named their fourth of the Enlightenment, Marxism, Freudianism and eco- track on their 2010 release Horseshoes and Handgrenades fundamentalism.[160] Post-Marxist philosophers Antonio after Augustine, called “The Ballad of St. Augustine”. Negri and Michael Hardt rely heavily on Augustine’s The song “St. Augustine” appears on Girlyman's album, thought, particularly The City of God, in their book of Supernova. American rock band Moe named and refer- political philosophy Empire. enced Augustine of Hippo in their song entitled “St. Au- Augustine has influenced many modern-day theologians gustine”. and authors such as John Piper. Hannah Arendt, an in- The conversion of Saint Augustine is dramatized in the fluential 20th-century political theorist, wrote her doc- oratorio La conversione di Sant'Agostino (1750) com- toral dissertation in philosophy on Augustine, and con- posed by Johann Adolph Hasse. The libretto for this 12 6 REFERENCES oratorio, written by Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria, • Francis Landey Patton draws upon the influence of Metastasio (the finished li- • bretto having been edited by him) and is based off an earlier five-act play Idea perfectae conversionis dive Au- • Philosophy of history gustinus written by the Jesuit priest Franz Neumayr.[166] • Philosophy of religion 5 See also • Predestination • Johann Pupper • Alexander of San Elpidio • Problem of evil • Mar Ammo • Reformed • • • Augustinian Institute • Semipelagianism • Augustinian Studies • Theology of John Calvin • • Truth • Augustinians • Bennet Tyler • Domingo Bañez • B. B. Warfield • Thomas Bradwardine • Confessions (Augustine) 6 References • Constantinian shift • Council of Orange (529) 6.1 Notes • Ecclesiology [1] The nomen Aurelius is virtually meaningless, signifying • Jonathan Edwards little more than Roman citizenship (see: Salway, Benet (1994). “What’s in a Name? A Survey of Roman Ono- • mastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700”. The Jour- nal of Roman Studies. Society for the Promotion of Ro- • Free will man Studies. 84: 124–45. doi:10.2307/300873. ISSN 0075-4358. JSTOR 300873.). • Gregory of Rimini [2] Jerome wrote to Augustine in 418: “You are known • Michael Horton throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as • the one who has established anew the ancient Faith” (con- Incurvatus in se ditor antiquae rursum fidei). Cf. Epistola 195; TeSelle, • Cornelius Jansen Eugene (1970). Augustine the Theologian. London. p. 343. ISBN 0-223-97728-4. March 2002 edition: ISBN • Jansenism 1-57910-918-7. • Just war theory [3] He explained to Julian of Eclanum that it was a most sub- tle job to discern what came first: Sed si disputatione sub- • Johannes Klenkok tilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fe- • Abraham Kuijper cerit.(Contra Julianum, V, 4.18; PL 44, 795)

• John Gresham Machen [4] Augustine explained it in this way: “Why therefore is it en- joined upon mind, that it should know itself? I suppose, • Order of Saint Augustine in order that, it may consider itself, and live according to its own nature; that is, seek to be regulated according to • Original sin its own nature, viz., under Him to whom it ought to be • Otium subject, and above those things to which it is to be pre- ferred; under Him by whom it ought to be ruled, above • Neo-Calvinism those things which it ought to rule. For it does many things through vicious desire, as though in forgetfulness of itself. • Blaise Pascal For it sees some things intrinsically excellent, in that more 6.2 Sources 13

excellent nature which is God: and whereas it ought to re- fornication, and idolatry unbelief, and covetousness idol- main steadfast that it may enjoy them, it is turned away atry, it is not to be doubted that covetousness also is for- from Him, by wishing to appropriate those things to it- nication. Who, then, in that case can rightly separate any self, and not to be like to Him by His gift, but to be what unlawful lust whatever from the category of fornication, He is by its own, and it begins to move and slip gradu- if covetousness is fornication? And from this we perceive, ally down into less and less, which it thinks to be more that because of unlawful lusts, not only those of which one and more.” ("On the Trinity"(De Trinitate), 5:7; CCL 50, is guilty in acts of uncleanness with another’s husband or 320 [1–12]) wife, but any unlawful lusts whatever, which cause the soul making a bad use of the body to wander from the law of [5] In one of Augustine’s late works, Retractationes, he made God, and to be ruinously and basely corrupted, a man may, a significant remark indicating the way he understood dif- without crime, put away his wife, and a wife her husband, ference between spiritual, moral libido and the sexual de- because the Lord makes the cause of fornication an ex- sire: “Libido is not good and righteous use of the libido” ception; which fornication, in accordance with the above (“libido non est bonus et rectus usus libidinis”). See the considerations, we are compelled to understand as being whole passage: Dixi etiam quodam loco: «Quod enim est general and universal. ("On the Sermon on the Mount", cibus ad salutem hominis, hoc est concubitus ad salutem De sermone Domini in monte, 1:16:46; CCL 35, 52) generis, et utrumque non est sine delectatione carnali, quae tamen modificata et temperantia refrenante in usum natu- [9] For example, Heidegger’s articulations of how “Being- ralem redacta, libido esse non potest». Quod ideo dictum in-the-world” is described through thinking about seeing: est, quoniam “libido non est bonus et rectus usus libidinis”. “The remarkable priority of 'seeing' was noticed particu- Sicut enim malum est male uti bonis, ita bonum bene uti larly by Augustine, in connection with his Interpretation malis. De qua re alias, maxime contra novos haereticos of concupiscentia.” Heidegger then quotes theConfessions: Pelagianos, diligentius disputavi. Cf. De bono coniugali, “Seeing belongs properly to the eyes. But we even use this 16.18; PL 40, 385; De nuptiis et concupiscentia, II, 21.36; word 'seeing' for the other senses when we devote them to PL 44, 443; Contra Iulianum, III, 7.16; PL 44, 710; ibid., cognizing... We not only say, 'See how that shines’, ... 'but V, 16.60; PL 44, 817. See also Idem (1983). Le mariage we even say, 'See how that sounds’". Being and Time, Trs. chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie Macquarrie & Robinson. New York: Harpers, 1964, p. baptismale de la vie conjugale. Paris: Études Augustini- 171. ennes. p. 97.

[6] Although Augustine praises him in the Confessions, 8.2., it is widely acknowledged that Augustine’s attitude towards 6.2 Sources that pagan philosophy was very much of a Christian apos- tle, as T.E. Clarke SJ writes: Towards Neoplatonism there [1] Wells, J. (2000). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (2 was throughout his life a decidedly ambivalent attitude; one ed.). New York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-36467-1. must expect both agreement and sharp dissent, derivation but also repudiation. In the matter which concerns us here, [2] “Augustine”, in Webster’s New Biographical Dictionary the agreement with Neoplatonism (and with the Platonic (1988), Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, ISBN 0- tradition in general) centers on two related notions: im- 87779-543-6 . mutability as primary characteristic of divinity, and like- ness to divinity as the primary vocation of the soul. The [3] “Augustin(e, n. (and adj.)". Oxford English Dictionary. disagreement chiefly concerned, as we have said, two re- March 2011. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 25 May lated and central Christian dogmas: the Incarnation of the 2011. Son of God and the resurrection of the flesh. Clarke, SJ, T. E. “St. Augustine and Cosmic Redemption”. Theolog- [4] The American Heritage College Dictionary. Boston, MA: ical Studies. 19 (1958): 151. Cf. É. Schmitt’s chapter Houghton Mifflin Company. 1997. p. 91. ISBN 0-395- 2: L'idéologie hellénique et la conception augustinienne de 66917-0. réalités charnelles in: Idem (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale [5] “Austin”, in Webster’s New Biographical Dictionary, 11th de la vie conjugale. Paris: Études Augustiniennes. pp. Edition, Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, ISBN 978- 108–123. O'Meara, J.J. (1954). The Young Augustine: 0-87779-809-5 . The Growth of St. Augustine’s Mind up to His Conversion. London. pp. 143–151 and 195f. Madec, G. Le “platon- [6] In the Orthodox Church – “Augustine Hippo”. Ortho- isme” des Pères. p. 42. in Idem (1994). Petites Études Au- doxWiki. Retrieved 17 September 2015. gustiniennes. «Antiquité» 142. Paris: Collection d'Études [7] Portalié, Eugène (1913). “St. Augustine of Hippo”. In Augustiniennes. pp. 27–50. Thomas Aq. STh I q84 a5; Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Augustine of Hippo, City of God (De Civitate Dei), VIII, Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 30 June 2016. 5; CCL 47, 221 [3–4].

[7] Gerald Bonner’s comment explains a little bit why there [8] Mendelson, Michael. Saint Augustine. The Stanford En- are so many authors who write false things about Augus- cyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 21 December 2012. tine’s views: “It is, of course, always easier to oppose and denounce than to understand.” [9] TeSelle, Eugene (1970). Augustine the Theologian. Lon- don. pp. 347–349. ISBN 0-223-97728-4. March 2002 [8] In 393 or 394 he commented: Moreover, if unbelief is edition: ISBN 1-57910-918-7. 14 6 REFERENCES

[10] Durant, Will (1992). Caesar and Christ: a History of [27] Ep., CXXXIII, 19. English version Latin version Roman Civilization and of Christianity from Their Begin- nings to A.D. 325. New York: MJF Books. ISBN 1- [28] Confess., VIII, 6, 14. English version Latin version 56731-014-1. [29] Contra Faustum, I, 1. English version Latin version [11] Wilken, Robert L. (2003). The Spirit of Early Christian Thought. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 291. [30] Lancel, Serge (2002) Saint Augustine, Hymns Ancient & ISBN 0-300-10598-3. Modern, p. 5, ISBN 0334028663.

[12] Know Your Patron Saint. catholicapologetics.info [31] Power, Kim (1999) “Family, Relatives”, pp. 353–54 in Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia. Allan D. [13] “SOME UNDERLYING POSITIONS OF THIS WEB- Fitzgerald, ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, ISBN SITE”. www.romanity.org. Retrieved 2015-09-30. 978-0-8028-3843-8.

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[15] Rev. Dr. George C. Papademetriou, “Saint Augustine in [33] Andrew Knowles and Pachomios Penkett, Augustine and the Greek Orthodox Tradition” His World, Ch. 2.

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• Bourke, Vernon Joseph (1984). Wisdom From St. • Lubin, Augustino (1659). Orbis Augustinianus sive Augustine. Houston: Center for Thomistic Studies. conventuum ordinis eremitarum Sancti Augustini – chorographica et topographica descriptio. Paris. • Brachtendorf J. “Cicero and Augustine on the Pas- sions”. Revue des Études Augustiniennes. 43 (1997): • Mackey, Louis (2011). Faith Order Understanding: 289–308. hdl:2042/23075. Natural Theology in the Augustinian Tradition. To- tonto: PIMS. ISBN 978-0-88844-421-9. • Brown, Peter (1967). Augustine of Hippo. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-00186- • Markus, R. A., ed. (1972). Augustine: A Collection 9. of Critical Essays. Garden City, NY: Anchor.

• Burke, Cormac (1990). “St. Augustine and Conju- • Matthews, Gareth B. (2005). Augustine. Blackwell. gal Sexuality”. Communio. IV (17): 545–565. ISBN 0-631-23348-2. 19

• Mayer, Cornelius P. (ed.). Augustinus-Lexikon. • Tanquerey, Adolphe (2001). The Spiritual Life: A Basel: Schwabe AG. Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology. Rock- ford, IL: Tan Books & Publishers. pp. 37). ISBN • Miles, Margaret R. (2012). Augustine and the Fun- 0-89555-659-6. damentalist’s Daughter, Lutterworth Press, ISBN 9780718892623. • Trapè, A. (1990). S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia. Collana di Studi Agostiniani • Nash, Ronald H (1969). The Light of the Mind: St 4. I – Natura e Grazia. Rome: Città Nuova. p. 422. Augustine’s Theory of Knowledge. Lexington: Uni- ISBN 88-311-3402-7. versity Press of Kentucky. • von Heyking, John (2001). Augustine and Politics • Nelson, John Charles (1973). “Platonism in the Re- as Longing in the World. Columbia: University of naissance”. In Wiener, Philip. Dictionary of the His- Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1349-9. tory of Ideas. 3. New York: Scribner. pp. 510–15 (vol. 3). ISBN 0-684-13293-1. (...) Saint Augus- • Woo, B. Hoon (2013). “Augustine’s Hermeneutics tine asserted that Neo-Platonism possessed all spiri- and Homiletics in De doctrina christiana". Journal tual truths except that of the Incarnation. (...) of Christian Philosophy. 17: 97–117. • O'Daly, Gerard (1987). Augustine’s Philosophy of • Woo, B. Hoon (2015). “Pilgrim’s Progress in the Mind. Berkeley: University of California Press. Society—Augustine’s Political Thought in The City of God". Political Theology. 16.5: 421–441. • O'Donnell, James (2005). Augustine: A New Biog- raphy. New York: ECCO. ISBN 0-06-053537-7. • Zumkeller O.S.A., Adolar (1986). Augustine’s Ideal of the Religious Life. New York: Fordham Univer- • Pagels, Elaine (1989). Adam, Eve, and the Ser- sity Press. ISBN 0-8232-1105-3. pent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity. Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-72232-7. • Zumkeller O.S.A., Adolar (1987). Augustine’s Rule. Villanova: Augustinian Press. ISBN 0-941491-06- • Park, Jae-Eun (2013), “Lacking Love or Conveying 4. Love? The Fundamental Roots of the Donatists and Augustine’s Nuanced Treatment of Them”, The Re- formed Theological Review, 72 (2): 103–21. 7 External links • Plumer, Eric Antone (2003). Augustine’s Commen- tary on Galatians. Oxford University Press. ISBN 7.1 General 0-19-924439-1. • Pollman, Karla (2007). Saint Augustine the Algerian. • “Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in English)" Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht. ISBN 3-89744-209- from Augustinus.it 4. • “Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in French)" • Pottier, René (2006). Saint Augustin le Berbère (in from Abbey Saint Benoît de Port-Valais French). Fernand Lanore. ISBN 2-85157-282-2. • “Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in Spanish)" • Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son from Mercaba, Catholic leaders’ website ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Re- • “Works by Saint Augustine” from CCEL.org ligieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 28–29. • Mendelson, Michael. “Saint Augustine”. Stanford Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Libraire,1962), pp. 22–24. English edition, (New • York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33– “Augustine”. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 35. • “Augustine’s Political and Social Philosophy”. • Siecienski, Anthony Edward (2010). The Filioque: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. History of a Doctrinal Controversy. Oxford Univer- • “St. Augustine, Bishop and Confessor, Doctor of sity Press. the Church”, Butler’s Lives of the Saints • Southgate, Troy (2014). The Bishop of Hippo: Life • Augustine of Hippo edited by James J. O'Donnell – and Thought of Saint Augustine. East Sussex: Black texts, translations, introductions, commentaries, etc. Front Press. • Augustine’s Theory of Knowledge • Starnes, Colin (1990). Augustine’s Conversion: A Guide to the Arguments of Confessions I-IX. Water- • “Saint Augustine of Hippo” at the Christian Iconog- loo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. raphy website 20 7 EXTERNAL LINKS

• “The Life of St. Austin, or Augustine, Doctor” from • Aurelii Agustini Hipponae episcopi super loannem the Caxton translation of the Golden Legend librum – digitized codex created in 1481; his ser- mons about John’s Gospel at SOMNI • David Lindsay: Saint Augustine – Doctor Gratiae • Sententiae ex omnibus operibus Divi Augustini de- • St. Augustine - A Male Chauvinist? , Fr. Edmund cerptae – digitized codex created in 1539; at Library Hill, OP. Talk given to the Robert Hugh Benson of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences Graduate Society at Fisher House, Cambridge, on 22 November 1994. 7.4 Biography and criticism • St. Augustine Timeline - Church History Timelines • Order of St Augustine

7.2 Bibliography • Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Or- thodox Church • Augustine of Hippo at EarlyChurch.org.uk – exten- sive bibliography and on-line articles • Augustine’s World: An Introduction to His Specu- lative Philosophy by Donald Burt, OSA, member of • Bibliography on St. Augustine Started by T.J. van the Augustinian Order, Villanova University Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian histori- cal Institute in Louvain, Belgium • Tabula in librum Sancti Augustini De civitate Dei by Robert Kilwardby, digitized manuscript of 1464 at SOMNI 7.3 Works by Augustine

• Works by Aurelius Augustine at

• Works by Saint Augustine at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Saint Augustine at

• Works by Augustine of Hippo at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

• St. Augustine at the Christian Classics Ethereal Li- brary

• Augustine against Secundinus in English.

• Aurelius Augustinus at “IntraText ” – texts in several languages, with concordance and frequency list

• Augustinus.it – Latin, Spanish and Italian texts

• Sanctus Augustinus at Documenta Catholica Omnia – Latin

• City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine au- dio books

• Saint Augustine (2008). The Happy Life; Answer to Sceptics; Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil; Soliloquies. US: CUA Press. ISBN 978-0-8132- 1551-8.

• Digitized manuscript created in France between 1275 and 1325 with extract of Augustine of Hippo works at SOMNI

• Expositio Psalmorum beati Augustini – digitized codex created between 1150–1175, also known as “Enarrationes in Psalmos. 1-83”, at SOMNI 7.4 Biography and criticism 21

Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century

St. Augustine by Peter Paul Rubens

St. Augustine by Carlo Crivelli 22 7 EXTERNAL LINKS

St. Augustine in His Study by Vittore Carpaccio, 1502

Saint Augustine painting by Antonio Rodríguez

Saint Augustine in His Study by Sandro Botticelli, 1494, Uffizi Gallery Saint Augustine Disputing with the Heretics painting by Vergós Group 7.4 Biography and criticism 23

Saint Augustine Meditates on the Trinity when the Child Jesus Appears before him by Vergós Group 24 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text

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8.2 Images

• File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:7_Nicolo_di_Pietro._1413-15._The_Saint_Augustine_Taken_to_School_by_Saint_Monica._Pinacoteca,_Vatican..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/7_Nicolo_di_Pietro._1413-15._The_Saint_Augustine_Taken_to_ School_by_Saint_Monica._Pinacoteca%2C_Vatican..jpg License: Public domain Contributors: scan Original artist: Nicolo di Pietro • File:Antonio_Rodríguez_-_Saint_Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/d/d0/Antonio_Rodr%C3%ADguez_-_Saint_Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: kwGS5ApcSQpaiw at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Antonio Rodríguez (1636 - 1691) – Painter Details of artist on Google Art Project • File:Augustine_Lateran.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Augustine_Lateran.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.30giorni.it/us/articolo.asp?id=3553 Original artist: Unknown • File:Carlo_Crivelli_-_St._Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/ Carlo_Crivelli_-_St._Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: kQHrK8lr0kZGcg at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Carlo Crivelli (circa 1435–circa 1495) 26 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: • Bruno Bernhard Heim, Heraldry in the Catholic Church: Its Origin, Customs and Laws (Van Duren 1978 ISBN 9780391008731), p. 54; Original artist: F l a n k e r • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE. svg License: Public domain Contributors: • File:Coat of arms Holy See.svg Original artist: Cronholm144 created this image using a file by User:Hautala - File:Emblem of Vatican City State.svg, who had created his file using PD art from Open Clip Art Library and uploaded on 13 July 2006. User talk:F l a n k e r uploaded this version on 19 January 2007. • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Fra_angelico_-_conversion_de_saint_augustin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Fra_ angelico_-_conversion_de_saint_augustin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Fra Angelico (circa 1395–1455) and workshop • File:Gloriole_blur.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Gloriole_blur.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Eubulides • File:Jaume_Huguet_-_Consecration_of_Saint_Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Jaume_Huguet_-_Consecration_of_Saint_Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: hgG-9ILRYyFSGw at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Jaume Huguet • File:JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Justus van Gent (fl. 1460–1480) • File:Kirchenfenster_Böckweiler.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Kirchenfenster_B%C3% B6ckweiler.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/11596438@N00/2435169073/sizes/o/in/ photostream/ Original artist: tiegeltuf • File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_St_Augustine.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Peter_Paul_Rubens_ -_St_Augustine.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Ophelia2 Original artist: Peter Paul Rubens • File:Polittico_del_1476,_s._tommaso_d'aquino.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Polittico_del_ 1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image was copied from wikipedia:uk. The original description was: Фома Аквінський

Власність публічна Original artist: Carlo Crivelli (circa 1435–circa 1495) • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Saint_ Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Los Angeles County Museum of Art: online database: entry 171584 Original artist: Philippe de Champaigne • File:Sandro_Botticelli_-_St_Augustin_dans_son_cabinet_de_travail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/d/d3/Sandro_Botticelli_-_St_Augustin_dans_son_cabinet_de_travail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Botticelli : de Laurent le Magnifique à Savonarole : catalogue de l'exposition à Paris, Musée du Luxembourg, du 1er octobre 2003 au 22 février 2004 et à Florence, Palazzo Strozzi, du 10 mars au 11 juillet 2004. Milan : Skira editore, Paris : Musée du Luxembourg, 2003. ISBN 9788884915641 Original artist: Sandro Botticelli • File:Socrates.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia. • File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Tiffany_Window_of_St_Augustine_-_Lightner_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/ Tiffany_Window_of_St_Augustine_-_Lightner_Museum.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Vergós_Group_-_Saint_Augustine_Disputing_with_the_Heretics_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Verg%C3%B3s_Group_-_Saint_Augustine_Disputing_with_the_Heretics_-_Google_Art_ Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 4wH74az12lW5xg at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Vergós Group Details of artist on Google Art Project • File:Vergós_Group_-_Saint_Augustine_Meditates_on_the_Trinity_when_the_Child_Jesus_Appears_before_him_-_Google_ Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Verg%C3%B3s_Group_-_Saint_Augustine_ Meditates_on_the_Trinity_when_the_Child_Jesus_Appears_before_him_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: sgFbOi8a8sxcjg at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Vergós Group Details of artist on Google Art Project 8.3 Content license 27

• File:Vittore_carpaccio,_visione_di_sant'agostino_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 5/5b/Vittore_carpaccio%2C_visione_di_sant%27agostino_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork Original artist: Vittore Carpaccio • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:William_of_Ockham.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: self-created (Moscarlop)

8.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0