RussianRussian MissionsMissions toto thethe Moon,Moon, Venus,Venus, andand MarsMars inin thethe 1960s1960s

VladimirVladimir KrasnopolskyKrasnopolsky

•• RussiaRussia waswas thethe worldworld leaderleader inin spacespace technologytechnology atat thethe endend ofof 1950s1950s andand beginningbeginning ofof 1960s1960s •• FirstFirst spacespace flight:flight: orbiterorbiter Sputnik,Sputnik, Oct.Oct. 19571957 •• FirstFirst manman inin space:space: YuriyYuriy Gagarin,Gagarin, Apr.Apr. 19611961 •• MissionsMissions toto thethe Moon,Moon, Venus,Venus, andand MarsMars werewere aa significantsignificant partpart ofof thethe spacespace programprogram inin RussiaRussia EndEnd ofof 1950s1950s andand beginningbeginning ofof 1960s1960s waswas aa goodgood periodperiod inin RussiaRussia • Stalin ceased, Berya executed • The Party Congress condemned Stalin’s terror • Downgrading of Ministries of Internal Affairs and State Security • The Korean war ended • Reduction of Soviet Army by 1.8 million people (twice the current Russian army) • More production for people needs at the expense of military production • TV became accessible to many people

SergeySergey P.P. KorolyovKorolyov (1907(1907--1966)1966) chiefchief designerdesigner headhead ofof RussianRussian spacespace programprogram MstislavMstislav V.V. KeldyshKeldysh (1911(1911--1978)1978)

PresidentPresident ofof USSRUSSR AcademyAcademy ofof SciencesSciences

HeadHead ofof sciencescience inin spacespace programprogram 1616 spacecraftspacecraft werewere sentsent toto thethe MoonMoon inin 19591959--1970.1970. BasicBasic technologicaltechnological achievementsachievements areare • First flyby (Luna 1, 1959)

• First hard landing (Luna 2, 1959)

• First soft landing (Luna 9, 1966)

• First orbiter of the Moon (Luna 10, 1966)

• First automatic sample return (Luna 16, 1970)

ScientificScientific resultsresults onon thethe MoonMoon’’ss environmentenvironment

•• NoNo magneticmagnetic fieldfield •• NoNo radiationradiation beltsbelts •• DiscoveryDiscovery ofof masconesmascones •• IRIR andand UVUV spectroscopyspectroscopy ofof thethe rocksrocks •• ImagesImages ofof thethe MoonMoon atat widewide rangerange ofof scalesscales •• XX--rayray andand gammagamma--rayray spectroscopyspectroscopy ofof thethe rocksrocks ScienceScience resultsresults onon thethe interplanetaryinterplanetary spacespace

•• DiscoveryDiscovery ofof thethe solarsolar windwind andand studystudy ofof itsits propertiesproperties •• FirstFirst studiesstudies ofof thethe outerouter radiationradiation beltbelt •• InIn situsitu studiesstudies ofof interplanetaryinterplanetary dustdust particlesparticles (micrometeorites)(micrometeorites) •• CosmicCosmic raysrays inin thethe interplanetaryinterplanetary spacespace MoonMoon samplesample returnreturn (Luna(Luna 16,16, 1970)1970)

•• LaunchLaunch toto EarthEarth’’ss orbitorbit •• FlightFlight toto thethe MoonMoon withwith oneone midmid--coursecourse correctioncorrection •• EnteredEntered aa MoonMoon’’ss circularcircular orbitorbit hh == 110110 kmkm

•• TwoTwo orbitalorbital adjustmentsadjustments toto getget hhmin == 1515 kmkm •• SoftSoft landinglanding •• DrillingDrilling andand collectioncollection ofof aa soilsoil samplesample (35(35 cm,cm, 105105 g)g) •• LaunchLaunch ofof thethe upperupper stagestage toto EarthEarth •• ParachuteParachute landinglanding nearnear thethe expectedexpected pointpoint

Landing module of Luna 16 (mass 1,880 kg). Total mass was 5,600 kg MissionsMissions toto VenusVenus andand MarsMars inin 1960s1960s

•• BadlyBadly affectedaffected byby insufficientinsufficient reliabilityreliability ofof thethe 44th rocketrocket stagestage (which(which drovedrove aa spacecraftspacecraft fromfrom orbitorbit aroundaround Earth)Earth) andand somesome spacecraftspacecraft subsystemssubsystems •• VeneraVenera (Feb.(Feb. 1961),1961), firstfirst interplanetaryinterplanetary probe;probe; lostlost onon thethe wayway toto VenusVenus •• 2MV2MV (launch(launch inin 1962):1962): landinglanding toto VenusVenus andand flybyflyby ofof Mars.Mars. MarsMars 11 waswas lostlost halfwayhalfway toto Mars.Mars. •• 3MV3MV (launch(launch inin 19641964--1965):1965): landinglanding toto VenusVenus andand flybysflybys ofof VenusVenus andand Mars.Mars. VenerasVeneras 22 andand 33 werewere lostlost beforebefore theirtheir flybyflyby andand hardhard landing,landing, respectivelyrespectively •• SpacecraftSpacecraft toto MarsMars waswas notnot readyready inin timetime andand waswas sentsent toto thethe MoonMoon asas ZondZond 33 (1965)(1965)

Four-stage Soyuz rocket to launch spaceraft of 1000 kg to Moon and planets in the 1960s MissionsMissions toto MoonMoon andand planetsplanets werewere transferredtransferred toto BabakinBabakin SpaceSpace CenterCenter inin 19651965

VeneraVenera 44 (1967)(1967) waswas thethe firstfirst softsoft entryentry probe;probe; directdirect measurementsmeasurements atat 5555 toto 2323 kmkm (18(18 bar)bar)

VenerasVeneras 55 andand 66 (1969):(1969): downdown toto 1717 kmkm (28(28 bar)bar) Venera 7 (1970): first soft landing on another planet. On-orbit mass 1180 kg, mass of lander 500 kg

Mars 1969: new large spacecraft and new powerful rocket. Crashed at the launch Scientific return from the early Venera missions • Direct measurements of atmospheric pressure, density, and temperature from 55 km down to the surface

• Chemical composition: CO2 > 90%, N2 < 7% • Hydrogen corona, upper limit to atomic oxygen • No magnetic moment (< 3x10-4 of the Earth’s) • Plasma bow shock at 19,000 km and solar wind interaction with the induced magnetosphere • Solar wind, cosmic ray, interplanetary dust measurements at the cruise phases Mars Sample Return (similar to NASA-ESA mission in the next decade)

• Planned launch in 1975 • Total spacecraft mass 20 tons • New powerful rocket N1 • After drilling and sample collection, it should be delivered into a Mars orbit and wait for the favorable return launch during 10 months • The program was not completed because of some conceptual drawbacks of the N1 rocket MyMy workwork inin thethe 1960s1960s •• II graduatedgraduated atat MoscowMoscow StateState UniversityUniversity andand joinedjoined aa teamteam ofof AleksanderAleksander LebedinskyLebedinsky (1913(1913--1967)1967) inin 19611961 •• TechnicallyTechnically responsibleresponsible for:for: surfacesurface phasephase statestate andand gammagamma--rayray detectordetector atat thethe VenusVenus landerlander ofof 2MV2MV (1962)(1962) photometerphotometer atat thethe VeneraVenera 33 landerlander (1965)(1965) electronicselectronics ofof thethe IRIR radiometerradiometer atat LunaLuna 1313 (1966)(1966) UVUV spectrometersspectrometers atat VeneraVenera 22 (1965),(1965), ZondZond 33 (1965),(1965), CosmosCosmos 6565 (1965)(1965) andand CosmosCosmos 121121 (1966)(1966) •• PrincipalPrincipal investigatorinvestigator of:of: UVUV spectrometerspectrometer atat MarsMars 6969 dayglowdayglow photometerphotometer atat CosmosCosmos 224224 (1968)(1968)

• AleksandrAleksandr •• LebedinskyLebedinsky •• •• (1913(1913--1967)1967)

Surface phase state and gamma-ray detector (2MV, 1962) • Venus was considered as Earth’s sister with a possible ocean • Microwave observations at the end of 1950s indicated high temperature and pressure in the lower atmosphere of Venus • However, it was suggested that the observed signal might be caused by some ionospheric phenomena • Lebedinsky told me in June 1961 that Keldysh had approved his idea of a simple device to distinguish between liquid and solid surfaces for 2MV (launch in August 1962). He asked me to be responsible for that instrument Mercury level α > 3° → solid surface (mean α≈15°) α < 3° → liquid surface

• Evolution of the instrument Evolution of the instrument Evolution of the instrument Evolution of the instrument TheThe 1960s1960s werewere aa periodperiod ofof greatgreat progressprogress inin spacespace researchresearch

•• ApolloApollo 1111 (1969):(1969): thethe firstfirst mannedmanned missionmission toto landland onon thethe Moon,Moon, thethe greatestgreatest achievementachievement inin spacespace •• LunaLuna 1616 (1970):(1970): samplesample returnreturn fromfrom thethe Moon,Moon, thethe mostmost sophisticatedsophisticated roboticrobotic missionmission •• VoyagerVoyager (1977(1977--1989):1989): missionmission toto thethe outerouter planets,planets, thethe highesthighest scientificscientific returnreturn inin thethe solarsolar systemsystem studiesstudies SomeSome poorlypoorly knownknown factsfacts (not(not relatedrelated toto spacespace research)research)

•• TheThe carcar engineengine waswas inventedinvented byby NicolausNicolaus Otto,Otto, aa GermanGerman •• TVTV waswas inventedinvented byby VladimirVladimir ZvorykinZvorykin ,, aa RussianRussian AmericanAmerican •• SpecialSpecial relativityrelativity waswas createdcreated byby Lorentz,Lorentz, Poincare,Poincare, Einstein,Einstein, andand MinkowskiMinkowski