Transatlantic Literature and Culture After 9/11: the Wrong Side of Paradise

Copyrighted matrial – 978–1–137–44320–5 Introduction, selection and editorial matter © Kristine A. Miller 2014 Individual chapters © Contributors 2014 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978–1–137–44320–5 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Transatlantic literature and culture after 9/11 : the wrong side of paradise / edited by Kristine A. Miller, Utah State University, USA. pages cm Summary: “Looking back on a decade of the US-run and UK-supported ‘war on terror’, this volume examines how transatlantic literature and culture have challenged notions of American exceptionalism since 11 September 2001. The essays look not only at but also beyond the compulsion to relive this moment of terror, whether in recurring episodes of silencing trauma or repeating loops of media images. Conceiving of 9/11 as both a uniquely American trauma and a shared event in global history, the collection re-examines Ground Zero through the lenses of imperial power and cosmopolitan exchange. The book’s subtitle challenges readers to engage this perspective by rethinking the paradox of paradise, a condition of both never-ending bliss and everlasting death. As the self-appointed economic and military gatekeeper of an imagined global paradise, America plays a dangerous moral and political game. This volume asks whether the United States has perhaps chosen the wrong side of paradise by waging war on terror rather than working for global peace”— Provided by publisher. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–1–137–44320–5 (hardback) 1. American literature—21st century—History and criticism. 2. English literature— 21st century—History and criticism. 3. September 11 Terrorist Attacks, 2001, in literature. 4. September 11 Terrorist Attacks, 2001, in mass media. 5. September 11 Terrorist Attacks, 2001—Influence. 6. Psychic trauma and mass media. 7. Terrorism in literature. I. Miller, Kristine, 1966- editor. PS231.S47T73 2014 809’.93358—dc23 2014021126

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Contents

List of Illustrations ix Notes on Contributors x Acknowledgments xii

Introduction: The Wrong Side of Paradise: American Exceptionalism and the Special Relationship After 9/11 1 Kristine A. Miller Part I Empire 1 Paradoxical Polemics: John le Carré’s Responses to 9/11 17 Phyllis Lassner 2 The (Inter)national Bond: James Bond and the Special Relationship 34 Jim Leach 3 221B–9/11: Sherlock Holmes and Conspiracy Theory 50 Brian McCuskey Part II Cosmopolis 4 Behind the Face of Terror: Hamid, Malkani, and Multiculturalism after 9/11 71 Lynda Ng 5 “Scandalous Memoir”: Uncovering Silences and Reclaiming the Disappeared in Mahvish Rukhsana Kahn’s My Guantánamo Diary 90 M. Neelika Jayawardane 6 Joseph O’Neill and the Post-9/11 Novel 110 Matthew Brown 7 An Interview with Joseph O’Neill 129 Laura Frost Part III City 8 9/11 Theater: The Story of New York or the Nation? 141 Lesley Broder 9 Flying Man and Falling Man: Remembering and Forgetting 9/11 159 Graley Herren

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10 “I’m Only Just Starting to Look”: Media, Art, and Literature After 9/11 177 Crystal Alberts 11 Archifictions: Constructing September 11 198 Laura Frost 12 The New Grotesque in Jess Walter’s The Zero: A Commentary and Interview 221 Anthony Flinn

Bibliography 238 Index 257

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Introduction The Wrong Side of Paradise: American Exceptionalism and the Special Relationship After 9/11

Kristine A. Miller

Writing in the New York Times one week after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, British historian Niall Ferguson compared the World Trade Center and Pentagon bombings to the London Blitz during World War II: “Viewed from England, what happened last Tuesday looked not like Pearl Harbor II, but like the London Blitz” (“The War”). Even viewed from the United States, the attacks looked more like a civilian assault than a military “Pearl Harbor redux” (Apple). Almost immediately, the media began comparing American politicians at Ground Zero with British leaders on the World War II home front: while “New York’s governor and mayor did their duty by sticking to their posts and reassuring their fellow New Yorkers live on television, recalling King George VI during London’s blitz” (Safire), President George W. Bush “didn’t seem sure of where to go” after the attacks, even though he, “like the British royal family during the blitz, needed to reassure people with his presence” (Dowd). These historical parallels included civilians as well as politicians; according to the New York Times, “Touring the smoking ruins of the World Trade Center, politicians from Mayor Rudolph W. Giuliani to Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton to Prime Minister Tony Blair of Britain made poignant references to similarities they saw between New Yorkers’ courageous reactions to the Sept. 11 attacks and the steely resolve of Londoners during the Blitz.” The article includes excerpts from “historical accounts of the Blitz” and juxtaposes images of the World Trade Center wreckage with photos of St Paul’s Cathedral under fire, praising both British and American “Moxie Among the Ruins” and thus foregrounding the parallels between the Nazi Blitz on Britain in 1940 and the al-Qaeda attack on America in 2001 (Sharkey). The parallels here are between not just past and present attacks on civilians but also past and present political responses to those attacks. Even before al-Qaeda hijacked and crashed the four American planes in 2001, President Bush and Prime Minister Blair had carefully modeled their contemporary political alliance on the “special relationship” between the US and UK that Winston Churchill “adopted […] as official policy in 1943–4” (Reynolds 64).

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2 Kristine A. Miller

Bush and Blair decided to hold their first meeting after the President’s 2001 inauguration “inside Holly Cabin at Camp David,” where “[d]ecades earlier, President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill planned the Allies’ invasion of Europe in World War II […]. The historic symmetry was intentional” (Keen). In the 1940s, the hyperbolic language of anti-Nazi propaganda emphasized “that World War II was a just war,” perhaps even “the most legitimate war ever fought” (Andersen 19, xxii); according to Churchill, the alliance between the US and the UK allowed the Western world powers to “walk together in majesty, in justice and in peace” (White and Wintour) because they were acting as “powerful defender[s] of freedom and democracy” (Reiter 112). After September 11, 2001, a day on which Great Britain suffered casualties surpassed only by those of America,1 the nations’ leaders united in what they described as another “Good Fight” (Andersen xxii): Bush’s “War on Terror” (“State”) became for both him and Blair a “battle for and about the ideas and values that would shape the twenty-first century” (Blair, A Journey 345). When Bush proclaimed an American “crusade” against the “Axis of Evil” (“Remarks”), Blair vowed to “stand shoulder to shoulder” with the US against “this new evil in the world” and urged all the “democracies in this world […] to fight it together and eradicate this evil completely” (“Full Text”), even though he acknowl- edged the “unfortunate nature” of Bush’s choice to invoke the crusades (A Journey 363). Blair emphasized the parallel between the past alliance against Nazi Germany and the present alliance against al-Qaeda by giving Bush a bust of Churchill as a symbol of their nations’ continued special relationship in this new war on terror (Lovell).2 The term “war on terror” is particularly fraught, since the words can emphasize either the abstraction of fighting a feeling or the experience of fighting a battle, depending on whether or not one capitalizes “war” and “terror.” In The “War on Terror” Narrative, Adam Hodges analyzes the political significance of this rhetorical choice, explaining that the capitalization of “War on Terror” turns the phrase into “more than a convenient meta- phor”; the US response to 9/11 becomes instead “a proper noun referring to a real military war,” a noun that “capitalization imbues […] with historical cachet.” Citing “much of the reportage on Fox News,” he argues that “the capitalization emphasizes both the authenticity of the ‘war on terror’ qua war and its nature as a discrete and inclusive campaign” (100). The essays in this collection remain self-conscious about the phrase, capitalizing the “War on Terror” only when quoting those who have framed the Anglo-American response to 9/11 as such a discrete campaign. Thus, even as Transatlantic Literature and Culture After 9/11 seeks to historicize representations of the attacks and their aftermath, the essay writers refuse to accept a narrow political view of that history. This perspective is unique in post-9/11 studies, which has tended to take a surprisingly ahistorical approach. While many scholars have described the

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The Wrong Side of Paradise 3 attacks and their impact on contemporary individuals and politics, few have analyzed connections between past and present representations of civilian violence or between the histories of the US and the UK. Perhaps one reason for this critical omission is the conspicuous erasure of the year in what Marc Redfield has called the “bare name-date” of “9/11” itself (Rhetoric 1). Because the name-date “presupposes and demands knowledge […] the year understood, the attacks understood,” the term “9/11” suggests that “a new history begins here, at this calendrical ground zero: previous September 11s disappear into that zero” (17). Redfield argues that the name-date dangerously showcases what appears to be American ignorance of any history but its own, a problem that conceivably led to the 2001 attacks on the buildings (the Pentagon, the World Trade Center) that most iconically represent the nation’s global military and financial power. Analyzing the “formal emptiness of the phrase ‘September 11,’” he claims that this label for the attacks effectively “registers and even loudly proclaims a trauma, a wound beyond words: an inability to say what this violence, this spectacle, this ‘everything changing’ means” (18). Redfield recognizes that the general inability to assign meaning to 9/11 “gives criticism its chance” (18), and he accurately describes the two main approaches that such criticism has taken: on the one hand, trauma theory has framed 9/11 as a traumatic “wound beyond words”; on the other, poststructuralist theory has represented the attacks as a dramatic media “spectacle.” For the first, there is no language; for the second, there is nothing but. This collection reconsiders the opposition in post-9/11 studies between trauma and poststructuralist theories by analyzing how transatlantic literature and culture have challenged ideas of American exceptionalism since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Despite their fundamental differ- ences, both approaches follow the work of Sigmund Freud, whose Beyond the Pleasure Principle diagnoses the symptoms of shell shock during World War I by tracing the soldier’s compulsion to rehearse his particular trauma back to the universal principle of the death instinct. Similarly, the recurring moment of unspeakable pain in trauma theory and the looping image of media spectacle in poststructuralist theory focus attention on one timeless event, rather than the history and context surrounding that event. The essays collected here look not only at but also beyond our compulsion to repeat this moment of terror, conceiving of 9/11 as both a unique American trauma and a shared piece of local, national, and global histories. The collection’s three- part structure – “Empire,” “Cosmopolis,” and “City” – reexamines Ground Zero through the lenses of imperial power and cosmopolitan exchange. The volume zooms in through these sections from the broad idea of British and American “Empire” to the growing sense of a globalized “Cosmopolis” after 9/11 and finally to a re-vision of the devastated “City” of New York itself. Historicizing the attacks and thus challenging notions of American exceptionalism, the book offers new insight into the persistent problem of representing 9/11’s trauma.

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4 Kristine A. Miller

Like its structure, the collection’s title, Transatlantic Literature and Culture After 9/11: The Wrong Side of Paradise, emphasizes the need to refocus our understanding of trauma at Ground Zero if we are to avoid the political dangers of American exceptionalism. Built upon America’s Puritan foundations, the idea of the nation as a kind of democratic paradise situates the US as a moral – as well as economic and military – force in the world at large. As F. Scott Fitzgerald pointed out in 1920, however, Americans are perhaps not actually in paradise but just this side of it. The particular problem for America after 9/11 is that by appointing itself as the gatekeeper of an imagined form of paradise, the nation plays a dangerous game much like that of the terrorists themselves. A condition of both never-ending bliss and everlasting death, paradise is a paradox worth considering in post-9/11 studies. The volume’s title suggests that America has perhaps chosen the wrong side of paradise since 9/11 by deciding to wage war rather than to seek peace. As Jean Baudrillard has so controversially suggested in The Spirit of Terrorism and Other Essays, each side’s claim to hold the keys to paradise means that both sides in the war on terror have chosen a path of death over life; America and al-Qaeda have thus created each other in response to the other, much as Milton’s Satan created pandemonium as a counterpart to heaven. Yet Baudrillard’s accusations tell only part of the story; this book’s subtitle, The Wrong Side of Paradise, also alludes to Shakespeare’s Richard the Second, a play that suggests the role that concerned citizens might play in breaking the nation free from this repetitive cycle of trauma and spectacle. Mourning the “demi-paradise” of England as it once was (2.1.42), John of Gaunt intro- duces an idea of British exceptionalism that fuels not only his own patriotic feeling but also the king’s aggressive decision to borrow and steal money to support the war. When the Duke accuses Richard, “Landlord of England art thou now, not king” (2.1.113), he pointedly critiques, as any good citizen should, the public policies that have transformed “this other Eden” (2.1.42) into a nation that “hath made a shameful conquest of itself” (2.1.66). Looking across the pond at both a current ally and a former empire, this volume reconsiders the exceptionalist politics of post-9/11 America by asking three key questions about post-9/11 literary and cultural studies: (1) How have trauma and poststructuralist theories both enlarged and con- strained critical understanding of 9/11? (2) How, specifically, have British and American artists contributed to transatlantic literary and cultural histories since 9/11? (3) What is the relationship between the aesthetic and political discourses that have emerged in the post-9/11 US and UK? The essays address through their discussion of each question three specific gaps in post- 9/11 studies. First, they escape the repeating moment of trauma or spectacle by historicizing and contextualizing the attacks, not just locally but also nationally and globally. Second, they articulate across national lines the relationships among various genres of post-9/11 literature (fiction, drama, memoir, comics) and cultural texts (television, film, architecture, art) and

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The Wrong Side of Paradise 5 thus examine the function of transatlantic literary and cultural histories in the representation of 9/11. Finally, they analyze for the first time the inter- play between these histories and what Winston Churchill called the political “special relationship,” and they suggest that readers attend to the shift of global economic and military power from nineteenth-century Britain to twenty-first-century America.3 While most of the book’s chapters analyze the connections between American victimhood and power, they do so with consideration of the special relationship and the imperial history informing that relationship. A brief overview of the critical context surrounding these three questions will clarify the need for the volume’s historical approach. Existing studies of post-9/11 literature and culture have elaborated upon the fundamental opposition between trauma and poststructuralist theories and have therefore placed themselves in one or the other critical camp. For trauma theorists, the “literality and nonsymbolic nature of trauma” repeatedly resists articulation (Caruth, “Trauma” 5); because 9/11 is fundamentally “indescribable” (Versluys 1), literature can at best “‘translate’ the trauma” (E. Kaplan 21) by giving “voice to stuttering and stammering characters who are working their way around the unsayability of events” (Versluys 13). Criticizing the media for its continuous description of a horror that is essentially “unspeakable” (Leys 304), trauma theorists reject the “fiction” constructed by the “media, reporting more or less national (or at least ‘official’) positions,” in favor of the truth of “what I was witnessing myself” on the streets of New York after the attacks (E. Kaplan 13). In contrast, poststructuralist critics like Jacques Derrida, Jean Baudrillard, and Slavoj Žižek argue that 9/11 was a purely symbolic event. Choosing to embrace rather than reject the media’s “cheap, inauthentic and mass-produced” imagery (Engle, “Putting” 77), these scholars contend that the “terrorist violence” is “not ‘real’” but symbolic and that the collapse of the World Trade Center was therefore “a fiction surpassing fiction” (Baudrillard, “Spirit” 29).4 Such fictions, they claim, are how we understand truth and are therefore truths themselves: for Baudrillard, 9/11’s “reality […] has absorbed fiction’s energy, and has itself become fiction” (28), much as, for Žižek, 9/11 has uncannily repeated the formulaic narrative of Hollywood disaster films. Significantly, it is only in seeking common ground that these two approaches begin to anchor their ideas historically. Building on the earlier work of psychiatrists like Judith Herman, whose seminal Trauma and Recovery (1992) connects “the healing of individual victims” with “the restoration of the social order” (1), trauma scholarship by E. Ann Kaplan and Kristiaan Versluys has underscored “the impact of trauma on both individuals and on entire cultures or nations” (Kaplan 1). Political impact here still results directly from specific individual experiences: texts aiming to “‘translate’ such traumatic impact” (E. Kaplan 1) must ground in concrete personal details “the bland polarity of ‘us-versus-them’” and the correspond- ing “patriotic rodomontade and revanchist rhetoric” that have too often

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6 Kristine A. Miller dominated post-9/11 American political policy and debate (Versluys 17).5 Similarly, American cultural critics like Marc Redfield and Laura Tanner have argued more forcefully than their European counterparts that the terrorist spectacle of 9/11 is not only symbolic but also an example of “virtual trauma,” since “as many as two billion people worldwide” saw the terrorist attacks only on television (Redfield, Rhetoric 26). Analyzing what she calls our contemporary “image culture” (74), Tanner contends that “those close to the event” of the World Trade Center attack often “perceived and expe- rienced it ‘remotely’”: “Survivors in the South Tower describe racing for television screens, computer terminals, cell phones, and security monitors after the first plane hit to perceive what was happening in the physical space they occupied” (61). The problem, however, is that even if they acknowledge the political value of personal pain or the individual response to public spectacle, trauma and poststructuralist analyses inevitably return to the isolated, repeating moment of pain or spectacle that defines each of their respective approaches. On the one hand, E. Ann Kaplan poignantly observes that her experience of “the new traumatic event [of 9/11] merged with the childhood events [of the Blitz in WWII England] so that history and memory, time and space collapsed in one present time of terror” (4); on the other, Derrida ultimately concludes,

“Something” took place […]. But this very thing, the place or meaning of this [media-constructed] “event,” remains ineffable, […] out of range of a language that admits its powerlessness and so is reduced to pronouncing mechanically a date, repeating it endlessly, as a kind of ritual incantation, […] a journalistic litany or rhetorical refrain that admits to not knowing what it’s talking about. (86)

Thus, although trauma and poststructuralist theories typically define themselves in opposition to one another, their shared emphasis on repetition tends to dehistoricize the attacks in much the same way: 9/11 becomes either a repeating moment of pain that continues to “haunt us” or a repetitive “cinematic spectacle” that continues to mesmerize us, even more than a decade after the attacks (Redfield, Rhetoric 1). Recent scholarship on cultural trauma breaks free from these repeating moments of trauma and spectacle by shifting its focus from the attacks themselves to the political repercussions of those attacks. For example, in the introduction to Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity, Jeffrey Alexander argues against what he calls “lay trauma theory” (8), which takes either an “enlightenment” (Arthur Neal) or a “psychoanalytic” (Cathy Caruth) approach to how individuals handle traumatic events. Contending “that events do not, in and of themselves create trauma” and that “trauma is a socially mediated attribution” (8), Alexander is less interested in the

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The Wrong Side of Paradise 7 rationality or repression of a victim’s response to trauma than in the work of the social “imagination,” which “seizes upon an inchoate experience from life, and forms it, through association, condensation, and aesthetic creation, into some specific shape” (9). The result is “a sociological process that defines a painful injury to the collectivity, establishes the victim, attrib- utes responsibility, and distributes the ideal and material consequences” (22). The way that nations tell these stories of victimization defines their political and military responses to violence, and Neil J. Smelser’s epilogue to Cultural Trauma examines the specific “case of September 11.” He argues that because on 9/11 “both the victim and the guilty were so immediately and unequivocally established in the [American] public mind,” the attacks initially seemed like a “simple trauma” (282). Writing just four months after the attacks – and acknowledging his own tendency to accept without question America’s “Good Fight” against the “Axis of Evil” (Bush, “Remarks”) – Smelser recognizes his patriotic bias and concludes that trauma is rarely so simple: “We cannot expect such simplicity to endure indefinitely, however, as new actors, groups, events, and situations emerge in the [American] nation’s longer-term response to international terrorism” (282). Transatlantic Literature and Culture After 9/11 extends Smelser’s analysis by examining the American trauma of 9/11 not only in relation to US public policy but also in terms of the special literary, cultural, and political relationships between the US and the UK. Building on both Alexander’s conten tion that “[i]t is only through the imaginative process of representation that actors have the sense of experience” (9) and Smelser’s insistence that such representation must be ongoing and global after 9/11, the collection asks how the US and UK have imagined their shared literary, cultural, and political histories since the attacks. Despite the eighteenth-century break between the UK and its former US colonies, nineteenth-century politicians like William Gladstone recognized and praised “the political, cultural and social links between Britain and the United States” long before Churchill coined the political label “special relationship” (Campbell 3).6 Yet it was not until Robert Weisbuch’s Atlantic Double-Cross (1986) that scholars began to con- sider seriously a transatlantic approach to nineteenth-century American literature and culture.7 Turning toward British, European, and other American literatures and cultures, this approach questioned the national boundaries that have typically contained literary history by demonstrating the international importance of nineteenth-century social issues like slavery, women’s rights, and national identity construction.8 Most recently, transatlantic literary studies has begun to focus specifically on globalization, arguing that “with the passing of the rigidities and binary oppositions of the Cold War” should come increased critical attention to the “issues of migration and exchange that inform multi-cultural and postcolonial critiques, international trade in goods and ideas, the circulation of peoples and texts” (Manning and Taylor 2). While the essays in this volume do not all explore the

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8 Kristine A. Miller issues of military alliance, political ideology, cultural origin, literary history, or even common language that connect the US and the UK, they do historicize and contextualize after 9/11 the transatlantic uses of cultural icons (from Sherlock Holmes to James Bond), rhetorical and literary forms (from political polemics to personal memoir), and visual imagery (from abstract paintings to concrete memorials). Taking as their starting point the special literary, cultural, and political relationships between the US and UK, these essays answer the cosmopolitan call of transatlantic studies to “re-think the ways that national identity has been formulated” in a post-9/11 world (Manning and Taylor 4). Although no major literary study of post-9/11 literature and culture has yet adopted this transatlantic approach, several studies have criticized the tendency of contemporary American literature to focus on domestic concerns and have thus raised the question of the relationship between post- 9/11 aesthetic and political discourses. Most controversially, both Richard Gray’s After the Fall and Martin Randall’s 9/11 and the Literature of Terror have labeled post-9/11 literature “a failure” because it focuses on domestic trauma to the exclusion of transcultural issues (Gray 16). Gray opens his book with the idea that post-9/11 American literature was bound to fail because, as trauma theorists have argued, events like the terrorist bombings inevitably leave survivors silent: “If there is one thing writers agreed about in response to 9/11, it was the failure of language; the terrorist attacks made the tools of their trade seem absurd” (1). He explains that his “interest here is in the possible reasons for this failure: a failure that is not just a formal but also a political one” (16), and he recommends that scholars attend to literature engaged in “deterritorializing America” and “imagining the transnational” (17). Randall goes so far as to claim that the post-9/11 focus of world literature on “merely local concerns” has resulted in a global literary failure to capture the trauma of the attacks (135). In a combined review of Gray’s, Randall’s, and Versluys’s books, Aaron DeRosa quite rightly points out an important problem with these ideas about failure. Instead of arguing, as one certainly could, that these critics are wrong, DeRosa diplomatically suggests that their general dissatisfaction “with the available texts” leaves them “looking for a novel that has not yet been produced” (614) – or turning away from literature altogether in favor of “more hybrid forms” of art, such as “discursive non-fiction, film/poems, graphic novels, operas and fine art” (Randall 3, 15). DeRosa suggests that this profound disillusionment with the post-9/11 canon leads Gray, Randall, and even Versluys to argue that the future of post-9/11 literature “lies in an ethical move toward the Other” (616).9 The review is the closing piece in a Spring 2011 (57.3) special issue of Modern Fiction Studies, which questions the assumption that post-9/11 “American literature has retreated from politics into domesticity” and thus begins to reshape – rather than simply to destroy – the canon of post-9/11 studies (Duvall and Marzec, “Narrating” 384).

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The Wrong Side of Paradise 9

The MFS issue responds at least in part to Ann Keniston and Jeanne Follansbee Quinn’s Literature After 9/11 (2008), the only other edited collection analyzing post-9/11 literature and thus a groundbreaking work to which Transatlantic Literature and Culture After 9/11 responds. Keniston and Quinn structure their volume in three parts: trauma and witnessing, politics and representation, and the literary tradition. Their aim is to “define a new body of literature – literature after 9/11 – that reveals the instability of 9/11 as an event and the ways that literature contests 9/11’s co-option for narrowly political ends” (3). Yet even as the editors of MFS follow Keniston and Quinn’s lead in expanding the canon, the special Fiction After 9/11 issue also questions another “institutionalized assumption – notably manifested in Ann Keniston and Jeanne Follansbee Quinn’s edited collection Literature After 9/11 and Kristiaan Versluys’s Out of the Blue – that only literary fiction can bear witness to the events of 9/11” (Duvall and Marzec, “Narrating” 395). Andrew Pepper’s essay opens the MFS issue by proposing that while literary fiction may indeed have initially avoided the topic of politics, “crime and espionage fiction has excelled at the task of responding, often in critical and imaginative ways, to the security environment in the wake of the 9/11 attacks” (404). Samuel Thomas approaches the problem from the opposite direction, questioning the idea of a literary retreat from politics by examining the literary quality of political acts; he is most interested in “the precarious fault line that separates fact and fiction, certainty and doubt, the Real and the Symbolic. This fault line, I suggest, is the proper domain of the suicide martyr – a line across which violent truths and glorious fantasies are traded like hostages” (431). Essays by Ilka Saal, Anna Hartnell, Margaret Scanlan, Carol Fadda-Conrey, Joseph M. Conte, and Aaron Mauro support the editors’ aim to “discover authors contemplating the larger, global forces at work in the constitution of twenty-first century human subjectivity” (Duvall and Marzec, “Narrating” 393). Whether they articulate literature’s role “in determining our historical, cultural, and political understanding of the event” (Saal 453) or show us “the ability of literary art, and particularly the novel, to capture and project the performance of national self-diminution” (Hartnell, “Violence” 499), the contributors to this issue all agree that literature has taken “deliberate risks” with 9/11, “challenging readers to bring new insight to their own times” (Scanlan 506). Building on the work of Keniston and Quinn’s Literature After 9/11 and the MFS special issue, this collection focuses both more broadly on a range of literary and cultural genres and more specifically on the US–UK special relationship. The volume asks not what has been published since 9/11 but how British and American artists working in a variety of literary and cultural genres have reflected upon and contributed to changing conceptions of Anglo-American literary and cultural history. The essay topics range from John le Carré novels to James Bond movies; from web forums about Sherlock Holmes to political discussions about monuments at Ground

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10 Kristine A. Miller

Zero; from fiction about contemporary British race relations to memoirs about individuals detained at Guantánamo Bay; from comics and artwork about terrorism to plays that script terror itself. In each case, the contributors suggest the importance of constructing literary and cultural histories in tandem by questioning assumed boundaries between truth and fiction, trauma and transmission, private pain and public policy. The interviews that conclude the book’s final two sections extend this theory into the practice of contemporary authors, each of whom historicizes his post-9/11 fiction by placing it within specific literary traditions, cultural contexts, and political discussions. The volume begins with three essays grouped around the theme of British and American “Empire.” The chapters in this section all suggest that the special political, literary, and cultural relationships between the US and the UK raise productive questions about established ideas of twenty-first-century imperial power. Phyllis Lassner’s “Paradoxical Polemics: John le Carré’s Responses to 9/11” begins by situating the spy novelist’s polemical criticism of post-9/11 Anglo-American public policy within a tradition of 1930s and 1940s anti-Nazi polemics in British fiction. She concludes that le Carré’s recent novels, Absolute Friends and A Most Wanted Man, are more self-critical than previous scholarship has suggested: rather than just attacking political rhetoric that equates al-Qaeda with the Nazis to defend the war on terror, the novels also carefully examine the paranoid fantasy of resistance to such political power. Jim Leach’s “The (Inter)national Bond: James Bond and the Special Relationship” then compares post-9/11 Bond movies with the Cold War Bond novels and films, exploring what he identifies as the parallel between the national bond of the US and UK and the fictional Bond who fuses the strengths of both nations in one international spy hero. Leach argues that the Bond franchise has recently begun both to emphasize and to question the dual fantasies of its hero’s continuing success as a spy and his nation’s continuing power as an American ally in the post-9/11 war on terror. Examining fantasies of James Bond’s eccentric Victorian uncle, Sherlock Holmes, Brian McCuskey argues in “221B–9/11: Sherlock Holmes and Conspiracy Theory” that the Anglo-American entertainment industry, like Internet conspiracy theory, makes historical negationism look perfectly rational. Demonstrating how the recent television adaptations repeatedly and pointedly evade political reality, McCuskey critiques the “wholly self-regarding worldview” that too often results when we pretend to be Sherlock Holmes. The “Cosmopolis” section of the volume focuses on the increasingly cosmopolitan global realities that further complicate such post-9/11 western fantasies. Lynda Ng’s “Behind the Face of Terror: Hamid, Malkani, and Multiculturalism in a Post-9/11 Environment” examines representations of immigrant culture in Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2007) and Gautam Malkani’s Londonstani (2006). She argues that attitudes toward both terrorism and multiculturalism in the US and UK are symptomatic of

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The Wrong Side of Paradise 11 wider anxieties caused by globalization, and she warns that the widening gap between nationalist rhetoric and demographic reality may cause individuals to feel so alienated from mainstream Western society as to be drawn into the very acts of terror that the allied governments seek to prevent. M. Neelika Jayawardane’s “‘Scandalous Memoir’: Uncovering Silences and Reclaiming the Disappeared in Mahvish Rukhsana Khan’s My Guantánamo Diary” analyzes how Khan employs the genre of memoir to reveal the injustices of the war on terror. Jayawardane argues that Khan’s position as a second-generation immigrant and Muslim makes her particularly well suited to translating and transmitting, for the American public, the experiences of detainees whose persons have been disappeared and whose voices have been silenced by legal discourses. Matthew Brown continues this analysis of genre and ethnicity in “Joseph O’Neill and the Post-9/11 Novel.” He contends that by connecting what have become the standard genres of post-9/11 fiction – traumatalogical, melodramatic, and immigrant narratives – O’Neill’s Netherland unsettles the assumptions that underwrite each genre alone. This section ends with Laura Frost’s interview of O’Neill, who comments on some of the ideas of cosmopolitanism and global citizenship raised in Brown’s essay. Describing his upcoming Dubai novel as “post-national,” O’Neill hopes that the idea of the state may be evolving into “denizenship rather than citizenship.” The book’s final section, entitled “City,” brings to bear on New York the questions about empire and cosmopolitanism raised in the two previous sections. Lesley Broder’s “9/11 Theater: The Story of New York or the Nation?” examines the pressure on early post-9/11 plays to reenact the raw local grief of New Yorkers after the attacks. Analyzing how drama both stages and scripts traumatic emotion, Broder argues that these plays not only mourn New York’s tragic losses but also provide a structure for self- conscious national critique. Graley Herren’s “Flying Man and Falling Man: Remembering and Forgetting 9/11” explores the gradual development of this critique by comparing America’s vehement refusal to look at Richard Drew’s 2001 “Falling Man” photograph with its post-9/11 nostalgia for Philippe Petit’s 1974 high-wire walk between the Twin Towers. Situating these two images in relation to theories of trauma and spectacle, Herren argues that Don DeLillo’s Falling Man reconsiders local trauma by exploring how broader issues of perception, spectatorship, and artistic mediation shape our individual and collective responses to 9/11. Crystal Alberts’s “‘I’m Only Just Starting to Look’: Media, Art, and Literature after 9/11” shares Herren’s interest in DeLillo, but she argues that images of fine art in both his fiction and the post-9/11 comics of World War 3 Illustrated work as counterpoints to American media coverage of the attacks. Juxtaposing DeLillo’s use of Gerhard Richter’s paintings of the Baader–Meinhof terrorists (October 18, 1977) and Giorgio Morandi’s still life objects with the repeated inclusion of Edvard Munch’s The Scream in World War 3 Illustrated’s comics, Alberts

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12 Kristine A. Miller argues that images of fine art suggest the need to “study the matter” of 9/11 deeply, as one would a painting (DeLillo, Falling Man 42). Extending these theories of representing and rethinking trauma, Laura Frost’s “Archifictions: Constructing September 11” grounds questions of nostalgia and com- memoration in the discussion about how to build a 9/11 memorial in lower Manhattan. Frost analyzes Frédéric Beigbeder’s Windows on the World, Deborah Eisenberg’s “Twilight of the Superheroes,” Jess Walter’s The Zero, Amy Waldman’s The Submission, and Jennifer Egan’s A Visit from the Goon Squad, arguing that literature adopts architectural discourses to raise concerns that were bypassed in the post-9/11 push toward redevelopment and memorial building. Anthony Flinn’s “The New Grotesque in Jess Walter’s The Zero: A Commentary and Interview” then explores America’s grotesque impulse to narrate national identity by replacing self-knowledge with self- congratulatory fantasy. Ending with Walter’s ideas about our complicity in America’s political response to 9/11, this section, like the book as a whole, suggests that we acknowledge our place alongside our enemies on the wrong side of paradise. Only by recognizing our citizenship in a nation that has at least in some ways “made a shameful conquest of itself” can we begin to grasp the truth of our response to 9/11, that we have perhaps not recovered from the attacks but rather amplified their horror. Such realizations require a fundamental change of focus, a change central to the construction of Transatlantic Literature and Culture After 9/11. The collection’s special interest in transatlantic political, cultural, and literary exchange expands the canon of post-9/11 literature and culture even as it shapes the critical methods of its various essays. Zooming gradu- ally inward from “Empire” to “Cosmopolis” to “City,” the book reframes Ground Zero as a site of not only exceptional American trauma but also ongoing global negotiation. The volume emphasizes the need for negotiation by concluding its final two sections with interviews, which fuse critical exegesis with open-ended dialogue on the topic of art’s function after 9/11. The specific dialogue in the interviews suggests a broader aim of the collection as a whole: to bring together a range of voices in post- 9/11 studies and thus to begin a critical conversation that others will be eager to continue. This critical conversation can be rather fraught, and the essays collected here defy accusations of post-9/11 literature’s failure by demonstrating the success of writers and artists who represent 9/11 as both a domestic and international difficulty. Refusing to choose between the theories of trauma or spectacle that have so far dominated the field, the chapter writers consistently engage the conflicts between trauma dis- course and poststructuralist theory, between the plight of the victim and the problem of figuring and understanding responsibility for violence. The essays enter this scholarly debate in their own unique ways and thus demonstrate collectively that critical variety is essential for any greater understanding of this catastrophic event.

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The Wrong Side of Paradise 13

Notes

1. 9/11’s casualties included 67 British victims and 16 foreign nationals “with close UK ties,” according to the Guardian (“British Victims”). 2. Describing the “Churchill bust debacle” after President Obama’s 2009 inauguration, the Telegraph revealed British concern that “platitudes about the Special Relationship” would increasingly replace the relationship’s political value (N. Gardiner). 3. See Ferguson (Colossus), Gardner and Young, Ignatieff, and Porter, among others, for detailed historical analyses of the idea of a contemporary American “empire.” Whether or not one agrees with Donald Rumsfeld that Americans “don’t do empire,” as he famously told an al-Jazeera reporter in 2003 (Gibbons), the fact remains that twenty-first-century America is a huge financial and military global power, rivaled perhaps only by China. 4. Baudrillard’s ideas about 9/11 here echo his choice of title for a collection of essays in 1991: The Gulf War Did Not Take Place. 5. While J. Herman acknowledges that terrible experiences often initially feel “unspeakable” to victims (1), she also insists that even individuals who survive the same violence typically develop different kinds of trauma, depending on personal history, physical location, and psychological state at the time of the event. These victims must eventually “find a language that conveys fully and persuasively what one has seen” (2), not only for their own but also for social healing, since “[t]raumatic events have primary effects not only on the psychological structures of the self but also on the systems of attachment and meaning that link individual and community” (51). 6. Campbell suggests that Gladstone’s 1878 article “Kin Beyond the Sea” was “the first published declaration by a British statesman underlining” the special relationship between the US and UK. See also Burton. Most historians agree that Churchill’s first formal use of the term was in a speech entitled “The Sinews of Peace,” given March 5, 1946, at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, although his December 26, 1941, speech to the US Congress lays the groundwork for the formal introduction of the term. 7. See also the more recent work of scholars such as Giles and Hanlon. 8. Not surprisingly, this approach has also proven useful in analyzing the early twentieth-century work of many expatriate modernist writers, as both Katz and Ramazani have argued. 9. See Lampert for an interesting analysis of how some of these issues emerge in post-9/11 children’s literature.

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Index

Note: “n” after a page reference denotes a note number on that page. 24 (television show), 211 Baker Street Irregulars, see also Holmes, 7/7/05, see also London Transit attacks, Sherlock, 65 72, 80, 81, 87, 135 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 18, 21–2, 25–7, 29 9/11 Memorial and Museum, 12, 198–9, Barasch, Frances, 222, 227 202, 212, 219, 228 Basu, Balaka, 54 9/11: The Falling Man (film), 176n1 Baudrillard, Jean, see also postructuralist “9-11-01” (comic), see also Fly, 182–6 theory/poststructuralism, 4–5, 13, 49n7, 172, 177–8, 186, 189, 191 Abramowicz, Janet, 191, 197n14 Beautiful Ruins (novel), see also Walter, Absolute Friends (novel), see also le Carré, Jess, 227, 237n2 John, 10, 17–32 Beigbeder, Frédéric, see also Windows on Adorno, Theodor, 27, 136 the World (novel), 12, 201, 208–9, Afghanistan/Afghani, 17–18, 41, 48, 50, 215 55, 58, 67, 90–1, 98–106, 118, 185, Being There (film), 228 196, 197n16 Bell, Jonathan, see also Portraits (play), 153 Agamben, Giorgio, 176n11 Benjamin, Walter, 80, 143 al-Qaeda, 1–2, 4, 10, 41, 51, 92, 102, 171 Beyond a Boundary (memoir), Alexander, Jeffrey, 6–7 see also James, C. L. R., and cricket, American Ground (nonfiction), see also 119, 123, 134 Langewiesche, William, 203–4, 210 Beyond the Pleasure Principle Anderson, Benedict, 76 (psychoanalytic criticism), see also Anderson, Sherwood, 225 Freud, Sigmund, 3 Appadurai, Arjun, 122–3 Bigelow, Katherine, see also Zero Dark Appelbaum, Robert, see also Paknadel, Thirty (film), 211 Alexis, 113 Bin Laden, Osama, 40, 41, 52, 55, 58, 151 Appiah, Kwame Anthony, 111 Bissell, William Cunningham, 76 Arad, Michael, see also “Reflecting “black sites,” see also torture, 219 Absence” (9/11 memorial proposal), Blair, Prime Minister Tony, 1–2, 17, 27, 206, 212, 214–15 36, 38–9, 41, 64 Artaud, Antonin, 171, 176n10 Blitz, London, 1, 6, 36, 51, 52–3, 56, 205 Altantic Double-Cross (literary criticism), Blood-Dark Track (memoir), see also see also Weisbuch, Robert, 7 O’Neill, Joseph, 112–13, 130–1 Auster, Paul, 114, 216 Bond, James, see also Fleming, Ian, 8, 9, autobiography/autobiographical writing, 10, 19, 34–49 (Ch. 2), 64 see also memoir, 91–2, 95, 98, 144 Borradori, Giovanna, 110, 122 Axis of Evil, 2, 7, 41, 147 boss culture, see also New York Police “Baader-Meinhof” (story), see also Department (NYPD), 229, 231 Delillo, Don, 11, 186, 188–91, 194, Boston Marathon bombings, 67 196 Bottome, Phyllis, 21, 32n4 & n5 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Baader-Meinhof group, 11, 23, 114, 50, 53–4, 56, 57, 62, 66, 124 186–90, 192 Brosnan, Pierce, see also Bond, James, 19, Bagram Air Base, 90, 102 42, 44

257

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258 Index

Browne, Sir Thomas, 222 works by: Heart of Darkness (novel), Burdekin, Katharine , 21, 32n4 137; Lord Jim (novel), 137; The Secret Burgess, Anthony, 82 Agent (novel), 116, 127 Burgess, Guy, 49n1 conspiracy theory/theorists, 10, 50–67 Bush, President George W., 1–2, 7, 17, (Ch. 3) 36, 38–9, 41, 43, 62, 67, 72–3, 81, cosmopolitan/cosmopolitanism, 3, 8, 92, 102, 108–9, 162, 185, 233 10–11, 12, 110–12, 115–17, 119, Butler, Judith, 199 121, 124–8, 129, 134, 161, 172, 180, 192 Calatrava, Santiago, 207 counter-narratives, 66, 90, 98, 103, 109, Call for the Dead (novel), see also le Carré, 174 John, 18–20, 25–6, 31 Craig, Daniel, see also Bond, James, 44–5 Cameron, Prime Minister David, 71 cricket, see also James, C. L. R., and Campbell, Duncan Andrew, 7, 13n6, O’Neill, Joseph, 119–26, 129–30, 137 Camus, Albert, see also The Plague Crowd (painting), see also Warhol, Andy, (novel), and Resistance, Rebellion 197n9 and Death (essays), 228, 233 capitalism, 41, 74, 86, 142, 149, 156, Dead (Tote) (paintings), see also Richter, 198, 207–8, 215 Gerhard, 189 captivity narrative, 91, 99, 101 Debord, Guy, 172 Carroll, Noël, 222, 224–5 DeLillo, Don, 11–12, 114, 129, 133, 159–76 Caruth, Cathy, see also trauma studies/ (Ch.9), 176n4, 179–80, 186–96 theory, 5, 6, 162, 177 (Ch. 10), 196n7 & n8, 197n10/n12/ Casino Royale (film), see also Bond, James, n13, 207–9, 219 44–5, 46, 47 works by: “Baader-Meinhof” (story), Casino Royale (novel), see also Fleming, 11, 186, 188–91, 194, 196; Don Ian, and Bond, James, 34, 49n3 DeLillo Papers (archived papers), Catch-22 (novel), see also Heller, Joseph, 196n7, 197n12; Falling Man, 11–12, 228 129, 132, 159–76 (Ch. 9), 176n4, Celine, Louis-Ferdinand, 237 180, 191–6 (Ch. 10), 196n8; “In the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 38–9, Ruins of the Future” (essay), 162, 45–6, 60, 62, 64, 66, 92, 96 174, 189, 196, 208; Mao II (novel), Chapman, James, 42–3 188–9, 196n8, 197n9; Players Churchill, Sir Winston, 1–2, 5, 7, 13, (novel), 188, 207, 209; Point Omega 34–9, 47, 49, 54–6, 65 (novel), 197n10; Underworld (novel), China, as world power, 13n3, 40, 75 188, 196n8, 207 Citizen Vince (novel), see also Walter, Jess, Dench, Judi, 39, 44 228, 230 Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV), Clarke, Peter, 35, 37 122, 131 cognitive dissonance, 192–4 DeRosa, Aaron, 8 Cold War, 7, 10, 18–20, 22–5, 30, 34–48, Derrida, Jacques, see also postructuralist 82, 117, 162, 181 theory/poststructuralism, 5, 6, 110–11, Colville, John, 54 122, 136, 199 communism, 19, 39 detainees (at Guantánamo Bay or other complicity (in American response to “black sites”), 90–7, 99, 101, 104–9, 9/11), 12, 30–1, 62, 103, 113, 118, 109n3 & n4, 219 132, 156, 172, 217, 232–4, 236–7 Diamonds Are Forever (film), see also confessional writing/speaking, 90, 95, Bond, James, 38 97, 148 Die Another Day (film), see also Bond, Conrad, Joseph, 116, 127, 137 James, 40, 42–4, 46

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Index 259 documentation (in Walter’s The Zero), Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 225–6, 232–5 143 Don DeLillo Papers, The (archived Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 64, papers), see also DeLillo, Don, 196n7, 96, 229 197n12 Federal Criminal Investigations Office Doyle, Arthur Conan, see also Holmes, (BKA), 187 Sherlock, 51–3, 56, 58–62, 64–7 Ferguson, Niall, 1, 13n3 Dr. No (film), see also Bond, James, 37 Fight Club (film), 228 Drew, Richard, see also “Falling Man” Financial Lives of the Poets, The (novel), (photograph), 11, 159–61, 166, 170–1, see also Walter, Jess, 227 176n1, 177–8, 187, 195 Fire Department of New York (FDNY), Duvall, John N., 8–9, 159, 163, 166, 176 143–4, 147, 170, 198, 200, 204, 219n3, 231 Egan, Jennifer, 12, 132, 201, 216–19 Fischl, Eric, see also Falling Woman works by: Look at Me (novel), 132; (sculpture), 177, 178, 186, 187 A Visit from the Goon Squad (novel), Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 4, 124, 125, 137 12, 132, 201, 216–19 Fleming, Ian, see Bond, James, 34–49 Eisenberg, Deborah, see also “Twilight (Ch. 2) of the Superheroes” (story), 12, 201, Fly, see also “9-11-01” (comic), 179–80, 209–10, 213 182–6, 196 ekphrasis, 179 Foer, Jonathan Safran, see also Extremely Elementary (CBS, television show), Loud and Incredibly Close (novel), see also Holmes, Sherlock, 50, 57–8, 88n2, 114, 172 59–60, 67 Foucault, Michel, 136, 224 Eliot, T. S., see also objective correlative, Fountainhead, The (novel), see also Rand, 133, 193 Ayn, 200, 206, 213 embodied perception, see also Tanner, Fresh Kills, see also Ground Zero, 229 Laura, 164–7, 175 Freud, Sigumund, see also Beyond the Engle, Karen, 5, 170 Pleasure Principle (psychoanalytic English, Ron, see also POPaganda (web criticism), 3 site), 179–81 From Russia With Love (novel), see also ethnic/ethnicity Fleming, Ian, and Bond, James, 49n2 Every Knee Shall Bow (film), see also Frost, Laura, 177, 185 Walter, Jess, 227 Funeral (paintings), see also Richter, exceptionalism, 3–4, 12, 78, 118, 124, Gerhard, 190, 197n12 179–80, 186 Extraordinary Rendition, 17, 29, 96, 103 Gatiss, Mark, 51–2, 56 Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close Gersten-Vassilaros, Alexandra, (novel), see also Foer, Jonathan see also Omnium Gatherum (play), Safran, 88n2, 114, 172 and Rebeck, Theresa, 155 Gilroy, Paul, 79–80 “Falling Man” (photograph), see also Giuliani, Mayor Rudolph W., 1, 186, Drew, Richard, 11, 159–61, 166, 202, 229, 231–2 170–1, 176n1, 177–8, 187, 195 Gladstone, William, 7, 13n6 Falling Man (novel), see also DeLillo, Don, GoldenEye (film), see also Bond, James, 11–12, 129, 132, 159–76 (Ch. 9), 39–40 176n4, 180, 191–6 (Ch. 10), 196n8 Goldfinger (film), see also Bond, James, Falling Woman (sculpture), see also Fischl, 38, 42 Eric, 177 Graham, Heather, see also Recent Tragic Fascism, 20, 39, 79, 132, 197n14 Events (play), 155

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260 Index

Gray, Richard, 8, 115, 138n1, 164–6, Hussein, Saddam, 41, 233 176n6, 177, 196, 220n5 Hustvedt, Siri, 193, 197n13 grief, see also mourning, 11, 31, 79, 103, Huxtable, Ada, 201–2, 203, 206–7, 210 141, 142–3, 145–6, 148–9, 151–2, 156, 175, 195, 207, 223, 224–5, Ibsen, Henrik, see also The Master 229–31, 234–5 Builder (play), 206 grotesque, 12, 201, 221–7, 228, immigrant culture, 10, 11, 72, 79, 82, 232–3 87–8, 92, 97, 99–100, 117, 119, Ground Zero, 1, 3–4, 12, 57, 145, 153, 121–2, 124, 129, 212 159, 162, 169, 174, 182, 190, immigrant fiction/narrative, 11, 97, 114, 198–219 (Ch. 11), 228–32 115–19, 121, 123–4, 127 Guantánamo/Guantánamo Bay, 10, 11, Immigration and Naturalization Service 90–109 (Ch. 5) (INS), 122 Guantánamo Testimonials, 96 “In the Ruins of the Future” (essay), Guys, The (play), see also Nelson, Anne, see also Delillo, Don, 162, 174, 189, 143–7, 148, 149, 150, 152, 155, 219n3 196, 208 In the Shadow of No Towers (comic), see habeas corpus, 97, 105–7, 109n4 also Spiegelman, Art, 179, 196n4 Habermas, Jürgen, 110–11 internationalism, see also nationalism, Hamid, Mohsin, see also The Reluctant postnationalism, and plurinationalism, Fundamentalist (novel), 10, 71–81 115 (Ch. 4), 86–8, 89n6, 114 Iraq War, 17–18, 36, 38, 41–2, 48, 118, Harlow, Barbara, 92, 96–7, 107 197n16, 229, 233, 234 Harpham, Geoffrey Galt, 222–3 Irish Republican Army (IRA), 112, 114 Harries, Martin, 176n3 Islam, see also Muslim, 11, 25, 72, 77, 80, Harrington, Ellen Burton, 51–2, 54 83, 86, 96, 98–103, 114, 125, 132, Hartnell, Anna, 9, 75 142, 153, 176n11, 212–14 Heart of Darkness (novel), see also Conrad, Joseph, 137 James, C. L. R., see also Beyond a Heller, Joseph, see also Catch-22 (novel), Boundary (memoir), and cricket, 119, 228, 236 123, 134 Herman, Judith, see also trauma studies/ Jameson, Fredric, 73, 75 theory, 5, 13 Jameson, Storm, 21, 32n4 & n5 heroism (on and after 9/11), 41, 45–6, Joyce, James , 133 49, 144, 147, 150, 153, 155, 158, Judge, Fr. Mychal, 170 170, 172, 185, 198, 199–201, 204–6, jumpers, see also Twin Towers, and World 208–10, 216, 219, 237 Trade Center, 160, 166–8, 172–4, Hirst, Damien, 171, 176n9 176n1, 202 Hitchens, Christopher, 35, 37, 132 Junod, Tom, 160, 170, 176n1, 178, Hitler, Adolf, 21, 23, 29, 32n4 & n5, 196n1 33n10, 52, 54, 56, 65 Hollywood, 5, 25, 31, 37, 40, 45, 49, 53, Kafka, Franz (and “Kafkaesque”), see also 82, 113, 155, 177, 195, 227 The Trial (novel), 105, 134, 228, 233 Holmes, Sherlock, see also Doyle, Arthur Kakutani, Michiko, 21, 129, 200, 204 Conan, 8, 9, 10, 50–67 (Ch. 3) Kaplan, Amy, 78, 94 Holocaust, 22, 65–6, 174, 176n11, 205 Kaplan, E. Ann, 5–6, 142 Homeland Security, 41, 44, 64 Kauffman, Linda S., 190 Hoover, J. Edgar, 64 Keniston, Ann, see also Literature After Hounslow, 81, 85 9/11 (literary criticism), and Quinn, hunger strike, 90, 106 Jeanne Follansbee, 9

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Index 261

Kennedy, President John F., 37–8, 49n4 Look at Me (novel), see also Egan, Jennifer, Kennedy, Robert F., 160 132 Kerik, Bernard, 229, 237n1 Lord Jim (novel), see also Conrad, Joseph, Khan, Mahvish Rukhsana, see also My 137 Guantánamo Diary (memoir), 11, 90–109 (Ch. 5) Maclean, Donald, 49n1 Khrushchev, Nikita, 37 Malkani, Gautam, see also Londonstani Kierkegaard, Søren, 180, 193, 196 (novel), 10, 71–4, 81–8, 89n4 Kimmelman, Michael, 187, 188 Man on Wire (film), see also Marsh, Kommune One, 191 James, and Petit, Philippe, 167 Kunitz, Daniel, 188 Man Shot Down 1 (Erschossener 1) Kuper, Peter, see also World War 3 (paintings), see also Richter, Gerhard, Illustrated (comic), 179, 196n5 189 Man Shot Down 2 (Erschossener 2) LaBute, Neil, see also The Mercy Seat (paintings), see also Richter, Gerhard, (play), 147, 150 189 Lacan, Jacques, 136 Mao II (novel), see also DeLillo, Don, LaCapra, Dominick, 164 188–9, 196n8, 197n9 Land of the Blind (novel), see also Walter, Marsh, James, see also Man on Wire Jess, 230 (film), 167 Langewiesche, William, see also Marzec, Robert P., 8–9, 159, 163, 176n2 American Ground (nonfiction), Master Builder, The (play), see also Ibsen, 203–4, 210 Henrik, 206 le Carré, John , 9, 10, 17–32 (Ch. 1), McAuliffe, Jody, see also Lentricchia, 32n7 & n8, 33n9 Frank, 149, 176n8 works by: Absolute Friends (novel), 10, McCann, Colum, see also Let the Great 17–32; Call for the Dead (novel), 18–20, World Spin (novel), 115, 159, 168–70, 25–6, 31; A Most Wanted Man (novel), 175–6 10, 17–32; Smiley’s People (novel), 19; McClintock, Scott, 94, 108 Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy (novel), 33n9 McEwan, Ian, see also Saturday (novel), Leitch, Thomas, 52–3, 56 88n1, 114, 200 Lentricchia, Frank, see also McAuliffe, melodrama, 11, 30, 113, 114–18, 120, Jody, 149, 176n8 125, 126–7 Let the Great World Spin (novel), see also melting pot, 75–6, 123–4 McCann, Colum, and Petit, Philippe, Memento (film), 228 115, 159, 168–9, 175 memoir, see also autobiography/ Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 136 autobiographical writing, 4, 8, 10, 11, Levi, Primo, 176n11 90–109 (Ch. 5), 109n3, 112, 119, Lévinas, Emmanuel, 136 208, 228 Libeskind, Daniel, see also “Memory memorabilia (9/11), 198 Foundations” (9/11 memorial “Memory Foundations” (9/11 memorial proposal), 199–200, 204–9, 212, 214 proposal), see also Libeskind, Daniel, Ligon, Sam, 234–5 204–6, 214 Literature After 9/11 (literary criticism), Mercy Seat, The (play), see also LaBute, see also Keniston, Ann, and Quinn, Neil, 147–51, 152, 153 Jeanne Follansbee, 9 Merkel, Chancellor Angela, 71 London Transit attacks, see also 7/7/05, Messud, Claire, see also The Emperor’s 72, 80, 81, 87, 135 Children (novel), 114 Londonstani (novel), see also Malkani, Milton, John, see also Paradise Lost Gautam, 10, 71–4, 81–8, 89n4 (poem), 4, 227

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262 Index

Ministry of Information (MI6), see also New York City/Manhattan, 1, 3, 5, Secret Intelligence and Secret Intelligence 11–12, 57–8, 63, 75, 80, 112, 114, Service (SIS), 39–40, 46–7, 56 117–28, 129–30, 136, 141–58 (Ch. Mitchell, W. J. T., 159, 179 8), 159–61, 167, 169, 175, 177, Mitchison, Naomi, 21 181–2, 188, 190, 198–219 (Ch. 11), Moffat, Steven, 52, 56 228–31 Moqbel, Samir Naji al Hasan, 90, 108 New York Police Department (NYPD), Most Wanted Man, A (novel), see also boss culture, 57, 167, 198, see also le Carré, John, 10, 17–32 221, 228–9, 231–2 Morandi, Giorgio, see also Natura Morta North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (paintings), 11, 165–6, 175, 191–6, (NAFTA), 136 197n13 & n14 nostalgia/nostalgic, 11–12, 20, 44, 51–2, mourning, see also grief, 4, 76, 141, 150, 54, 74–81 (Ch. 4), 88, 111, 117–20, 185 124, 127, 135, 137, 162, 168, 176, Muhammad, Prophet, see also Islam, and 176n6, 202, 210, 217 Muslim, 99 Nuremberg Laws/Tribunal, 26, 28 multicultural/multiculturalism, 10, 71–4, 78–81, 83, 86–7, 88n1, 115, 134 O’Neill, Joseph, 11, 110–28 (Ch. 6), Munch, Edvard, see also The Scream 129–38 (Ch. 7) (painting), 11, 179–84, 196 works by: Blood-Dark Track (memoir), Murdoch, Rupert, 123–4 112–13, 130–1; Netherland (novel), Murray, Bill, see also The Guys (play), 143 11, 111–12, 115–28 (Ch. 6), 129–38 Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), 181, (Ch. 7) 186–9, 197n10 Oates, Joyce Carol, 154, 177 Muslim, see also Islam, 11, 25, 27, 72, Obama, President Barack, 13, 129, 77, 80, 83, 86, 96, 98–103, 114, 125, objective correlative, see also Eliot, T. S., 132, 142, 153, 176n11, 212–14 193 Mussolini, Benito, 191 October 18, 1977 (series of paintings), My Guantánamo Diary (memoir), see also Richter, Gerhard, 11, 186–90, see also Khan, Mahvish Rukhsana, 11, 196 90–109 (Ch. 5) Omnium Gatherum (play), see also Rebeck, Theresa, and Gersten-Vassilaros, Naipaul, V. S., 131 Alexandra, 155–7 nationalism, see also internationalism, Orange Car Crash Fourteen Times postnationalism, and plurinationalism, (painting), see also Warhol, Andy, 189 57, 86–8, 110–11, 115–16, 127, 134, Orwell, George, 36, 47 136 otherness, 3, 8, 73, 93, 111, 113, 122, Natura Morta (paintings), see also 137, 213 Morandi, Giorgio, 166, 191, 193–4, 196 Pakistan/Pakistani, 75–80, 82–3, 85, Nazi Germany, 1–2, 10, 19–20, 23–4, 26, 87–8, 96, 102, 123, 125, 156 28–9, 30, 32n5, 51–4 Paknadel, Alexis, see also Appelbaum, Nelson, Anne, see also The Guys (play), Robert, 113 143–6, 219n3 paradise, 4–5, 12, 156, 213, 227 Netherland (novel), see also O’Neill, Paradise Lost (poem), see also Milton, Joseph, 11, 111–12, 115–28 (Ch. 6), John, 4, 227 129–38 (Ch. 7) parody, 18, 20–32 (Ch. 1), 155, 235 Nevelson, Louise, 197n16 Pashto/Pashtun, 91, 96, 100 New York (play), see also Rimmer, David, Pataki, George, 215 146–7, 150, 152, 153 Patriot Act (US), 29, 229

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Index 263 patriotism, 4, 5, 7, 22, 34, 56, 80, 87, 99, racial/ethnic profiling, 17, 57, 72, 86 151, 154, 185, 211–13, 233 Ramsden, John, 35, 39, 49n5 Paz, Sharon, 177–8, 187 Rand, Ayn, see also The Fountainhead Pentagon, 1, 3, 97, 104, 200 (novel), 200, 206, 213 Pepper, Andrew, 9, 22, 29, 32n1 Randall, Martin, 8, 176n5 Petit, Philippe, see also Man on Wire (film) reality television, 235 and Let the Great World Spin (novel), Rebeck, Theresa, see also Omnium 11, 159, 166–9, 175, 176n4, 202 Gatherum (play), and Gersten-Vassilaros, Plague, The (novel), see also Camus, Alexandra, 155–7 Albert, 228, 233 Recent Tragic Events (play), Players (novel), see also DeLillo, Don, see also Wright, Craig, 153–5, 157 188, 207, 209 Red Army Faction (RAF), 186–8, 191 plurinationalism, see also Redfield, Marc, 3, 6, 143, 164 internationalism, nationalism, and “Reflecting Absence” (9/11 memorial postnationalism, 86 proposal), see also Arad, Michael, Point Omega (novel), see also DeLillo, 206, 212, 214–15 Don, 197n10 Reluctant Fundamentalist, The (novel), Polasek, Ashley D., 53–4 see also Hamid, Mohsin, 10, 72, 74, polemic, 8, 10, 18–32 (Ch. 1), 32n5 75, 77–81, 86–8 POPaganda (web site), see also English, Resistance, Rebellion and Death (essays), Ron, 181 see also Camus, Albert, 228 pornography/pornographic, 161, 170, Richter, Gerhard, 11, 179, 186091, 196, 178, 190 197n13 Portraits (play), see also Bell, Jonathan, 153 works by: Dead (Tote) (paintings), 189; Portraits of Grief, 195 Funeral (paintings), 190, 197n12; post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), Man Shot Down 1 (Erschossener 1) see also trauma/trauma narrative and (paintings), 189; Man Shot Down trauma studies/ theory, 50, 59, 162, 2 (Erschossener 2) (paintings), 174–5 189; October 18, 1977 (series of postcolonialism and postcolonial paintings), 11, 186–90, 196 studies, 7, 73, 78–9, 87, 111, 119, Rimbaud, Arthur, 197n16 124, 129, 137 Rimmer, David, see also New York (play), postcolonial melancholia, 79, 87, 119 146–7 postnationalism, see also Robbins, Bruce, 111 internationalism, nationalism, and Roosevelt, President Franklin Delano, 2, plurinationalism, 110, 134, 136 39, 65 poststructuralist theory/ Rosenberg, Karen, 180–1 poststructuralism, see also Rowe, John Carlos, 176n4, 177, 186 Baudrillard, Jean; Derrida, Jacques; Rumsfeld, Donald (Secretary of Defense), Žižek, Slavoj, 3–6, 12 13n3, 93–4, 108 Powell, Colin, 233 Russia, see also Soviet Union and USSR, Prideaux, Sue, 180 19–20, 23, 25, 27, 34–5, 37, 39–41, Profumo affair, 49n1 49n1 & n2, 82, 104 propaganda, 2, 32n1, 92–3, 229, 233–4 Said, Edward, 115, 156 Quantum of Solace (film), see also Bond, Saturday (novel), see also McEwan, Ian, James, 44–6 88n1, 114 Quinn, Jeanne Follansbee, see also scapegoat/scapegoating, 30, 60, 81, 103 Literature After 9/11(literary criticism) Schreiber, Liev, see also The Mercy Seat and Keniston, Ann, 9 (play), 147, 150

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264 Index

Scream, The (painting), see also Munch, surveillance, 17, 29, 40, 49, 93, 185, Edvard, 11, 179–84, 196 187, 218 Second World War, see also World War synecdoche, 223–6, 235–6 II, 1–3, 19–23, 35–6, 39, 41, 44, 47, 49n5, 54, 79–80, 112, 130 Taliban, 41, 96, 101–2, 185 Secret Agent, The (novel), see also Conrad, Tamahori, Lee, see Die Another Day (film), Joseph, 116, 127 and Bond, James, 43 Secret Intelligence (British) and Secret Tamil Tigers, 114 Intelligence Service (SIS), see also Tanner, Laura E., 6, 110, 144, 164–5 Ministry of Information (MI6), 18–19, Tenet, George, 233 27, 29, 39–40, 46–7, 56 terror/terrorism/terrorists, 1–8, 10–11, 17, Shakespeare, William, 4, 21, 56 19–20, 22–32, 34–6, 39–43, 45–9, works (plays) by: Hamlet, 21; King 49n2, 50–9, 61, 67, 71–7, 79–82, Lear, 21; Richard the Second, 4 86–8, 91–6, 98–9, 102–3, 106–8, 110, Sherlock (BBC, television show), see also 113–14, 116–17, 126–7, 129, 132, Holmes, Sherlock, 50–7, 58, 59–60, 67 143–4, 148–50, 156–7, 162, 168, 171–2, Simpson, David, 173 184–8, 190, 192, 196–8, 203, 211, 213, Skyfall (film), see also Bond, James, 44, 219, 223, 226–7, 229, 230–1, 235 46–8 Terrorist (novel), see also Updike, John, Slahi, Mohamedou Ould, 90–1, 108, 114, 129 109n1 & n2 Thomas, Ronald R., 51–2 Sloan, Brian, see also WTC View (play), Thunderball (novel), see also Fleming, Ian, 151–2, 156 and Bond, James, 37 Smelser, Neil J., 7 Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy (novel), see also Smiley’s People (novel), see also le Carré, le Carré, John, 33n9 John, 19 Tomorrow Never Dies (film), see also Bond, Smith, Sidonie, see also Watson, Julia, 95, James, 40 100, 103–4, 106, 107 Tobocman, Seth, see also World War 3 Sontag, Susan, 141–3, 172 Illustrated (comic), 179 Soviet Union, see also Russia and USSR, torture, see also “black sites,” 28, 43, 44, 19–20, 23, 25, 27, 34–5, 37, 39–41, 90, 97, 101–2, 106–8, 211, 215, 223, 49n1 & n2, 82, 104 229, 232 Special Operations Executive (SOE), trauma/trauma narrative, see also post- 65 traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 4, 6, special relationship, 1–2, 5, 7, 9–10, 9–12, 32n1, 50, 55, 111, 114, 180, 13n2 & n6, 17, 22–3, 31–2, 34–8, 184, 199–206, 212, 216–18 41–9, 117 trauma studies/theory, see also post- Spiegelman, Art, see also In the Shadow traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 3–8, 12, of No Towers (comic), 141, 179, 113n5, 114–18, 121, 126–7, 142057 196n3 & n4 (Ch. 8), 159, 162–6, 173–5, 177 Stasi, 19, 26 travel narrative, 21, 100–1 Stewart, Martha, 156 Trial, The (novel), see also Kafka, Franz, still life, 11–12, 165–6, 191–4 228, 233 Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 171, 176n8 truth and distortion of reality, see also Storr, Robert, 187–8, 196n7 conspiracy theory/theorists, 110–11, Study in Scarlet, A (novel), see also Conan 132, 195, 222–7 Doyle, Arthur, 51, 58 truth-telling, see also witnessing trauma, 5, Submission, The (novel), see also 9, 10, 91, 95–108, 127, 142, 147–8, Waldman, Amy, 5, 40, 49n6, 116, 153, 156, 163, 166, 170, 176n11, 177–8, 189 177, 180, 187–8

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Index 265

“Twilight of the Superheroes” (story), Weisbuch, Robert, see also Atlantic see also Eisenberg, Deborah, 12, 201, Double-Cross (literary criticism), 7 209–10, 213 West, Rebecca, 21 Twin Towers, see also World Trade Center, Western democracies and the West, 2, 11, 23, 57, 62, 91, 94, 135, 141, 147, 11, 17, 20, 26, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 153, 159, 167–9, 172, 175, 182, 193, 72–5, 77, 80–1, 85–8, 125, 171, 192 198–9, 201–3, 207, 209, 215, 217–18 Whitlock, Gillian, 91, 98, 108, Wieseltier, Leon, 199–200, 204 Underworld (novel), see also DeLillo, Don, Williams, Kristian, 179, 182 188, 196n8, 207 Willman, Skip, 38, 49n4 Union Square, 142, 153, 185 Wilson, James Q., 230–1 Updike, John, see also Terrorist (novel), Windows on the World (novel), see also 114, 129 Beigbeder, Frédéric, 12, 201, 208–9, US Patriot Act, see Patriot Act (US) 215 USSR, see also Soviet Union and Russia, witnessing trauma, see also truth-telling, 19–20, 23, 25, 27, 34–5, 37, 39–41, 5,9, 10, 91, 95–108, 127, 142, 147– 49n1 & n2, 82, 104 8, 153, 156, 163, 166, 170, 176n11, 177, 180, 187–8 Van Pelt, Robert Jan, 65–6 Wolfowitz, Paul, 67 Versluys, Kristiaan, 5–6, 8–9, 162, 176n4 Wood, James, 129, 137 Vietnam War/memorial, 17, 26, 181, World is not Enough, The (film), see also 197n15, 202, 215 Bond, James, 43–4 Visit from the Goon Squad, A (novel), World Trade Center, see also Twin see also Egan, Jennifer, 12, 132, 201, Towers, 1, 3, 5–6, 39, 62, 143, 146–7, 216–19 151–2, 154, 156, 159–61, 166–8, voyeurism, 178, 188, 190, 196 171–2, 177, 181–2, 184, 188, 190, 192, 198–219 (Ch. 11) Waldman, Amy, see also The Submission World War II, see also Second World War, (novel), 5, 40, 49n6, 116, 177–8, 189 1–3, 19–23, 35–6, 39, 41, 44, 47, Walter, Jess, 12, 201, 210–12, 214, 215, 49n5, 54, 79–80, 112, 130 221–37 (Ch. 12) World War 3 Illustrated (comic), 11, works by: Beautiful Ruins (novel), 227, 179–86, 196, 196n3 237n2; Citizen Vince (novel), 228, 230; Wright, Craig, see also Recent Tragic The Financial Lives of Poets (novel), Events (play), 153–5 227; Ruby Ridge (non-fiction), 227; Wright, Lawrence, 171 The Zero (novel), 12, 201, 210–12, WTC View (play), see also Sloan, Brian, 214, 215, 221–37 (Ch. 12) 151–2, 156 war on terror, 2, 4, 10–11, 17, 19–20, 22–6, 28–32, 34, 36, 41–3, 50, 55, 57, Yeats, William Butler, 178 67, 72–3, 91–3, 96, 106, 132, 184, 203 Young, Robert J. C., 84 Warhol, Andy, 188–9, 197n9 works by: Crowd, 197n9; Orange Car Zedong, Mao, 197n9 Crash Fourteen Times, 189 Zelizer, Barbie, 177 Watson, John, see also Holmes, Sherlock, Zero, The (novel), see also Walter, Jess, 50, 52–3, 55, 58–60, 63, 66, 67 12, 201, 210–12, 214, 215, 221–37 Watson, Julia, see also Smith, Sidonie, 95, (Ch. 12) 100, 103–4, 106, 107 Zero Dark Thirty (film), see also Bigelow, Weatherman (terrorist group), 114 Katherine, 211 Weaver, Sigourney, see also The Guys Žižek, Slavoj, see also postructuralist (play) and The Mercy Seat (play), theory/poststructuralism, 5, 40, 49n6, 143, 147, 150 116, 177–8, 189