t 1 565 Vol. NLL Public Disclosure Authorized

- I I

Environmental Impact Assessment MOZAMBIQUE-MALAWI Public Disclosure Authorized INTERCONNECTION DRAFT - Malawian segment of the 400 kV power line Public Disclosure Authorized

PI_ Public Disclosure Authorized 3e* Supplementary Volume 2 Specialist Reports

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Coastal & Environmental Services P 0 Box 934 Grahamstown South Africa 6140

Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 7 1.1 Introduction ...... 9 1.2 Location and map protocol ...... 9 1.3 Power line project overview ...... 9 1.4 Purpose of the specialist baseline reports ...... 10 1.5 Specialist team for the specialist studies ...... 10 1.6 Assessing the severity and significance of environmental impacts ...... 12 1.6.1 Temporal scale ...... 12 1.6.2 Spatial scale ...... 12 1.6.3 Risk or likelihood ...... 12 1.6.4 Degree of confidence or certainty ...... 13 1.6.5 Severity/beneficial rating scale ...... 13 1.6.6 Significance scale ...... 14

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Three maps indicating the route of the proposed power line.

LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: List of specialists, their qualifications and their expertise.

General Introduction:P Millgner 2: Specialist Reports Coastal & EnvironmentalService: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEA, Supplementary Volume

D. The risk or likelihood of the impact occurring and E. The degree of confidence placed in the assessment of the impact.

PM Illgner 8 GeneralIntroduction: Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In February 1998 a memorandum of understanding was signed by Electricidade de Mo,ambique (EDM) and the Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi (ESCOM) to connect their respective power grids via a 220/400 kV transmission line. This line would join the Matambo substation in Mozambique to the proposed Phombeya substation in Malawi, a distance of approximately 220 km. Two environmental impact assessment's (EIA's), one for each national segment, were to be carried out prior to construction of the transmission line, from here on referred to as the Mozambique-Malawi interconnector or simply the "interconnector".

Coastal and Environmental Services (CES) were commissioned by ESCOM to carry out the EIA and environmental management plan (EMP) for the Malawian segment of the power line. This volume presents the specialist reports of the baseline studies component of the Malawian EIA process. The biophysical studies are presented in Part I and the social studies in Part II of this volume (Volume 2 - Specialist Reports).

1.2 LOCATION AND MAP PROTOCOL

The preferred route for the power line in Malawi is indicated on the three maps in Figure 1.1, namely a relatively large topographical locality map and two smaller maps which represent the geology and vegetation respectively. The vegetation sampling points (releves) are not indicated on the vegetation map for the sake of clarity. These numbers are indicated on the locality and geological maps. The transect lines on the three maps separate the one kilometre intervals used to describe the proposed route in some chapters (e.g. Chapter two).

The proposed route enters Malawi near the village of Golowa, where after it proceeds in a northeasterly direction for about five km on the northern banks of the Mpandazi River. Approximately six kilometers after entering Malawi the route turns due east, passes south of Mwanza and crosses the Wamkurumadzi River, near the village of Mlongolola, changing direction a number of times in the process. From the Wamkurumadzi River the route proceeds in a northeasterly direction, again changing direction a number of times, adopting a more northerly bearing on each occasion. Between intervals 38 and 44 the route crosses the Lisungwi River and M6 respectively before terminating at the site of the proposed substation at Phombeya. Descriptions of the two alternative routes are not found in this volume, as they were discussed and assessed at the scoping phase of the EIA process. For further details the reader is therefore referred to the scoping report (Volume One).

1.3 POWER LINE PROJECT OVERVIEW

The governments of Mozambique and Malawi would like to take advantage of the South African Power Pool, a body established to co-ordinate matters of regional power integration under the auspices of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). ESCOM has been experiencing problems with the maintenance and rehabilitation of its power stations due to inadequate spare capacity. The proposed interconnector will enable ESCOM to refurbish its hydroelectric power stations. Secondly, the Shire River, where over 98 % of Malawi's hydropower is generated, is not a reliable source of electricity, as records show that the Shire River dried up between 1914 and 1935. The proposed interconnector will ensure a more

GeneralIntroduction: P MIligner Volume 2: Specialist Reports Coastal& Environmental Service: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary reliable source of electricity should the Shire River dry up. This situation is likely to be exacerbated by present increases in the demand for electricity and system losses in Malawi. Other benefits include the likelihood of cheaper electricity and the facilitation of mining initiatives, which are currently hampered by the efficacy of the electricity supply.

The power line will initially be used for the transmission of 220 kV, later to be upgraded to 400 kV. Steel pylons will be constructed to support the conductors. A 50 m wide servitude (i.e. 25 m on either side of a center line) will be cleared for the construction and maintenance of the power line. In addition, a further 15 ha (500 m X 300 m) will have to be cleared for the establishment of a substation at Phombeya, where the 220 kV will be stepped down to 132 kV for transmission within Malawi. ESCOM envisage constructing a maintenance road within the servitude directly below the conductors. This road will also be used for the construction of the power line. Additional technical specifications for the power line were not available for the specialist baseline studies.

1.4 PURPOSE OF THE SPECIALIST BASELINE REPORTS

The primary purpose of the baseline specialist studies is to generate sufficient factual information to assess the significance and severity of environmental impacts. In order to achieve this, the specialist reports contain facts and information describing the affected environment, and include primary data collected specifically for the study, as well as secondary data from published and unpublished sources. Data relevant to identifying and assessing environmental impacts that might occur on a specific component of the environment under study were collected, and each specialist explained and interpreted the various components of the natural and human environments of the proposed route.

During the baseline data-gathering stage, consultants were expected to not only provide baseline information in their particular field of expertise for the study area, but also to take this study further and identify which project actions will result in significant impacts, according to the pre-defined significance rating scales presented in section 1.5. Furthermore, consultants were asked to suggest ways in which these negative impacts could be mitigated, thus reducing their severity.

A field visit to the proposed route by selected specialists between 7 and 14 April 2003 was used to assess whether there were any potential fatal flaws within the proposed servitude, to obtain primary and/or secondary data for the specialist studies and to determine the extent of current and potential impacts within the area.

Data was obtained for the following during the field visit:

* Landforms and physical planning (Chapter Two) * Vegetation and floristics (Chapter Three) * Social Impact Assessment (SIA) (Chapter Five) * Resettlement and compensation plan (Chapter Six)

Note that this field visit did not include a faunal specialist, as a desktop study was deemed sufficient for the purposes of this report (Chapter Four). The baseline reports compiled in this specialist volume will be synthesized during the preparation of the Environmental Impact Report (Volume three). 1.5 SPECIALIST TEAM FOR THE SPECIALIST STUDIES

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A list of the specialists, their qualifications and their expertise are provided in Table 1.1. Table 1.1: List of specialists, their qualifications and their expertise. NAME & AFFILIATION STUDY/ EXPERTISE QUALIFI- CHAPTER CATION NUMBER Dr A.M. Avis, Coastal & Environmental Study leader, Director of Coastal and Environmental Services. PhD Services (CES) Project Ecologist and environmental scientist with 18 P.O. Box 934 manager & years of research and consulting experience in Grahamstown, 6140 reviewer EIA's, rehabilitation studies, project Email: management, coastal zone management and [email protected] vegetation surveys. Project leader to numerous large scale EIAs. Mr P.M. Illgner Coastal & Environmental Project co- Full time environmental consultant for CES. Services ordination and Formerly a Research Officer with the Institute P.O. Box 934 liaison. for Water Research, Rhodes University. Has Grahamstown, 6140 Landforms & completed two previous specialist studies for Email: physical power line related EIA's. [email protected] environment (Ch 2)

Dr. Kaunda Bunda College Project Dr Kaunda has a PhD in Fisheries Science and Box 219 facilitation in has been involved in various environmental Lilongwe Malawi. projects in Malawi. He has a clear understanding Malawi Landforms & of the Malawian biophysical environment, and Email: physical has good organisational and liaison skills. [email protected] environment (Ch 2) Prof. R Lubke Botany Dept. Vegetation Director of Coastal and Environmental Services. Rhodes University (Ch 3) Plant ecologist and environmental scientist with Grahamstown 30 years of research and consulting experience in South Africa, 6140. EIA's, rehabilitation studies, coastal zone Email: management and vegetation surveys. r.lubke(acesnet.co.za Dr W.R. Branch, P.E. Museum Fauna (Ch 4) Curator of herpetology at the Port Elizabeth PhD P.O. Box 13147 Museum and part-time associate of CES. Humewood Involved in diverse herpetological studies. Port Elizabeth, 6013 Chairman of the IUCN, African Reptile and Email: Amphibian group. Completed 13 environmental [email protected] impact assessment reports, over 100 scientific publications and 4 books. Dr H. van Independent Consultant Social Impact Dr van Vlaenderen has been involved in Vlaenderen Assessment numerous participatory research projects and (SIA) (Ch 5) SIA's in South Africa and Tanzania, and has run professional courses in participatory approaches to community involvement. She has published and consulted widely in this field. As an associate of CES she has been involved in a number of SIA's and public consultation programmes. Mr G. Huggins IWR Environmental Resettlement Director of IWR Environmental and part-time P.O. Box 789 and associate of CES. Spec ialises in social impact Howick, 3390 Compensation assessment, resettlement and development Email: Plan (Ch 6) planning, socio-economic analysis and applied [email protected] research, with twelve years of experience in these fields. Involved in a number of resettlement studies prepared to World Bank standards.

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OF 1.6 ASSESSING THE SEVERITY AND SIGNIFICANCE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Although specialists were given free reign on how they conducted their research and obtained information, they were required to provide the reports in a specific layout and structure, so that a uniform specialist report volume could be produced. To ensure a direct comparison between various specialist studies, six standard rating scales were defined and used to assess and quantify the identified impacts. This is necessary since impacts have a number of parameters that need to be assessed. The rating system used for assessing impacts is based on three criteria, namely:

A. The relationship of the impacts to temporal scales; B. The relationship of the impacts to spatial scales; and C. The severity of the impact. These three criteria are combined to describe the overall importance rating, namely the significance. In addition, the following parameters are used to describe the impacts:

D. The risk or likelihood of the impact occurring and E. The degree of confidence placed in the assessment of the impact.

1.6.1 TEMPORAL SCALE

The temporal scale defines the significance of the impact at various time scales, as an indication of the duration of the impact.

* Short term- less than 5 years. Many construction phase impacts are of a short duration. * Medium term -between 5 and 20 years. * Long term - between 20 and 40 years (a generation) and from a human perspective almost permanent. * Permanent - over 40 years and resulting in a permanent and lasting change that will always be there.

1.6.2 SPATIAL SCALE

The spatial scale defines physical extent of the impact.

* Individual - This scale applies to person/s in and around the study area. * Localised - at localised scale and a few hectares in extent. The specific area to which it refers is defined in the chapter in which it appears. * Study area - the proposed site and its immediate environs. * District - Mwanza, Neno and Balaka. Districts. * Regional- Blantyre ADD and Southern Region. * National - Malawi. * International

1.6.3 RISK OR LIKELIHOOD

PMIligner I' General Introduction: Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2. Specialist Reports

The risk or likelihood of all impacts taking place as a result of project actions differs. There is no doubt that some impacts would occur if the power line goes ahead, but certain other (usually secondary) impacts are not as likely, and may or may not result from the power line. Although these impacts may be severe, the likelihood of them occurring may affect their overall significance and will be taken into account.

The categories have been determined as follows:

Very unlikely to occur - the chance of these impacts occurring is extremely slim. Unlikely to occur - the risk of these impacts occurring is slight. May occur - the risk of these impacts is more likely, although it is not definite. Will definitely occur - there is no chance that this impact will not occur.

1.6.4 DEGREE OF CONFIDENCE OR CERTAINTY

It is also necessary to state the degree of certainty or confidence with which one has predicted the significance of an impact. For this reason, a 'degree of certainty' scale has been provided to enable the reader to ascertain how certain the specialists are of their assessment of significance:

Definite : More than 90% sure of a particular fact. To use this, one will need to have substantial supportive data. Probable: Over 70% sure of a particular fact, or of the likelihood of that impact occurring. Possible: Only over 40% sure of a particular fact or of the likelihood of an impact occurring. Unsure: Less than 40% sure of a particular fact or of the likelihood of an impact occurring.

1.6.5 SEVERITY/BENEFICIAL RATING SCALE

The various specialists used the severity/beneficial scale in order to scientifically evaluate how severe negative impacts would be, or how beneficial positive impacts would be on a particular affected system (for ecological impacts) or a particular affected party. It is a methodology that attempts to remove any value judgements from the assessment, although it relies on the professional judgement of the specialist.

The severity of impacts can be evaluated with and without mitigation in order to demonstrate how serious the impact is when nothing is done about it. The word 'mitigation' means not just 'compensation', but also the ideas of containment and remedy. For beneficial impacts, optimization means anything that can enhance the benefits. However, mitigation or optimization must be practical, technically feasible and economically viable.

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Very severe Very beneficial the An irreversible and permanent change to the A permanent and very substantial benefit to affected system(s) or party (ies) which cannot be affected system(s) or party(ies), with no real mitigated. For example the permanent loss of alternative to achieving this benefit. For example landc the creation of improved access.

Beneficial Severe the Long term impacts on the affected system(s) or A long-term impact and substantial benefit to of party(ies) that could be mitigated. However, this affected system(s) or party(ies). Alternative ways mitigation would be difficult, expensive or time achieving this benefit would be difficult, expensive consuming or some combination of these. For or time consuming, or some combination of these. example, the clearing of forest vegetation. For example an increase in the local economy.

severe Moderately beneficial Moderately the Medium to long-term impacts on the affected Medium- to long-term impacts of real benefit to of system(s) or party (ies), that could be mitigated. affected system(s) or party(ies). Other ways For example constructing a narrow road through optimising the beneficial effects are equally vegetation with a low conservation value. difficult, expensive and time consuming (or some combination of these), as achieving them in this way. For example a slight improvement in the existing roads.

Slight Slightly beneficial Medium or short term impacts on the affected A short to medium term impact and negligible system(s) or party(ies). Mitigation is very easy, benefit to the affected system(s) or party(ies). Other cheap, less time consuming or not necessary. For ways of optimising the beneficial effects are easier, example a temporary fluctuation in the water cheaper and quicker, or some combination of these. table due to water abstraction. For example, a slight increase in the amount of goods available for purchasing.

No effect Don't know/Can't know The system(s) or party(ies) is not affected by the In certain cases it may not be possible to determine proposed development. the severity of an impact.

1.6.6 SIGNIFICANCE SCALE

The ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE scale is an attempt to evaluate the importance of a particular impact. This evaluation needs to be undertaken in the relevant context, as an impact can either be ecological or social, or both. The evaluation of the significance of an impact relies heavily on the values of the person making the judgement. For this reason, impacts of especially a social nature need to reflect the values of the affected society. A six-point significance scale has been applied.

In many cases scientists have to produce an assessment in the absence of all the relevant and necessary data. Under these circumstances the consultant must make clear that such information is lacking if the incomplete information is essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives. If the overall costs of obtaining it are not exorbitant, then the information should be included in the EIA.

There are two acceptable procedures to follow to compensate for a shortage of data:

General Introduction: PM illgner 14 Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

1. It is more important to identify likely environmental impacts than to precisely evaluate the more obvious impacts All assessors (the different specialists) try to evaluate all the significant impacts, recognising that precise evaluation is not possible. It is better to have a possible or unsure level of certainty on important impacts than to be definite about unimportant impacts.

2. It is important to be conservative when reporting likely environmental impacts Because of the fact that assessing impacts with a lack of data is more dependable on your own scientific judgement, the rating on the certainty scale cannot be too high. If the evidence for a potential type of impact is not definitive in either direction, the conservative conclusion is that the impact cannot be ruled out with confidence, not that the impact is not proven. It is for these reasons that a degree of certainty scale has been provided, as well as the categories DON'T KNOW and CAN'T KNOW.

The significance rating scale

VERY HIGH These impacts would be considered by society as constituting a major and usually permanent change to the (natural and/or social) environment, and usually result in severe or very severe effects, or beneficial or very beneficial effects. Example: The loss of a species would be viewed by informed society as being of VERY HIGH significance. Example: The establishment of a large amount of infrastructure in a rural area, which previously had very few services, would be regarded by the affected parties as resulting in benefits with a VERY HIGH significance.

HIGH These impacts will usually result in long-term effects on the social and/or natural environment. Impacts rated as HIGH will need to be considered by society as constituting an important and usually long-term change to the (natural and/or social) environment. Society would probably view these impacts in a serious light. Example: The loss of a diverse vegetation type, which is fairly common elsewhere, would have a significance rating of HIGH over the long term, as the area could be rehabilitated. Example: The change to soil conditions will impact the natural system, and the impact on affected parties (in this case people growing crops on the soil) would be HIGH.

MODERATE These impacts will usually result in medium to long-term effects on the social and/or natural environment. Impacts rated as MODERATE will need to be considered by society as constituting a fairly important and usually medium- term change to the (natural and/or social) environment. These impacts are real but not substantial. Example: The loss of a sparse, open vegetation type of low diversity may be regarded as MODERATELY significant. Example: The provision of a clinic in a rural area would result in a benefit of MODERATE significance.

LOW These impacts will usually result in medium- to short-term effects on the social and/or natural environment. Impacts rated as LOW will need to be considered by the public and/or the specialist as constituting a fairly unimportant and usually short -term change to the (natural and/or social) environment. These impacts are not substantial and are likely to have little real effect. Example: The temporary change in the water table of a wetland habitat, as these systems are adapted to fluctuating water levels. Example: The increased eaming potential of people employed as a result of a development would only result in benefits of LOW significance to people who live some distance away.

NO SIGNIFICANCE There are no primary or secondary effects at all that are important to scientists or the public. Example: A change to the geology of a particular formation may be regarded as severe from a geological perspective, but is of NO significance in the overall context.

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DON'T KNOW the primary or In certain cases it may not be possible to determine the significance of an impact. For example, secondary impacts on the social or natural environment given the available information. environment. Example: The effect of a particular development on people's psychological perspective of the

General Introduction: PM lllgner 16 CHAPTER 2

LANDFORMS AND PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

P ILLGNER

Coastal & Environmental Services P 0 Box 934 Grahamstown 6140

E KAUNDA

Bunda College P 0 Box 219 Lilongwe Malawi 18 Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUM M ARY ...... 21 2. LANDFORMS AND PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ...... 25 2.1 Introduction ...... 25 2.2 Terms of reference ...... 25 2.3 Topography ...... 26 2.3.1 General description ...... 26 2.3.2 Slope gradient ...... 26 2.4 Climate ...... 27 2.4.1 General description ...... 27 2.4.2 Agro-climatic zones (sensu paris, 1991) ...... 29 2.5 Hydrology ...... 31 2.6 Geology ...... 32 2.6.1 Lithology ...... 32 2.6.2 Faulting and seismicity ...... 33 2.6.3 Mineral deposits ...... 33 2.7 Soils (sensu Paris, 1991) ...... 34 2.7.1 Parent material ...... 34 2.7.2 Soil groups ...... 34 2.8 Agricultural potential ...... 35 2.8.1 Land Capability Assessment ...... 35 2.8.2 Crop suitability ...... 36 2.9 Impacts from current land use ...... 38 2.10 Impacts from the project ...... 40 2.11 Recommendations ...... 43 2.11.1 The most favourable location for the construction camp ...... 43 2.11.2 The most favourable time for the construction of the interconnector ...... 44 2.11.3 Rehabilitation and management of disturbed sites ...... 44 2.12 Conclusion ...... 44 2.13 References ...... 45

LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: The mean monthly rainfall regime of localities in relatively close proximity to the route (Mwanza= 1970/1971 - 1992/1993; Lisungwi = 197/1971 - 1992/1993; Phalula = 1970/1971 - 1988/1989; Manjawira = 1982/1983 - 1989/1990; Senzani = 1980/1981 - 1989/1990) (Maxima, Minima). Table 2.2: The mean monthly and annual maximum, minimum and average temperatures at Chichiri, Mangochi and Ngabu, from 1979 to 1983 (Ave = average)(Maxima, Minima). Table 2.3: The mean monthly wind velocities (m/s) at Chileka (1999 - 2001)(Maximum, Minimum). Table 2.4: Agro-climatic zones traversed by the proposed power line (after Paris, 1991) (DM = mean number of dry months (< 50 mm) per year, LGP = length of growing period, P-an = mean annual precipitation, P/PET = precipitation/potential evapotranspiration, T-an = mean annual temperature, T-GP = mean temperature of growing period, T-min = mean minimum temperature (July)). Table 2.5: The mean annual discharge (cumecs) of the Shire River at Matope, 1948-1961 (Maxima, Minima).

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Table 2.6: A list of the mineral deposits in the Mwanza District (circa February 2001) Anon., 2001). Table 2.7: Definitions of the three soil groups that occur along the route of the proposed power line (sensu Paris, 1991 pp.29-30). Table 2.8: An adapted land capability classification system from Morgan (1986, Table 4.16 p.88)(R = shallow soils, < 30 cm effective depth or coarse clastic soils with "... < 20percentfine earth in the upper 75 cm"). Table 2.9: Recommended land management practices for the different land capability categories (Morgan, 1986 p.88). Table 2.10: Criteria used to constrain the number of species suitable for cultivation in the area traversed by the proposed power line. Table 2.11: The crops for which optimal conditions exist at Phalula and/or Lisungwi. Table 2.12: A summary of the impacts that need to be considered for the proposed pouwr line. Table 2.13: A qualitative assessment of the most favourable time of the year for the construction of the power line (1 = unfavourable month for construction).

LIST OF PLATES Plate 2.1: Bridge across the Mpandazi River. Note the apparent flood danage on the far bank and flood debris trapped on the upstream side of the bridge. Plate 2.2: A stone pedastal, attributed in this study to rain splash erosion. Plate 2.3: An incised rill adjacent to a field.

LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A. Crops suitable for cultivation in the area traversed by the power line (Af = Animal feed, Fo = Food & beverages, Fu = Fuel, Li = Lisungwi, Ma = Material, Man = Manjawira, Me = Medicine, Ph = Phalula, Se = Senzani, 1 = use).

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction The first part of this specialist report describes selected aspects of the physical environment and their potential impacts on soil erosion and agricultural development. Part I provides an assessment of the climate, geology, soils, topography and water resources of a 500 m buffer zone on either side of a straight line delineating the route of the proposed power line (Fig. 1.1). Impacts raised by interested and affected parties (IAP's) have been assessed in Part II. Terms such as "route" and "interval" refer to the route of the proposed power line and 1krm-intervals along this proposed route respectively.

Topography The proposed route of the power line traverses from west to east the Mpandazi, Mwanza, Wamkurumadzi and Lisungwi river valleys. At no point does the route cross the Shire River. The proposed route traverses rugged topography in the west, on the border with Mozambique, after which it becomes progressively more subdued and undulating towards the east. The Lisungwi River valley (250 m - 300 m) is the lowest point on the entire traverse.

Two methods have been used to characterize the nature of the slope gradients along the proposed route of the power line. The first method used a TIN generated with ArcView 3.2 (3-D Analyst), while the second used the soil and physiographic classification system described by Paris (1991) in the "Land Resources Appraisal of the Blantyre Agricultural Development Division".

The TIN was used to calculate the average and maximum slope gradients for each interval. In Malaysia, slopes > 18.50 are regarded as unsuitable for cultivation (Morgan, 1986). The average slope gradient only exceeded this value in the 5th interval. The maximum slope gradient exceeded this value in 11 of the intervals (viz. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 13, 14, 15, 29 & 37). Hence, these intervals could be regarded as unsuitable for agriculture.

Sixty-seven of the intervals fell entirely within the Blantyre ADD, with a further two partially present. Only the former were taken into consideration for this study. Twelve percent of the intervals are associated with slope class 1 (0 - 2 % slope gradient), 67 % with class 2 (2 - 6 % slope gradient), 49 % with class 3 (6 - 13 % slope gradient) and 5 % with class 4 (13 - 25 % slope gradient). No intervals fell into slope class 5 (25 - 55 % slope gradient). Four of the intervals have three and 14 two slope classes present.

Climate The climate along the route, according to the Koppen classification, is probably best described as subtropical with a dry winter. This implies that more than 70 % of the mean annual rainfall occurs in the summer months (October to March), that at least one month has a mean monthly temperature less than 18°C, but at least eight months where the mean monthly temperature is greater than 10°C. Tropical cyclones have also been known to move as far inland as Malawi, bringing with them torrential rain and strong winds (Pike & Rimmington, 1965).

Two periods of rainfall can be recognized in Malawi, namely the main rains from November through to March and the late rains in April and May. In contrast, the rest of the year may be regarded as the dry season (Pike & Rimmington, 1965).

The ratio of the square of the mean monthly rainfall of the wettest month (p) to the mean annual rainfall (P) can be used as an indicator of the erosion hazard (EH) for a particular Landforms and Physical Environment: P Illgner & EKaunda 2/ Reports Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist locality viz. EH = p2 /p (Morgan, 1986). In Malaysia, an EH ratio greater than 50 was regarded as a high erosion risk, while one below it was regarded as moderate (Morgan, 1986). According to this scheme the route for the power line only appears to be susceptible to a moderate erosion risk.

Due to a lack of suitable temperature data from localities close to the route of the proposed power line the temperature regime at Chichiri, Blantyre, has been used as an approximation of what might be expected along the route (Table 2.2). The mean monthly maxima and minima were greatest in October and December respectively, while the corresponding lows occurred (Table 2.2). Similarly, the mean monthly temperatures were highest in in June and July 0 and lowest in June and July. The mean annual temperature at Chichiri was 19.8 C October 0 (Mean annual maximum = 24.7°C, Mean annual minimum = 14.8 C). The temperature regime is not only an important consideration for agriculture, but also poses a potential constraint on the productivity of the work force during the construction of the power line. No monthly temperature means at Chichiri exceed the tolerable limit of 24.4°C.

Hydrology The Shire River and its tributaries are dominated by a seasonal flow regime (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). Most flow &+80%) takes place during the rainy season (November to April), with the majority of rivers lying dry for at least part of the year (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). Notable exceptions include the Wamkurumadzi, Lisungwi and the Shire River itself, which are all perennial (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). Between the Matope bridge and the confluence of the Shire and Lisungwi rivers the Shire River passes over a number of rapids, including the Murchison Falls, Toni Rapids, Chimbalame Rapids, Nachimbeya Rapids, Nkula Falls and Tedzani Falls.

Flood damage is likely to occur even on small rivers, such as the damage that occurred to the bridge across the Mpandazi River below Golowa Village and further downstream near the forestry compound (Plate 2.1). These flood events are potentially of significance to both access to and maintenance of the proposed power line. Nevertheless, Paris (1991) has suggested that channel incision and bank erosion are localized and less significant in the Blantyre ADD than rill and sheet erosion.

The power line is not expected to have any impact on groundwater resources, with the exception of access to a few existing boreholes which may lie directly along the proposed route.

Geology & Soils Besides colluvium, most of the proposed route is underlain by gneiss with lesser quantities of marble and calc-silicate granulite. The soils along the route are therefore derived predominantly from these rocks, but also to a lesser extent recent unconsolidated sediments. Eutric- fersialic, fluvic and paralithic soil groups should all be found within the buffer zone. Faults intersect the route in a number of places, but seismic activity in the area within the past 30 years has been rare. Mineral deposits also occur in relatively close proximity to the proposed power line, most notably the Kangankunde rare earth deposit 14-15 km north of the proposed Phombeya substation.

Agricultural Potential All the intervals which formed part of the land capability assessment were suitable for cultivation, except interval five, which should only be used for grazing. Two different methods were used to determine the crops suitable for cultivation in the areas traversed by the proposed power line. The first method utilized the "Ecocrop" website administered by the 22 Landforms andPhysical Environment: P illgner & E.Kaunda Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEMA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

FAO (http://www.pppis.fao.org), while the second used GIS techniques to overlay the proposed route of the power line onto the crop suitability maps produced by Paris (1991). The Ecocrop website has an interactive web page which allows the user to screen 2136 plants for their suitability for cultivation. Only Mwanza, Lisungwi and Phalula were selected for the most in-depth analysis and discussion of crop suitability considered in this study.

The conditions at Mwanza are sub-optimal for all species available on the Ecocrop website. Only one species, namely Cyperus rotundus, for which optimal conditions exist at Phalula, is listed in four of the five plant use categories selected for this investigation. It must therefore be regarded as the most versatile in terms of potential uses. Although a number of species are listed in most of the categories, the crops listed within each are unlikely to be of equal value or to be accepted with equitable enthusiasm by communities in Malawi

Of the four crops for which Paris (1991) provided suitability maps, coffee, cotton, groundnuts and maize, only maize is highly suitable for cultivation along a limited part of the proposed route. Similarly, cotton and groundnuts are moderately suited b a limited area traversed by the proposed power line.

Current Human Impacts The current human impacts on the physical and agricultural environment are summarized below.

Impact Significance after mitigation Impact 1: Reduction of indigenous plant cover for Moderate cultivation Impact 2: Destruction of tree flora by charcoal High manufacturers I Impact 3: Incision of road verges by runoff Low

Potential Impacts and Benefits of the Power Line The potential human impacts on the physical and agricultural environment are summarized below.

Impact = Significance after mitigation Impact 4: Community based soil conservation Low Impact 5: Development of mineral deposits High Impact 6: Incision of road verges by runoff Low Impact 7: Incision of road culverts Moderate Impact 8: Increased sediment delivery to streams during Low the construction phase Impact 9: Loss of agricultural potential Low Impact 10: Slope failure triggered by seismic activity Very High Although the significance of a large magnitude seismic event would be very high one is unlikely to occur within 50 km of the route.

Recommendations * The most favourable location for a construction camp would be the Makali "Hotel", adjacent to the current tarred road. * Climatic conditions from December to April are the least favourable for the construction phase. * For construction to be the least disruptive to local agriculture construction should ideally be carried out from June to October.

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* Removal of vegetation should be kept to a minimum during the construction of the power line. * Disturbed sites should be rehabilitated with grass sods removed and stored during the construction phase. Alternatively Vetiver zizanioides or V. nigratana should be used for this purpose. * Cash crops or commercial forestry species should not be used for rehabilitation. The former could encourage revisitation to disturbed sites while the tall growth habits of the latter could pose a hazard to the operation of the power line.

24 Landforms and Physical Environment: PIllgner & E.Kaunda Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

2. LANDFORMS AND PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The first part of this specialist report describes selected aspects of the physical environment and their potential impacts on soil erosion and agricultural development. Part I provides an assessment of the climate, geology, soils, topography and water resources of a 500 m buffer zone on either side of a line joining the points bo, or, al, bh, ci, dl, e, f, g and h (Fig.1.1). Impacts raised by interested and affected parties (lAP's) have been assessed in Part II. Terms such as "route" and "interval" refer to the route of the proposed power line and 1kim-intervals along this proposed route respectively. The intervals are numbered sequentially from point "or" to the site of the proposed substation at Phombeya (Fig. 1.1).

The assessment of conditions along the route was based largely on the data presented by Paris (1991) for the Blantyre Agricultural Development Division (ADD). This only encompassed the first 67 kilometres, which fell wholly within the Blantyre ADD. Exceptions to the above included the slope gradients cabulated from the TIN (Triangular Irregular Network) generated with ArcView 3.2 (3-D Analyst), the rainfall data used for the soil erosion hazard assessment in section 2.4, the rainfall and temperature data used for the crop suitability assessment in section 2.8.2.2. (i.e. Method 1) and aspects of the geology considered for the report, namely the lithology, structure and mineral deposits.

2.2 TERMS OF REFERENCE

The objective of this specialist baseline study was to assess the impact of the construction and operation of the proposed power line on the landforms and physical environment (climate, geology, soils, surface water & topography) within the study area.

The specific terms of reference for the study were as follows:

1. Describe the climate of the region (Section 2.4). 2. Undertake a desktop assessment of the soil within the study area and provide a soil map (Section 2.7). 3. Evaluate the land capability of the area at a reconnaissance level, and comment on the productive potential of the area for agriculture and afforestation (Section 2.8). 4. Identify the major impacts resulting from present agricultural practices (Section 2.9). 5. Assess the risks of soil erosion that may result from the project (Section 2.10). 6. Identify potential cash crop and plantation species that could be used in the rehabilitation process (Section 2.11.3). 7. Identify and assess the significance of impacts on the landform and physical environment (climate, geology, soils, surface water & topography) that could result from the project (Sections 2.3 - 2.7, 2.10). 8. To address all impacts and concerns raised by IAP's during the scoping stage. 9. Provide practical and realistic recommendations (from a cost perspective) on how to mitigate the identified impacts (Section 2.1 1).

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2.3 TOPOGRAPHY

2.3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The proposed route of the power line traverses from west to east the Mpandazi, Mwanza, Wamkurumadzi and Lisungwi river valleys. At no point does the route cross the Shire River. The Mpandazi River is a tributary of the Lipongwe River, while the Wamkurumadzi and Lisungwi rivers both have confluences with the Shire River south of and downstream of the proposed route. After entering Malawi the route follows the south-facing flanks of the Mpandazi River valley as far as point "al ". The valley lies between the high lying areas of the Dzobwe inselberg to the north and Thambani mountain (4766 ft = 1452.7 m) to the south. Between points "al" and "cl" the route crosses the Matika River valley (a tributary of the Mpandazi river), the headwaters of the Lipongwe River, the watershed between the Lipongwe and Mwanza rivers, the Mwanza River valley itself and lastly the watershed between the Mwanza and Wamkurumadzi rivers immediately north of Mtuwanjobvu mountain (2498 ft = 761.4 m). The area between points "cl" and "e" lies for the most part within the Wamkurumadzi River valley, except for a short segment in the east, which lies within the neighbouring Lisungwi River catchment. Zaka mountain (2039 ft = 621.5 m) lies on the watershed between these two catchments immediately north of the proposed route (Fig. 1.1). The power line would enter the Lisungwi valley proper for the first time at point "f", where after it would remain in the valley until it reaches the location of the proposed Phombeya substation. The proposed path of the power line lies immediately below the watershed between the Lisungwi and Shire river catchments. The proposed route traverses rugged topography in the west, on the border with Mozambique, after which it becomes progressively more subdued and undulating towards the east. The Lisungwi River valley (250 m - 300 m) is the lowest point on the entire traverse.

2.3.2 SLOPE GRADIENT

Two methods have been used to characterize the nature of the slope gradients along the proposed route of the power line. The first method used a TIN generated with ArcView 3.2 (3-D Analyst), while the second used the soil and physiographic classification system described by Paris (1991) in the "Land Resources Appraisal of the Blantyre Agricultural Development Division".

The TIN was used to calculate the average and maximum slope gradients for each interval. The greatest average (24.60) and maximum (51°) slope gradients were both recorded in the 5th interval, while the respective smallest values were recorded in the last (0.00) (i.e. the proposed site for the Phombeya substation) and 32 nd (10) intervals.

In Malaysia, slopes > 18.5° are regarded as unsuitable for cultivation (Morgan, 1986). The average slope gradient only exceeded this value in the 5th interval. The maximum slope gradient exceeded this value in 11 of the intervals (viz. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 13, 14, 15, 29 & 37). Hence, these intervals could be regarded as unsuitable for agriculture.

Sixty-seven of the intervals fell entirely within the Blantyre ADD, with a further two partially present. Only the former were taken into consideration for this study. Twelve percent of the intervals are associated with slope class 1 (0 - 2 % slope gradient), 67 % with class 2 (2- 6 % slope gradient), 49 % with class 3 (6 - 13 % slope gradient) and 5 % with class 4 (13 - 25 % slope gradient). No intervals fell into slope class 5 (25 - 55 % slope gradient). Four of the intervals have three and 14 two slope classes present.

26 Landforms and Physical Environment: P Illgner & E.Kaunda Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorElA,Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports 2.4 CLIMATE

2.4.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The climate along the route, according to the Koppen classification, is probably best described as subtropical with a dry winter. This implies that more than 70 % of the mean annual rainfall occurs in the summer months (October to March), that at least one month has a mean monthly temperature less than 180C, but at least eight months where the mean monthly temperature is greater than 10°C. The characteristics of selected climatic variables are discussed in greater detail below.

Rainfall Two periods of rainfall can be recognized in Malawi, namely the main rains from November through to March and the late rains in April and May. In contrast, the rest of the year may be regarded as the dry season (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). A succinct description, quoted below, of the rainfall regime in Malawi is given by Pike & Rimmington (1965):

"...Malawi's rainfall is derived mainly from three different sets of conditions and similarly there are three main types of precipitation associated with these conditions. They are the convectional thunderstorms of the early rains, the heavy monsoon type rains of the tropical low pressure system, and the light rain and mist or chiperone of the dry season. In addition, the occasionalpassage of a tropical cyclone will precipitate large amounts of rain over high ground over a period of days. " (p.78)

The mean monthly rainfall regimes of localities in relatively close proximity to the route are shown in Table 2.1. The mean annual rainfall is greatest at Mwanza (1046.7 mm) and lowest at Lisungwi (731.8 mm). Both the greatest (January, 263.3 mm) and smallest (August, 0.0 mm) mean monthly rainfall occurs at Senzani. The ratio of the square of the mean monthly rainfall of the wettest month (p) to the mean annual rainfall (P) can be used as an indicator of the erosion hazard (EH) for a particular locality viz. EH = p2/p (Morgan, 1986). If this scheme were adopted as a measure of the erosion hazard along the route, the Senzani area (EH = 73.2) would be the most susceptible to soil erosion and the Lisungwi area (EH = 39.9) the least. The other localities listed in Table 2.1 below are exposed to an intermediate erosion hazard, namely Mwanza (EH = 40.5), Phalula (EH = 48.5) and Manjawira (EH = 60.2). In Malaysia, an EH ratio greater than 50 was regarded as a high erosion risk, while one bebw it was regarded as moderate (Morgan, 1986). If a precautionary approach is adopted, the areas surrounding Manjawira and Senzani should both be regarded as highly susceptible to soil erosion. However, these sites both lie north of the proposed site for the Phombeya substation. In contrast, Mwanza, in the far southwest, Lisungwi, located on the Lisungwi River west of the route between points "f' and "g" and Phalula, immediately north of Phombeya are all subject to a moderate erosion hazard. The route for the power line therefore only appears to be susceptible to a moderate erosion risk.

Landforms and Physical Environment: P Illgner & E.Kaunda 27 Volume 2: Specialist Reports Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary the Table 2.1: The mean monthly rainfall regime of localities in relatively close proximity to Phalula= route (Mwanza = 1970/1971 - 1992/1993; Lisungwi = 1970/1971 - 1992/1993; 1970/1971 - 1988/1989; Manjawira= 1982/1983 - 1989/1990; Senzani = 1980/1981 - 1989/1990) (Maxima, Minima). Jun Total Locality Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May 22.6 1046.7 Mwanza 16.8 9.3 10.5 54.8 99.3 187.9 193.5 205.9 162.1 58.0 25.9 1.9 731.8 Lisungwi 2.6 2.0 5.0 26.9 77.0 123.1 170.8 157.7 123.5 32.7 8.6 8.1 0.6 866.1 Phalula 1.6 0.6 2.1 30.4 87.7 181.4 176.1 204.9 139.7 32.8 2.6 880.1 Manjawia 1.5 0.2 15.9 25.7 84.8 154.6 230.2 170.2 156.1 30.6 7.6 947.3 Senzani 17.6 0.0 5.5 31.6 52.9 205.3 263.3 181.5 122.0 37.8 27.7 2.1

Temperature Due to a lack of suitable temperature data from localities close to the route of the proposed of power line the temperature regime at Chichiri, Blantyre, has been used as an approximation what might be expected along the route (Table 2.2). The mean monthly maxima and minima were greatest in October and December respectively, while the corresponding lows occurred in June and July (Table 2.2). Similarly, the mean monthly temperatures were highest in October and lowest in June and July. The mean annual temperature at Chichiri was 19.8°C (Mean annual maximum = 24.7°C, Mean annual minimum = 14.8°C). The temperature regime is not only an important consideration for agriculture, but also of poses a potential constraint on the productivity of the work force during the construction the the power line. According to Pike & Rimmington (1965) "Brunt...(suggested) that where to mean monthly temperature exceeds 76°F (24.4°C) there are likely to be periods of three four hours per day when the actual temperature and humidity are above tolerable limits" are (p.64). Although the mean monthly values at Chichiri all lay below this value, there six localities further north (Mangochi) and south (Ngabu) at lower elevations with at least months where this mean monthly value is exceeded (Table 2.2). This occurs from September to March at Mangochi and from September to April at Ngabu (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2: The mean monthly and annual maximum, minimum and average temperatures at Chichiri, Mangochi and Ngabu, from 1979 to 1983 (Ave = average) (Maxima, Minima). Ma Jun Ave Month Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Ap Chichiri -___ep___ay 24.7 Maximum 20 21 27.5 28 27 26 27 26 27 24 23 20 10 14.8 Minimum 10 11 13 18 18 19 17 17 17 15 13 1 Ave 15 16 20.25 23 22.5 22.5 22 21.5 22 19.5 18 | 15 19.8 I I Mangochi I I 30.3 Maximum 27 29 33 34 34 30 31 31 31 29 28 26 18.7 Minimum 15 16 18 19 20 22 22 20.5 20.5 19.5 17 15 24.5 Ave 21 22.5 25.5 26.5 27 26 26.5 25.75 25.75 24.25 22.5 20.5 Ngabu = = I =l l. Maximum 27 30.5 33 36 35 34 35 1332 | 30 | 26 | 32.4 Minimum 15 17 19 21 23 23 23 23 22 20.5 18 15 20.0 Ave 21 23.75 26 28.5 29 28.5 29 29 28.5 26.25 24 20.5 26.2

Wind Wind data does not appear to be available for localities in close proximity to the route. Nevertheless, some indication of the expected wind velocities was obtained from the records available for Chileka, near Blantyre. Wind velocities at Chileka are greatest in October (3.8 Landforms and PhysicalEnvironment: P Illgner & E.Kaunda Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

m/s = 13.7 km/h) and least in January (2.2 m/s = 7.9 km/h) and February (2.2 m/s = 7.9 km/h) (Table 2.3). This does not account for extreme monthly velocities, which will exceed these values.

Table. 2.3: The mean monthly wind velocities (m/s) at Chileka (1999 - 2001) (Maximum, Minimum).

Jan I Feb IMar IApr I MayIJun IJul I AugISep Oct I Nov IDec Mean I 2.2 12.2 12.5 12.7 12.7 12.9 13.1 13.3 13.6 13.8 13.2 12.5 12.9

Tropical cyclones "During the past sixty years twelve cyclones have entered Malawi, although considerably more have crossed the MoCambique coast and have either moved out to sea again or into Southern Rhodesia. Of these twelve cyclones, two have been severe; the first known as the Zomba Cyclone, which passed near this town in December 1946 and caused considerable damage when some 28 inches of rain fell within thirty-six hours, and, more recently, Cyclone 'Edith 'which passed over the Southern Province in April 1956, causing heavyflooding in the Chiromo area of the lower Shire. " (Pike & Rimmington, 1965 p.58)

Tropical cyclones from the Indian Ocean therefore appear to move over the continental mainland as far inland as Malawi on average once every five years (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). These storms are usually accompanied by torrential rainfall and strong winds (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). The potential impact of these relatively infrequent storms needs to be taken into account during the design stage of the power line.

2.4.2 AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES (SENSU PARIS, 1991)

Mean annual rainfall The mean annual rainfall in the first 67 intervals can be attribited to one of three rainfall classes, namely 600 mm to 800 mm (Agro-climatic zones = 2, 5 & 7), 800 mm to 1200 mm (Agro-climatic zones = 6, 15, 18, 29 & 34) and 1200 mm to 1600 mm (Agro-climatic zone = 60) (Table 2.4). The great majority (72%) of the intervals fall, at least partially, in the 600 mm to 800 mm category. The remaining two categories have far fewer intervals that fall within their ranges, namely 24 % and 9 % in the 800 mm to 1200 mm and 1200 mm to 1600 mm rainfall classes respectively. Some of the intervals are associated with more than one category, such as intervals 5, 6 and 20.

Mean number of dry months (< 50 mm) per year The mean number of dry months per year for most (82 %) intervals is seven to eight months (Agro-climatic zones = 2, 5, 6, 7, 15 & 18). For a smaller percentage (19%) of intervals this period is shorter, namely from five to six months (Agro-climatic zones = 29, 34 & 60). The relatively extended nature of these dry periods is likely to pose constraints on the suitability of areas for the cultivation of certain perennial crops. If dry periods are accompanied by a reduction in plant cover, they are also likely to lead to an increase in the erosion hazard. The mean monthly rainfall at Mwanza, Lisungwi and Phalula is below 50 mm for five (May - September) months at Mwanza and seven (April - October) months at the latter two localities.

Drought risk - Growing Period (P/PET)

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The relationship between precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (Drought Risk = period of Rainfall / Potential evapotranspiration) can be used to assess drought risk within the be growth (Paris, 1991). For the purposes of this report P/PET ratios > 1.3 are assumed to risk indicative of low risk, those between 1.0 and 1.3 of moderate risk and those < 1.0 of high a high (after Paris, 1991). Most (69 %) intervals according to this scheme are susceptible to are drought risk (Agro-climatic zones = 2, 5 & 6), while lesser percentages of intervals (9 %, susceptible to a moderate (30 %, Agro-climatic zones = 7, 15, 18, 29 & 34) or low risk (e.g. Agro-climatic zone = 60). Some intervals may straddle more than one of these zones cover, an Intervals 5, 7, 15, 17 & 20). As droughts may be accompanied by a loss in plant increased drought risk must be equated with an increased erosion risk.

Mean annual temperature °C Most (82 %) intervals have a mean annual temperature range between 22.5°C and 25.0 (Agro-climatic zones = 2, 5, 6, 7, 15 & 18). Far fewer (19 %) intervals lie wholly or partially & within a mean annual temperature range of 20.0°C to 22.5°C (Agro-climatic zones = 29, 34 and 60). The latter areas lie west of point "c l " and therefore include the areas around Mwanza the mountains further west on the border with Mozambique (e.g. Thambani).

Mean minimum temperature (July) as the The mean minimum temperature ranges for July, which was regarded by Paris (1991) those coldest month in the Blantyre ADD, are shown in Table 2.4 below. All intervals except for attributable to Agro-climatic zones 34 and 60 have mean minimum temperature ranges small July which fall within the range 12.5°C to 15.0°C (i.e. 93 % of intervals). The percentage (10 %) of intervals that fall within the former two agro-climatic zones have slightly lower mean minimum temperatures for July (viz. Range = 10.0°C - 12.5°C).

Length of growing period (LGP) Paris (1991) defined "...the length of (the) growing period... as the period of the year when rainfall (P) exceeds half potential evapotranspiration (PET) plus the period required to the evapotranspire an assumed 100 mm of stored soil moisture" (p.21). The LGP along proposed route is greatest (165 - 180 days, Agro-climatic zone = 60) in the far west on the border with Mozambique and least (105 - 120 days, Agro-climatic zone = 2) in the more southerly reaches of the main Shire River valley. Most intervals cover areas with growing periods of either 105 to 120 days (45 % of intervals, Agro-climatic zone = 2) or 120 to 135 days (37 % of intervals, Agro-climatic zones = 5, 6 & 7). Smaller percentages of the intervals fall within the 150 - 165 day (13 %, Agro-climatic zones = 29 & 34), 135 to 150 day (9 %, Agro-climatic zones = 15 & 18) and 165 to 180 day (9 %, Agro-climatic zone = 60) categories.

Mean temperature of growing period Most (79 %, Agro-climatic zones = 2, 5, 6, 7 & 15) of the intervals have mean temperatures of between 25.0°C and 27.50C for the growing period. Far smaller percentages of the intervals are associated with mean temperature ranges from 22.5°C to 25.0°C (15 %, Agro-climatic zones = 18 & 29) and 20.0°C to 22.50C (10 %, Agro-climatic zones = 34 & 60) respectively.

31 Landforms and Physical Environment: P Illgner & E.Kaunda Coastal & Environmental Services. Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

Table 2.4: Agro-climatic zones traversed by the proposed power line (after Paris, 1991) (DM = mean number of dry months (< 50 mm) per year, LGP = length of growing period, P-an= mean annual precipitation, P/PET = precipitation / potential evapotranspiration, T-an = mean annual temperature, T-GP = mean temperature of growing period, T-min = mean minimum temperature (July)).

Agro- P-an (mm) DM P/PET T-an CC) T-min (CC) LGP T-GP (CC) climatic (months) (days) zone - 800 7 -8 2 - 1 1 15 7 2 600 - 800 7 - 8 0.8 - 1.0 22.5 - 25.0 12.5 - 15.0 105 -120 25.0 - 27.5 5 600 - 800 7 - 8 0.8 - 1.0 22.5 - 25.0 12.5 - 15.0 120 - 135 25.0 - 27.5 6 800 - 1200 7 - 8 0.8 - 1.0 22.5 - 25.0 12.5 - 15.0 120 - 135 25.0 - 27.5 7 600 -800 7 - 8 1.0 - 1.3 22.5 - 25.0 12.5 - 15.0 120 - 135 25.0 - 27.5 15 800 - 1200 7 - 8 1.0 - 1.3 22.5 - 25.0 12.5 - 15.0 135 - 150 25.0 - 27.5 18 800 -1200 7 -8 1.0 -1.3 22.5 -25.0 12.5 -15.0 135 -150 22.5 -25.0 29 800- 1200 5 - 6 1.0 - 1.3 20.0 - 22.5 12.5 - 15.0 150 - 165 22.5 - 25.0 34 800 - 1200 5 - 6 1.0 - 1.3 20.0 - 22.5 10.0 - 12.5 150 - 165 20.0 - 22.5 60 1200 - 1600 5 - 6 > 1.3 20.0- 22.5 10.0 - 12.5 165 - 180 20.0- 22.5

2.5 HYDROLOGY

The Shire River and its tributaries are dominated by a seasonal flow regime (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). Most flow (-80 %) takes place during the rainy season (November to April), with the majority of rivers lying dry for at least part of the year (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). Notable exceptions include the Wamkurumadzi, Lisungwi and the Shire River itself, which are all perennial (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). Between the Matope bridge and the confluence of the Shire and Lisungwi rivers the Shire River passes over a number of rapids, including the Murchison Falls, Toni Rapids, Chimbalame Rapids, Nachimbeya Rapids, Nkula Falls and Tedzani Falls.

The mean annual discharge (cumecs) of the Shire River, for the period 1948 to 1961 at Matope, is given in Table 2.5 below. The mean annual discharge at this site reached a maximum in the 1957-1958 season (i.e. 405.4574 cumecs) (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). This high value may be related to the mean annual minimum for the period (1948-1961) recorded the previous season (i.e. 1956-1957), when a barrier was constructed across the Shire River upstream of Matope (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). This obstruction to the flow was destroyed in August 1957 (Pike & Rimmington, 1965). Peak discharges are likely to be much greater than the values reported above. Flood damage is likely to occur even on small rivers, such as the damage that occurred to the bridge across the Mpandazi River below Golowa Village and further downstream near the forestry compound (Plate 2.1). These flood events are potentially of significance to both access to and maintenance of the proposed power line. Nevertheless, Paris (1991) has suggested that channel incision and bank erosion are localized and less significant in the Blantyre ADD than rill and sheet erosion.

The power line is not expected to have any impact on groundwater resources, with the exception of access to a few existing boreholes which may lie directly along the proposed route. For more comment on the social impacts of the proposed development please refer to Chapter five.

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Table 2.5: The mean annual discharge (cumecs) of the Shire River at Matope, 1948-1961 (Maxima, Minima).

Year Discharge 1948 - 1949 290.7048 1949 - 1950 305.9693 1950- 1951 304.5533 1951 - 1952 362.7226 1952 - 1953 304.5533 1953_- 1954 231.6293 1954- 1955 221.689 1955 - 1956 244.0051 1956 - 1957 79.5792 1957 - 1958 405.4574 1958 - 1959 325.595 1959 - 1960 285.0125 1960 - 1961 272.2402

Plate 2.1: Bridge across the Mpandazi River. Note the apparent flood damage on the far bank and flood debris trapped on the upstream side of the bridge.

2.6 GEOLOGY

2.6.1 LITHOLOGY

Most (86.8 %) of the intervals along the proposed route are underlain solely by semi-pelitic homblende-biotite gneiss. It also occurs within nine of the remaining intervals, so the only exception is interval 39, which is underlain by colluvium. Colluvium is also present in the two neighbouring intervals (i.e. Intervals 38 & 40). Of the remaining seven intervals four are partly underlain by a Cafemic gneiss (i.e. Intervals 6, 7, 75 & 76) and three by marble and

3 Landforms and Physical Environment: P Illgner & EKaunda Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

calc-silicate granulite (i.e. Intervals 69, 73 & 74). All of these metamorphic rock types are Precambrian or lower Palaeozoic in age, except of course the colluvium that has been deposited recently.

2.6.2 FAULTING AND SEISMICITY

A number of faults are present in the area, of which the most significant is the Wamkurumadzi Fault (e.g. see interval 17) (Fig. 1.1). Faults are potentially present in 15 of the intervals, including intervals 14 and 18 that contain points "cl" and "dl" respectively. A database at the US Geological Survey (http://neic.usszS.gov/neis/epic/epic circ.html) was used to determine whether there have been any earthquakes between 1973 and the present within a 50 km radius of 10 points along the proposed route of the power line. These 10 points represent the estimated position where the power line is expected to cross the border with Mozambique, points at which changes of direction occur along the route and the proposed position of the Phombeya substation. Two small earthquakes (i.e. Magnitudes < 4.0) occurred in 1986 in the area north of the proposed route, neither of which is likely to have caused any damage to property (Fig. 1.1) or to have triggered any landslides. In a survey of earthquake related landslide phenomena Keefer (1984) suggested magnitudes < c. 4.0 are unlikely to be associated with landslides of any sort. It is notable that Morel (1958) was able to state the following in relation to "the Mwanza- Shire area":

"In none of the above cases has it proved possible, on the evidence available, to measure the amount of displacement caused by the faulting, and in few cases has it proved possible to demonstrate which side is upthrown or downthrown " (p.60).

Nevertheless, it is worth pointing out that seismic activity is still associated with the Malawian Rift Valley, something that needs to be further investigated during the design phase of the power line (Carter & Bennet, 1973).

2.6.3 MINERAL DEPOSITS

"Malawi's lack of generating capacity has been seen as an impediment to certain proposed projects, such as the exploitation of the Mount Mulanje bauxite. " (Anon., "African Mining", September-October, 2002 p.43)

The interconnection could potentially facilitate the development of mineral resources in Malawi. As one of the poorest countries in the world, this should be seen as a positive impact on the local social and economic environment. A "world class deposit", namely the Kangankunde Rare Earth deposit is located 14-15 km north of the proposed Phombeya substation (Tassell, 2002). Other deposits in the Mwanza district close to the route include those of corundum and vermiculite near Thambani (Reserves = 100,000 tonnes) and Feremu (Reserves = 2.2 million tonnes) respectively. Two thousand tonnes of corundum were exported from the Thambani area between 1942 and 1952. A more comprehensive list of the mineral deposits in the Mwanza District (circa February 2001) appears in Table 2.6 below.

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Table 2.6: A list of the mineral deposits in the Mwanza District (circa February 200 1)(Anon., 2001).

Area Mineral Number Feremu Asbestos I Granite 4 Magnetite 1 Vermiculite 13 Lisungwi (Manondo) Asbestos 1 Corundum 1 Fluorite 1 Gold 1 Iron Ore 1 - Kaolinite 2 Kynite (sic) (probably 1 Kyanite) Marble 2 Mozite (sic) (probably 1 Monazite) Phosphate 1 Strontianite 1 Uranium 1 Neno (Mulindi) Granite 2 Limestone 1 Thambani Black Timeline (sic) I (probably Tourmaline) Blue Suphur (sic) (possibly I Sapphire) Coal 1 Corundum 2 Mica 1 Uranium I ___ Zircon 2

2.7 SOILS (SENSU PARIS, 1991)

2.7.1 PARENT MATERIAL

All the intervals are associated with one or both categories designated A or X by Paris (1991). Soils within category A have 'fluvial, colluvial and/or lacustrine sediments" (p.52) as parent material, whereas those attributed to category X have 'felsic and intermediate igneous and metamorphic rocks" (p.52) as parent material (Paris, 1991). The overwhelming majority (93 %) of the intervals are associated with the latter, with a smaller percentage (18 %) of intervals associated with the former. This observation is consistent with that obtained for lithology in section 2.6.1 above.

2.7.2 SOIL GROUPS

The eutric-fersialic, fluvic and paralithic soil groups occur along the route of the proposed power line. Definitions of these soils appear in Table 2.7 below. Most (76 % of the intervals) of the route is underlain by paralithic soils, with fewer intervals underlain by eutric-fersialic 34 Landformns and Physical Environment: P Illgner & EKaunda Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2. Specialist Reports

(31 %) and fluvic (6 %) soils. As fluvic soils are indicative of active erosion and deposition they represent a potentially high erosion risk and should therefore be avoided as sites for the construction of pylons or the location of construction camps.

Table 2.7: Definitions of the three soil groups that occur along the route of the proposed power line (sensu Paris, 1991 pp.29-30).

Soil group Definition Eutric- fersialic "Eutric-fersialicsoils have a medium to high CEC-clay (> 24 me/100 g) in most of the upper 100 cm and a moderate to high base saturation (> 50 percent) throughout the upper 50 cm, and lack the diagnostic characteristicsof all other soil groups." Fluvic "Fluvic soils are soils which are continuously rejuvenated through the deposition on the surface of sediments transportedby water. They are derivedfrom alluvium and are mostly very deep. There may be a considerable variation in particle size, both vertically in the profile (stratification)and horizontally. Gravelly layers can be observed in a minority of the profiles. Fluvic soils lack the diagnostic characteristics of soil group u. " Paralithic "Paralithicsoils have highly weathered rock which starts at within a depth of 75 cm from the surface and continues to a depth of at least 150 cm. The soil above the weathered rock is often skeletal (> 40 percent coarse mineralfragments). The weathered rock provides a footholdfor roots, but only holds limited available moisture and nutrients. Paralithicsoils lack the diagnostic characteristicsof soil groups u, f g, a and m. "

2.8 AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL

2.8.1 LAND CAPABILITY ASSESSMENT

The land capability of the route was determined using Table 2.8. As soil depth data were obtained from the maps that accompanied Paris (1991), only the first 67 intervals were assessed in this manner. As the soil depth categories in the original table (Table 4.16, Morgan, 1986, p.88) used to draw up Table 2.8 and those used by Paris (1991) do not correspond, the categories considered equivalent for the purposes of this study have been listed in a separate column within Table 2.8. All 67 intervals fell within category Cl, with the exception of intervals 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 14, 15 and 37, which fell within category C2 and intervals 29 and 5, which fell within categories C3 and P respectively. All the intervals are therefore suitable for cultivation, except interval five, which should only be used for grazing (Table 2.9).

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Table 2.8: An adapted land capability classification system from Morgan (1986, Table 4.16 percent p.8 8 ) (R = shallow soils, < 30 cm effective depth or coarse clastic soils with "... < 20 fine earth in the upper 75 cm").

Soil Depth Slope (cm) Gradient 300 Morgan Paris < 70 70 - 150 15° - 200 200 - 250 250 - (1986) (1991) > 90 > 100 C1 C2 C3 C4 FT 50 - 90 50 - 100 Cl C2 C3 C4/P FT/F 20 - 50 R Ci C2/P C3/P P F < 20 R Cl/P P P P F

Table 2.9: Recommended land management practices for the different land capability categories (Morgan, 1986 p.88).

Category Land management practices Cl "...contour cultivation; strip cropping; broadbase terraces." C2 "...bench terracing (construction by bulldozers); use offour-wheel tractors." C3 "...bench terracingon deep soil (construction by small machines); silt-pits on shallower soils; use of small tractorsor walking tractors." C4 "...bench terracing andfarmingoperations by hand labour." P "...soil depth too shallow for cultivation; use for improved pasture on rotational _grazing system; zero grazing where land is wet. " FT "...use for tree crops with bench terracing; inter-terracedareas in permanent grass; use contourplanting; diversion ditches; mulching," F " ...maintain as forest land."

2.8.2 CROP SUITABILITY

Methods Two different methods were used to determine the crops suitable for cultivation in the areas traversed by the proposed power line. The first method utilized the "Ecocrop" website administered by the FAO (http://www.pppis.fao.org), while the second used GIS techniques to overlay the proposed route of the power line onto the crop suitability maps produced by Paris (1991). The Ecocrop website has an interactive web page which allows the user to screen 2136 plants for their suitability for cultivation. The screening criteria used in this study are listed in Table 2.10. A limited number of subspecies and varietals were omitted on an ad hoc basis from the suitable species listed in Appendix A. However, this did not affect the number of species listed in the appendix. This list must be considered a first approximation of the species suitable for cultivation in the area as it doesn't consider other relevant variables, such as soil fertility, which would probably shorten it. The maximum and minimum annual rainfall totals at Mwanza, Lisungwi, Phalula, Manjawira and Senzani, were used to further constrain the number of species suitable for cultivation at tlhse localities. Senzani and Manjawira are both north of the proposed location for the Phombeya substation and hence have been excluded from further discussion.

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Table 2.10: Criteria used to constrain the number of species suitable for cultivation in the area traversed by the proposed power line.

Criteria Absolute/Optimal Optimal Koppen climate class Subtropical dry winter (Cw) Photoperiod < 12 hours Soil depth Medium 50 - 150 cm Uses All

Results and discussion Method 1: Ecocrop approach of the FAO

The conditions at Mwanza are sub-optimal for all species available on the Ecocrop website. The species for which conditions are optimal at Lisungwi and/or Phalula are listed in Table 2.11. Only one species, namely Cyperus rotundus, is listed in four of the categories in Table 2.11 and must therefore be regarded as the most versatile in terms of potential uses. Although a number of species are listed in most of the categories, the crops listed within each are unlikely to be of equal value or to be accepted with equitable enthusiasm by communities in Malawi.

Table 2.11: The crops for which optimal conditions exist at Phalula and/or Lisungwi.

Animal feed (n = 13)

Arundinella hirta, Bothriochloa pertusa, Crotalaria juncea, Cyperus rotundus, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Dodonaea viscosa, Echinochloa colona, Eragrostis pilosa, Heteropogon contortus, Macrotyloma uniflorum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Vetiveria zizanioides & Vigna unguiculata. Food & beverages (n = 5)

Cyperus rotundus, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Macrotyloma uniflorum, Phaseolus vulgaris & Vigna unguiculata. Fuel (n = 1)

Dodonaea viscosa. Material (n = 4)

Crotalariajuncea,Cyperus rotundus, Lawsonia inermis & Vetiveria zizanioides. Medicine (n = 6)

Crotalariajuncea, Cyperus rotundus, Dodonaea viscosa, Lawsonia inermis, Macrotyloma uniflorum & Phaseolus vulgaris.

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Method 2: Based on Paris (1991)

A. Coffee (arabica)

The proposed route is unsuitable for the cultivation of coffee, with the exception of the first eight kilometres, which are marginally suitable.

B. Cotton

No interval along the route is highly suitable for the cultivation of cotton, although a small number are moderately suited to the crop (i.e. Intervals 7 - 13, 19, 20, 30 - 40). The remaining intervals are either only marginally suitable or unsuitable for the cultivation of cotton.

C. Groundnuts

Only intervals seven to 13 are moderately suitable for the cultivation of groundnuts, the rest of the intervals are either marginally suitable or unsuitable for their cultivation.

D. Maize (Zea mays)

Intervals seven to 13 are highly suitable for the cultivation of maize (Zea mays), while the remaining intervals are either marginally suitable or unsuitable for its cultivation.

2.9 IMPACTS FROM CURRENT LAND USE

IMPACT 1: INCREASED EROSION RESULTING FROM THE CLEARANCE OF INDIGENOUS VEGETATION COVER FOR CULTIVATION

Cause and comment: The clearance of indigenous vegetation for cultivation is widespread, but most prevalent in the area surrounding the town of Mwanza. The accompanying loss of plant cover can lead to soil erosion if rainfall occurs while the soil is still exposed. Rain splash erosion was observed in cultivated fields, sometimes to a depth > 3 cm (e.g. near Golowa village) (Plate 2.2). Very limited erosion by concentrated surface water flows was observed in association with the cultivated fields. A deep rill adjacent to a cultivated field is shown in Plate 2.3. In contrast, Paris (1991) noted that "existing small waterways are often enlarged and deepened under the influence of the effects of de-vegetation and cultivation of valley bottoms and streambanks" (p.76). The reason for this difference of opinion may be attributed to the limited amount of field work that was carried out in this study.

Significance statement: The severity and significance of the reduction in indigenous vegetation cover for cultivation in terms of soil erosion are both probably MODERATE, although of unknown duration or scale.

38 Landforms and Physical Environment: P illgner & E Kaunda Coastal & EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2. Specialist Reports

oA-

Plate 2.2: A stone pedastal, attributed in this study to rain splash erosion.

;- V-4wi s

II

Plate 2.3: An incised rill adjacent to a field.

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IMPACT 2: dESTRUCTION OF TREE FLORA FOR CHARCOAL MANUFACTURING

Cause and comment: The tree flora in the area traversed by the proposed route are being removed for the production of charcoal. This practice is widespread and no doubt has had a significant impact on the vegetation in the Mwanza District. Deforestation in the district has occurred at approximately 1.8 % per annum from 1981 to 1992 (Hudak & Wessman, 2000). Hudak & Wessman (2000), citing work by Lele & Stone (1989), have reported that "Malawi may have lost 24 % of its forest area during the 1990s alone."

Significance statement: If most of the deforestation can be attributed to small-scale commercial charcoal manufacture and domestic fuelwood production the cumulative impact of these two activities has probably been both severe and HIGHLY significant. Deforestation is a national problem with a Iong-term impact on the environment.

IMPACT 3: EROSION OF ROAD edges DUE TO ROAD RUNOFF

Cause and comment: Limited incision is apparent in the unprotected drainage systems adjacent to the road verges near Golowa village, in the Thambani area.

Significance statement: The current impact of this erosion is moderately severe, but of unknown duration and spatial extent. This impact is possibly of LOW significance.

2.10 IMPACTS FROM THE PROJECT

The construction or maintenance of the power line is not expected to have a significant impact on the land capability, topography or water resources of the area.

IMPACT 4: COMMUNITY BASED PROJECTS ARISINGING FROM THE POWER LINE CONSTRUCTION

Cause and comment: Community based projects that currently use Vetiver spp. grass for soil conservation may be able to sell some of their grass to ESCOM and/or could provide the necessary skills and labour to assist with the rehabilitation work.

Significance statement: The significance of these potential contributions by the project need to be separated into two parts, namely the potential benefits to the environment and community respectively. The benefit to the environment of this approach is likely to be slight, possibly of medium duration and restricted to the area of vegetation cleared for construction of the pylons and substation. Financially, contributions of this nature are likely to be slightly beneficial to the community in the short term, but possibly only to a few individuals. The environmental and financial benefits to the community are probably both of LOW significanc e.

46 Landforms and PhysicalEnvironment: P Illgner & E.Kaunda Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports IMPACT 5: DEVELOPMENT OF MINERAL DEPOSITS

Cause and comment: The construction of the interconnection between the Mozambican and Malawian power grids has the potential to facilitate the development of mineral deposits in the latter country.

Significance statement: The interconnection could therefore probably be viewed nationally as having a HIGHLY significant, long term, beneficial economic impact on the mineral sector.

IMPACT 6: INCISION OF ROAD VERGES

Cause and comment: On steep slopes unprotected runoff areas adjacent to road verges are likely to experience some soil erosion.

Significance statement: The contribution of the runoff to soil erosion will possibly be slight, of a restricted nature, but of long duration. The magnitude of this impact is possibly only of LOW significance.

IMPACT 7: INCISION OF ROAD CULVERTS

Cause and comment: The development of headcuts and/or erosion gullies have been attributed to road culverts in parts of southern Africa. Road culverts are likely to pose a similar erosion risk in Malawi.

Significance statement: The impacts on the channel upstream of the culvert could possibly be severe and long term. A headcut(s) could migrate upstream of the culvert leading to expansion of the gully network, whereas downstream there could be an increase in sedimentation. Some individuals would probably regard the loss of soils associated with the formation and expansion of erosion gullies as HIGHLY significant.

IMPACT 8: INCREASED SEDIMENT DELIVERY TO STREAMS

Cause and comment: The loss of topsoil associated with the reduction in plant cover during the construction phase could lead to a temporary increase in sediment delivery to neighbouring channels and hence siltation.

Significance statement: This impact will probably be slight, of LOW significance and restricted to a pylon construction site.

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Table 2.12: A summary of the impacts that need to be considered for the proposed power line. With mitigation/ Impact Without mitigation enhancement Significance Risk Temporal Spatial Certainty Severity Significance Severity scale scale Current Human Impacts Moderate Moderate Moderate Impact 1: Increased erosion resulting Definite Unknown Unknown Probable Moderate from clearance of vegetation for cultivation. High Severe High Impact 2: Destruction of tree flora for Definite Long National Probable Severe charcoal manufacturing - Low Moderate Low Impact 3: Erosion of road edges due to Definite Unknown Unknown Possible Moderately road runoff severe - Impacts from the project Low Low Low Impact 4: Community based projects May occur Short/ LocalUfew Possible/ Slightly beneficial arising from power line construction medium individuals Probable Beneficial High Beneficial High Impact 5: Development of mineral May occur Long National Probable deposits Low Slight Low Impact 6: Incision of road edges May occur Long Very Possible Slight localized High Moderately Moderate Impact 7: Incision of road culverts May occur Long Local Possible Severe I_ severe Slight Low Slight Low Impact 8: Increased sediment delivery May occur Short Local Probable to strewmsI Low Slight Low Impact 9: Loss of agricultural potential Definite Permanent Local Probable Slight Very severe Very High Very severe Very High Impact 10: Risk of slope failure Very Permanent Regional Probable triggered by seismic activity unlikely to occur

42 Landforms and Physical Environment: P Illgner & E.Kaunda Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorElA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports IMPACT 9: LOSS OF AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL

Cause and comment: The possible loss of topsoil from the area cleared for the construction of the pylons may lead to a reduction in the agricultural potential of the area.

Significance statement: This impact will probably be slight, of LOW significance and restricted to a pylon construction site. This assessment is equally applicable to areas subject to a high erosion risk provided the disturbance of the vegetative ground cover is kept to a minimum.

IMPACT 10: RISK OF SLOPE FAILURE TRIGGERED BY SEISMIC ACTIVITY

Cause and comment: Slope failure has been known to accompany seismic activity. This hazard increases with the magnitude of the earthquake, an increase in slope gradient, an elevation in soil water content or a combination of the above.

Significance statement: As low magnitude (< 4.0) earthquakes have occurred within 50 km of the proposed route they will probably occur again in the future. This is a permanent risk to the whole route, with potentially very severe consequences of VERY HIGH significance. However, a large magnitude (> 4.0) earthquake is unlikely to occur within 50 km of the route.

2.11 RECOMMENDATIONS

2.11.1 THE MOST FAVOURABLE LOCATION FOR THE CONSTRUCTION CAMP

Makali. Location: Mid-way between the Mozambican border and the proposed site for the Phombeya substation, approximately 33 km from point "or".

Erosion risk: Moderate. The low (two to six degrees) (Paris, 1991) slope gradients are not expected to pose a significant erosion risk.

Additional advantages:

* On the main tarred road (M6) between Blantyre and Mwanza. * A drop-down transformer, and hence electricity, is available at the site. * A small hotel is located at the site, although its current status (open/closed) is unknown.

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THE 2.11.2 THE MOST FAVOURABLE TIME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF INTERCONNECTOR

* Climatic conditions from December to April are the least favourable for the construction of the power line and maintenance road (Table 2.13). Above average rainfall, temperatures and wind velocities can be expected from November to March, September to April and December to May respectively. In addition tropical cyclones have occurred during the months of December, January, February and April. * If construction is to be least disruptive to agricultural activities it should ideally be restricted to the winter months of June, July, August and possibly October. Annuals within the Blantyre ADD are usually planted in November, while crops are harvested from April to May (Paris, 1991). One notable exception is the pigeon pea, which is harvested during August (Paris, 1991).

Table 2.13: A qualitative assessment of the most favourable time of the year for the construction of the power line (1 = unfavourable month for construction).

Climate --- - Tropical Cyclone Season I I I I Rainfall (Mwanza, Lisungwi, Phalula) 1 1 1 Temperatr I fI l l Wind velocity 1 1 1 I1 Total 4 4 3 3 1 0 0 1 1 2 4H

2.11.3 REHABILITATION AND MANAGEMENT OF DISTURBED SITES

* Ideally sods of grass removed during the construction of the pylons should be returned to the areas from which they were cleared. Alternatively, two species of Vetiver spp. grass, namely V zizanioides and V nigratana,may be used to control soil erosion. If a Vetiver sp. is used for rehabilitation, the former species should be preferred as conditions for its propagation at Phalula are optimal (Table 2.11) and it has a lesser tendency to reseed itself than the latter. * Cash and food crops are not recommended for the rehabilitation of disturbed areas as they are usually relatively short- lived and would encourage revisitation to the disturbed sites. Commercial forestry species (e.g. Eucalyptus sp.) are particularly unsuitable for rehabilitation, due largely to their tall growth habit.

2.12 CONCLUSION

The construction and maintenance of the power line is expected to have a limited impact on the physical landscape. The nmst significant impact is a positive one, namely the potential facilitation of mineral resource development in Malawi. The potential negative impacts are relatively easy to mitigate and are thus not expected to pose significant problems.

44 Landforms and Physical Environment: P Illgner & EKaunda Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports 2.13 REFERENCES

Anonymous. 2001. Mwanza District socio-economic profile.pp.60.

Carter, G.S. and Bennet, J.D. 1973. The Geology and mineral resources of Malawi (second revised edition). Geological Survey Department, Ministry of Forestry and Natural Resources, Republic of Malawi, 62 pp..

Hudak, A.T. and Wessman, C.A. 2000. Deforestation in Mwanza District, Malawi, from 1981 to 1992, as determined from Landsat MSS imagery. Applied Geography, 20, 155-175.

Keefer, D.K. 1984. Landslides caused by earthquakes. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 95, 406 - 421.

Lele, U. and Stone, S.W. 1989. Population pressure, the environment and agricultural intensification: variations on the Boserup hypothesis. Washington, DC., World Bank (MADIA Discussion Paper 4).

Morel, S.W. 1958. The gology of the middle Shire area. Bulletin No. 10, Geological Survey Department, Nyasaland Protectorate, 66 pp..

Morgan, R.P.C. 1986. Soil erosion and conservation. Longman Scientific & Technical, Harlow, Essex.

Paris, S. 1991. Land resources appraisal of Blantyre Agricultural Development Division. Field Document No. 22, Land Resources Evaluation Project, Malawi, FAO.

Pike, J.G. and Rimmington, G.T. 1965. Malawi: a geographical study. Oxford University Press, London, 229 pp.

Tassell, A. 2002. The Kangankunde deposit - is it Malawi's "sleeping giant"? African Mining, 7, 5, 54-5 6.

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APPENDIX A: Crops suitable for cultivation in the area traversed by the power line (Af = Animal feed, Fo = Food & beverages, Fu = Fuel, Li = Lisungwi, Ma = Material, Man = Manjawira, Me = Medicine, Ph = Phalula, Se = Senzani, 1 = use).

Botanical name Common Optimality Af Fo Fu Ma Me name Abelmoschus esculentus Okra Man 1 1 1 Acacia brachystachya 1 1 1 Acacia cambagei Stinking wattle I Acacia catechu Black cutch 11 1 1 Acacia dealbata Silver wattle 1 Acacia pendula 1 1 1 Acacia saligna Port Jackson 1 1 1 willow Acorus calamus Calamus I 1 Acroceras macrum Nile grass 1 Aeschynomenefalcata 1 Aeschynomene indica Shola 1 Agave sisalana Sisal hemp Allium cepa var. aggregatum Potato onion 1 1 Allium cepa var. cepa Onion (bulb 1 Aloe barbadensis I Amaranthus caudatus Amaranths 1 1 1 Amaranthus cruentus Whitespot 1 1 1 Amaranthus dubius 1 Amaranthus hypochondriacus Prince's 1 1 1 feather Amaranthus lividus 1 Amaranthus tricolor 1 Annona atemoya 1_-_-_- Annona cherimola x Annona Custard apple 1 squamosa Apium graveolens var. rapaceum 1 Armoracia rusticana Horse radish 1 1 Arracaciaxanthorrhiza White carrot 1 1 Arundinella hirta Li, Man, 1 Ph, Se Asparagus densiflorus Emerald fern Asparagus officinalis Asparagus 11 Astrebla elymoides 1 Astrebla lappacea 1 Astrebla pectinata 1_-_- Astrebla squarrosa 1 Atriplex hortensis 1 1 Atriplex vesicaria I Avena sterilis 1 1 - Bambusa balcooa Bamboo -_1_- Bambusa longispiculata -_-_1 Bambusa nutans Bothriochloapertusa Main, Ph I 46 Landforms and Physical Environment: P fllgner & EKaunda Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnector EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

Bouteloua curtipendula 1 Brachiariaruziziensis Congo signal 1

-grass Brassica napus var. napobrassica Swede 1 1 Brassica oleracea var. acephala Kale 1 1 Brassica oleracea var. Brussels 1 gemmifera sprouts Brassica oleracea var. italica Broccoli 1 Brassica rapa 1 Bromus carinatus 1 Bromus marginatus 1 Bromus unioloides 1_=_=_=_= Butea monosperma Flame-of-the- 1 1 1 1 forest

Canavaliaensiformis Jack bean _ 1 1 1 Cannabis sativa var. indica Hemp Man 1 - 1 1 Capparisdecidua Inj_et 1 1 Capsicum annuum Sweet pepper Man 1 1 Capsicum baccatum Man Capsicumfrutescens Cayenne Man, Se 1 pepper Capsicum pubescens Man Carthamus tinctorius Safflower 1 1 1 1 Cassia alata Candle bush 1 Cassia auriculata 1 1 1 1 Cassia occidentalis Coffee senna 1 Cassia rotundifolia Man 1I Cassiasenna I Catharanthusroseus Periwinkle 1 Cephaelis ipecacuanha I1 Chrysanthemum coronarium = 1 1 Cicer arietinum Chickpea 1 1 1 Citrus aurantifolia Key lime 1 1 1 Citrus limon Lemon 1 1 1 Clitoria ternatea Butterfly pea 1 1 1 1 Coleus parviflorus 1 Colocasia esculenta 1 Crotalariabrevides Ethiopian 1 1 rattlebox Crotalariajuncea Sunn hemp Man, Ph, 1 1 1 SeSe Crotalariapallida Rattlepod 1 1 Crotalariaspectabilis Showy 1 crotalaria-- Cucumis anguria Gherkin_-_1_-_= = Cucumis melo Rock melon - 1 1 Cucmis sativus Cucumber 1 1 1 Cucurbitaficifolia Fig- leaved 1 1

Cucurbitapepo Marrow, Man, Se 1 1

Landforms and Physical Environment: P Illgner & E.Kaunda 2. Specialist Reports Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine InterconnectorElA, Supplementary Volume Pumpkin Cupressus torulosa1 - Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Guar bean 1 1 1 Cyperus esculentus Tiger nut 1 1 1 Cyperus rotundus Purple nut Man, Ph, 1 1 1 grass Se Dactyloctenium aegyptium Crowfoot Li, Man, 1 1 grass Ph, Se Desmodium gyroides 1 Dichanthium sericeum 1 Dilleniaaurea 1 1 Dioscorea opposita 1 Dodonaea viscosa Wase Li, Man, 1 1 1 Ph Echinochloa colona Jungle rice Man, Ph 1 Echinochloa utilis 1 Ehrhartacalycina 1 Eichhornia crassipes Water 1 1 1 1 hyacinth Eleocharis dulcis Edible spike 1 rush Eleusine africana 1 Eleusine coracana Finger millet 1 1 Eragrostispilosa Man, Ph 1 - - - - Eragrostis tef Tef, Man 1 1 1 Chimanganga, Ndzungulu -_- Eragrostistremula 1 Eucalyptus maculata Spotted gum 1 Eucalyptus obliqua Tasmanian 1 stringybark gum Eucalyptuspaniculata Grey ironbark 1 1 Eucalyptuspolyanthemos Australian I beech Eucalyptus propinqua Eucalyptus resinifera Red mahogany 1 gum Eucalyptus sideroxylon Red ironbark 1 1 Eucalyptus st-johnii - 1 Eucalyptus viminalis White gum 1 tree Eugenia uniflora Brazil cherry =_1_ 1 1 Eugenia uvalha Exotheca abyssinica Faopyrum emarginatum Fagopyrum esculentum Buckwheat 1 1 Feijoa sellowiana Feijoa Man, Se 1 Festucaarundinacea Tall fescue Man 1 Festuca ovina Sheep fescue 1 - - - -

48 Landforms and Physical Environment: P Illgner & E.Kaunda Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports Fortunella hindsi Dwarf 1 1 kumquat Fortunellajaponica Round 1 1 kumquat Fortunella margarita Oval kumquat 1 - 1 Fragariax ananassa Strawberry 1 Helianthus annuus Sunflower 1 1 1 Helianthus tuberosus Jerusalem 1 1 1 artichoke Heteropogon contortus Spear grass Man, Ph, 1 Se

Hilariajamesii Galleta grass 1 - - - Hilariamutica Tobosa grass 1 Humulus lupulus Hop 1 1 1 1 Hymenachne acutigluma 1 Ilex paraguariensis Erva- mate 1 Indigofera hirsuta Hairy indigo 1 1 1 Indigofera spicata 1 Indigofera tinctoria Indigo 1 1 Ipomoea aguatica Water spinach 1 1 Justicia adhatoda = = 1 1 1 Lablab purpureus Hyacinth bean 1 1 Lactuca sativa Lettuce 1 1 Lagenariasiceraria Calabash 1 1 1 Lawsonia inermis Henna Man, Ph, 1 1 Se Lepidium sativum Cress 1 Leptochloafusca 1 Luffa acutangula Angled loofah - 1 1 1 Luffa cylindrica Smooth loofah 1 1 1 Lupinus cosentinii 1 Lupinus mutabilis Andean lupin 1 1 1 1 Lycium chinense 1 = = 1 Lycopersicon esculentum Tomato Man 1 1 1 1 Macroptilium lathyroides Phasey bean 1 Macrotyloma axillare 1 Macrotyloma uniflorum Horse gram Man, Ph, 1 1 1 Se Marrubium vulgare Horehound 1 1 Medicagofalcata Yellow alfalfa 1 Medicago lupulina Black medick 1

Medicago minima Bur clover 1 - = - Melaleuca lanceolata 1 1 Mentha piperita Peppermint 1 1 1 Microstegium ciliatum 1 Mikania cordata 1 Momordica charantia Bitter gourd 1 Monochoria vaginalis Pickerel weed 1 1 Morus nigra Black 1 1 1 1

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Mucuna pruriens Buffalo bean 1 1 Myrsine africana Kechemo 1 Nasturtium schlechteri 1 Nelumbo nucifera Egyptian lotus 1 1 Ocimum basilicum Basil 1 1 1 Oxalis tuberosa Sorrel 1 Pachyrrhizus ahipa _ _- 1 Panicum coloratum 1 Panicum miliaceum Proso millet 1 1 Panicum obtusum Vine mesquite 1 1 grass--- Panicum virgatum Parkinsoniaaculeata Barbados 1 1 1 flowerfence Paspalumplicatulum 1 Passifloramollissima Banana 1 1 1 passionfruit Pennisetum pedicellatum Kyasuma grass 1 - - Petroselinum crispum Parsley 1 1 Phaseolus acutifolius Tepary bean 1 1 Phaseolus coccineus Scarlet runner 1 1 bean Phaseolus vulgaris Common bean Man, Ph, 1 1 1 Se Physalisperuviana 1 Pinuspinaster Cluster pe 1 1 Pisum sativum Pea 1 1 1 1 Populus euphratica Charab poplar 1 1 1 1 Portulacaoleracea Purslane 1 1 1 Pouteria campechiana Egg fruit tree 1 Psidiumguajava Guava 1 1 1 Raphanus sativus Radish - 1 1 Rheum rhaponticum Rhubarb 1 1 Rumex crispus Curly dock 1 - - Rungia klossii Rungia =_= = = = Saccharum barberi 1 1 1 1 Sagittariasagittifolia Old-world 1 arrowhead Sambucus canadensis Common elder Man 1 1 1 Sanguisorba minor Salad burnet 1 Sauropus androgynus 1I 1 1 Schinus molle Pepper tree 1 1 Schleichera oleosa Indian lac tree 1 1 1 Sechium edule Madeira 1 1 1 marrow - - Sesbania cannabia Sesbania macrantha 1 Solanum incanum Indian rennet = = Solanum melongena glant1 1 Solanum muricatum Sweet1 56 Landforms and Physical Environment: P Illgner & EKaunda Coastal & EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2. Specialist Reports

cucumber Solanum nigrum Black 1 1 nightshade Solanum oleraceum 1 1 Solanum tuberosum Potato 1 1 1 Solenostemon rotundifolius Hausa potato = 1 Sorghum halepense Johnson grass 1 Sorghum Xalmum Columbus 1 grass Sphenostylis stenocarpa African yam 1 1 bean Spinacia oleracea Spinach =___=_=_= Stachys affinis 1 Stylosanthes guianensis Common stylo 1

Stylosanthes hamata Carribean 1 - - stylo Stylosanthes humilis Townsville 1 stylo - Tamarix chinensis =_= 1 1 Tarchonanthus camphoratus Camphor bush 1 1 Telfairiapedata 1

Themeda triandra Red grass 1 - - - Trema orientalis Charcoal tree 1 1 1 Triticum compactum Club wheat 1 1 Triticum dicoccon 1 1 Triticum durum Durum wheat 1 Tropaeolum tuberosum Mashua 1 1 Vetiveria zizanioides Vetiver Man, Ph, 1 1 Se Viciafaba Broad bean 1 1 1 Vigna aconitifolia Kidney bean I 1I 1 Vigna angularis Red bean 1 1 - 1 1 Vigna luteola Hairypod 1 cowpea Vigna unguiculata Cow pea Man, Ph, 1 1 Se Yucca elephantipes Yacca 1 1 Zea mays Maize Man 1 I I I Zoysia matrella 1 =_=_=_=

Landforms and Physical Environment: P fllgner & EKaunda

CHAPTER 3

VEGETATION & FLORISITCS

R. A. LUBKE

Coastal & Environmental Services P 0 Box 934 Grahamstown 6140 i I Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnector EIA, Supplementar Volume 2: Specialist Reports

TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 57 3. Vegetation and floristics ...... 59 3.1 Introduction ...... 59 3.1.1 Terms of reference ...... 59 3.2 Methods...... 59 3.2.1 Sampling ...... 59 3.2.2 Data analysis ...... 59 3.3 Vegetation...... 60 3.3.1 Woodlands ...... 61 3.3.2 Degraded woodlands/savanna (releves 14 - 16 and 22) ...... 64 3.3.3 Rural agriculture (releves 1 - 4, 13, 17 - 19) ...... 65 3.3.3 Commercial agriculture ...... 68 3.3.4 Spatial distribution of the vegetation along the power line route ...... 68 3.4 Floristics...... 69 3.4.1 Methods ...... 69 3.4.2 Floristic composition ...... 69 3.4.3 Species of special concern...... 69 3.4.4 Cultivated and economically important plants ...... 69 3.5 Ethnobotany ...... 70 3.5.1 Introduction ...... 70 3.5.2 Methods ...... 70 3.5.3 Medicinal plants ...... 70 3.5.4 Edible plants ...... 70 3.5.5 Utility plants ...... 71 3.5.6 Other natural resource use ...... 72 3.6 Assessment of impacts on the vegetation and floristics ...... 72 3.7 Conclusion ...... 77 3.8 Recommendations ...... 77 3.9 References ...... 77

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: Distribution of the five main communities on the first two axes of the detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) scatter diagram. Communities defined by TWINSPAN.

LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: List of agriculture and economically important plants Table 3.2: List of weeds and potentially invasive plants. Table 3.3: Summary of impacts relating to vegetation and floristics that will result from the proposed power line project.

LIST OF PLATES Plate 3.1: Brachystegia woodland at Releve 11. Plate 3.2: Mixed Woodland at point Dl (Releve 9) which was a diverse rocky outcrop community. Plate 3.3: Sterculia appendiculatawoodland at site F (Releve 20). Plate 3.4: Savanna or degraded woodlands (Releve 22). Plate 3.5: Inter-cropping near the Thambani Forest Reserve typical of the rural agricultural practices along the length of the proposed route. Note the presence of a mango tree within the maize field.

Vegetation andFloristics: R Lubke 5 Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnector EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

Plate 3.6: A citrus orchard with inter-cropped maize at releve 4, south of Mwanza. Plate 3.7: Plant for processing baobab and tamarind fruit juice.

LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: List of plant species recorded in the project area

56 Vegetation and Floristics:R Lubke Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnector EIA, Supplementary Volume 2. Specialist Report

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The vegetation within the area of the proposed power line route is largely disturbed and is dominated by subsistence agriculture. The power line route runs from the Mozambique - Malawi border at Mwanza via the Mwanza, Neno and Balaka districts before terminating at the Phombeya substation in the north.

Vegetation: Patterns are complex and disturbed along the route of the power line, the latter due to the introduction of agriculture in most of the area, even on the steepest hillsides. The following vegetation types were identified:

* Woodlands: Three woodland types were identified within the study area; Brachystegia woodland, Mixed woodland and Sterculia appendiculatawoodland.

* Savanna: The savanna, a very degraded woodland along the route of the power line, covers a small area (c. 5 %), mainly in the east.

* Rural agriculture: Agriculture covers most of the area and can be divided into two broad categories, namely:

i) Maize and mixed crops ii) Maize and citrus orchards with other crops

* Commercial agriculture: A fruit juice production company utilises the fruit of the baobab and tamarind trees which occur often in groups or small populations in the savanna regions. These are important natural trees of the area.

Floristics A total of 170 vascular plants were recorded within the study area. 4 monocotyledonous families and 32 dicotyledonous families were identified. The grasses and legumes (Fabaceae), which are widespread, comprised the largest groups of plants recorded. No species of special concern were identified to occur within the study area. The most conspicuous alien species within the study area were the cultivated crops and trees. One potentially invasive alien species were identified, namely Lantana camara (curse of India). 4 weedy and cultivated species were identified.

Ethnobotany Medicinal plants: The medicinal plants identified within the study area were those used to treat common illnesses such as stomach complaints, headaches and surface wounds and occurred commonly throughout the study area.

Edible plants: Although subsistence farming is practised, the natural vegetation supplements the nutritional requirements of the majority of the families within the study area. The natural vegetation is harvested for fruit, vegetables and spices. The fruit or other plant parts were also sold to bring in extra income or even processed into other food products such as beer.

Utility plants: Although most of the trees in the area are used for fuel, certain species such as Brachystegia spiciformis are preferred. The majority of the people still build semi-permanent dwellings with wooden poles, reeds and mud, while grass is harvested for thatching.

Vegetation and Floristics. R Lubke 5 7 Coastal &Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

Impacts The impacts on the vegetation resulting from the proposed power line are summarised below:

[Impacts [Significance I I after mitigation Impact 1: Loss of natural plant communities Low Impact 2: Cutting of trees underneath the power line Moderate Impact 3: Loss of or impact on fallow and agricultural land Low Impact 4: Loss of or impact on commercial farming Low Impact 5: Introduction or spread of alien species Low Impact 6: Loss of ethnobotanical resources Moderate Impact 7: Increased risk of soil erosion Low

The two impacts associated with the cutting and removal of vegetation from under the power line are of MODERATE significance as this will cause a localised loss in biomass production and fruit yield. This loss of productivity in fruit producing trees will result in a loss of ethnobotanical resources, which would adversely affect the local people who are dependent upon fruit production as a dietary supplement and a source of extra income.

The following specific recommendations are made:

1. Avoid removing trees, where possible. 2. Prevent the spread of alien plant species. 3. Restrict the amount of vegetation cleared and avoid unnecessary damage to natural vegetation. 4. Prepare an Environmental Management Plan (EMP). 5. Employ an Environmental Site Officer during the construction phase.

56 Vegetation and Floristics: R Lubke Coastal& Environmental Services. Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnecor EIA, Supplementary Volume 2. SpecialistReports

3. VEGETATION AND FLORISTICS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.1.1 TERMS OF REFERENCE

The specific terms of reference for this study were as fo llows:

1. To record the plant species that occur along the route, based on field surveys. 2. To identify any species of special concern, namely species with conservation status or endemic species to the area. 3. To comment on the conservation status of specific plant species. 4. To compile a broad scale vegetation or habitat map of the area. This vegetation map should indicate the extent that the power line would affect each vegetation or habitat type. 5. To record as many plant species of ethnobotanical significance as possible. 6. To assess the level of dependence of the local inhabitants on the vegetation of the immediate and surrounding areas, and the impact that the removal of this vegetation would have on the community. 7. To determine mitigation measures, with particular focus on rehabilitation that would reduce the significance of this impact. 8. To address all impacts and concerns raised by IAP's during the scoping stage. 9. To assess the significance of the identified impacts, and provide practical and realistic recommendations (from a cost perspective) to mitigate impacts.

3.2 METHODS

3.2.1 SAMPLING

Braun Blanquet sampling method

A reconnaissance survey of the entire route was undertaken to determine vegetation patterns. Twenty-two releves I were then sampled in the study area to cover the variation in vegetation communities identified from the reconnaissance survey (Figure 1.1). The GPS locations for releves 9, 17 and 19 are not indicated on the map as no record was made of their location in the field. Several environmental variables were recorded, and the vegetation stratified according to different height classes. The average height and total cover of these various height classes were estimated. Checklists of all plant species occurring within each landscape releve were recorded. Each plant species was then allocated to a particular stratum, and given a Braun Blanquet cover abundance score.

3.2.2 DATA ANALYSIS

Two Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN)

The 22 releves were analysed using Two Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN). This multivariate technique classifies samples according to their floristic (species) composition by dividing the data set and grouping similar samples together.

' A sample plot where the cover abundance values of the plant species within the plot are indicated. Vegetation and Floristics: R Lubke Reports Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist

Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA)

Using DECORANA the 22 releves and approximately 110 species were analysed by DCA. Communities can be shown in a two-dimensional scatter diagram on the major axes. These communities were clustered according to the groups defined by the TWINSPAN classification.

3.3 VEGETATION

The objectives of this section are to describe the vegetation communities of the study area, defined as the power line route corridor, a 50 m wide, 70 - 80 km long corridor that runs from the Mozambique - Malawi border near Kanjunchi Hill through the Mwanza, Neno and Balaka districts to Phombeya substation.

Vegetation patterns in the study area were fairly complex due to human-induced disturbance and alteration of natural patterns. Vegetation communities identified in the study area were woodlands, savanna and rural and commercial agricultural. The vegetation is closely linked to land use and the distribution of the vegetation types is illustrated in the map (Figure 1.1) extracted from Paris (1991). Paris (1991) mainly discusses the land-use in terms of cultivated crops and land use. His recognition of grasslands, natural forests and woodlands is in broad categories, and is "very general as it has to be used on a national basis" (Paris, 1991).It should be noted that over the past decade much of the woodland vegetation has been transformed due to current land use, and consequently woodland is not as extensive as reflected on Figure 1.1.

In the south and western areas, the woodlands are well developed, being dominated by Brachystegia spp., principally B. spicifonnis and B. boehmii. The area adjacent to and immediately south of the proposed power line is well developed and protected, with woodlands occurring in the hills of the Thambani Forest Reserve. Across the Wamkurumadzi River between points Dl and E on the power line route, the Brachystegia woodland is characterised by the presence of Sterculia appendiculatatrees. From point F northeastwards, there are patches of savanna, but generally the natural vegetation is degraded and has been replaced by cultivated lands.

The classification and ordination of the vegetation is shown on the scatter diagram of the first two axes of the Detrended Correspondence Analysis, with the major TWINSPAN groups superimposed (Figure 3.1). Noticeable in this diagram is the change along the X-axis from left to right. Brachystegia Woodland changes to a Mixed Woodland, then a Sterculia Woodland. These all represent non-cultivated communities, but to the right of this are communities of cultivated lands. The Degraded Woodland/Savanna mosaic still contains many indigenous species, but the Cultivated Lands on the extreme right of the figure are entirely altered.

Three types of woodland are distinguished, which are related to Paris' (1991) accounts in the descriptions:

* Brachystegia Woodland, with a diversity of species, but dominated by Brachystegia spp. (Releves 5-8 and 10-12) (Plate 3.1). * Mixed Woodland at site DI (Releve 9), which was on a rocky outcrop (Plate 3.2). * Sterculia appendiculataWoodland, which is common in the landscape around point F (Releves 20 and 21) (Plate 3.3).

R Lubke 66 Vegetation and Floristics: Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecor EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: SpecialistReports

360 - 17 340 i.ab. Jl,.1 i-ii I I e I. 320- I ' 300' 2 2

w'lad22 13 220 18 200 1l 15 1605 7 9 140 6 O * 120 ' 2U -----

100-- - ,dixcd wcxodIand 8 21 DewiJed

40 ) 20 xi wcK'' .a 14.9n'4 1

0 1@0 200 300 400 500

Figure 3.1: Distribution of the five main communities on the first two axes of the Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) scatter diagram. Communities defined by TWINSPAN.

A description of the communities in this diagram is given below:

1. Woodland, covering about 20 - 25% of the study area and divided into: a. Brachystegia Woodland (Plate 3. 1) b. Mixed woodland (Plate 3.2) c. Sterculia appendiculataWoodland (Plate 3.3)

2. Degraded woodland and savanna, is found to the east, and this very degraded habitat covers about 3% of the area (Plate 3.4). 3. Agriculture covers approximately 70% of the area and consists of a. Maize and mixed crops (Plate 3.5) b. Maize and citrus orchards with other crops (Plate 3.6) 4. Commercial agriculture is related to the production of fruit juice from two important trees, the baobab and tamarind.

3.3.1 WOODLANDS

Three types of woodland vegetation occur along the power line route. Further sampling could distinguish more associations, but the linear nature of the route precluded a detailed analysis.

Vegetation and Floristics:R Lubke 61 Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

(i) Brachystegia woodland (Releves 5 - 8 and 10- 12)

This woodland is the dominant vegetation type of the south western area of the power line route corridor, and consists of a variety of tree species, including Brachystegia spiciformis, B. boehmii, Diplorhynchos condylocarpum, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Burkea africana and Ficus spp. in rocky areas. Many of these species are of economical importance to the local people and should be retained (De Koning and Balkwill 1995). The dominant grasses included Andropogon spp, Heteropogon contortus, Digitaria eriantha, Hyperthelia dissoluta and Loudetia simplex. Numerous legumes were often present and some quite abundant. Other herbaceous species (Barleria sp. and Oldenlandia sp.) were often present and conspicuous although not dominant.

Plate 3.1: Typical Brachystegia woodland at releve 11.

In this woodland community, species richness varied from 17 to 35, mostly being more than 20-30 species per 200 ni. Total cover of the two strata was invariably about 95% with the trees being 25 - 30% cover and grasses and herbs (80 - 90%) of the area. Trees ranged from 3 - 8 m tall, with a shrub stratum rarely present. The grasses are tall and robust (1 to 2m) and the herbs 30cm to 50cm tall. Herbs form a small component of the vegetation and were mostly Fabaceae or Asteraceae. Much of this vegetation had been cleared for agriculture, and consequently areas sampled with natural vegetation occurred on steep rocky ground or on shallow soil. Grazing was minimal and goats were the main livestock.

Paris (1991) defines Brachystegia hill woodland (G6) and Brachystegia escarpment woodland, the latter in a small region in the west of our study area. The Brachystegia woodland described above (Plate .1, Figure 3.1) is most similar to this Brachystegia escarpment woodland (species compostion described in Paris, p. 19).

(ii) Mixed Woodland (Releve 9)

On a single rocky outcrop a great variety of trees occurred (point DI) and this woodland was separated from the other two types. No particular tree species were dominant and among Lubke 6z Vegetation and Floristics:R Coastal & EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnecorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: SpecialistReports

others Pterocarpus angolensis, Steganotaenia araliacea, Cussonia arborea, Bauhinia petersiana, Ficus labitifolia, Ficus glumosa and Strychnos madagacarensis were present. Grasses were less diverse with Hyperthelia dissoluta and Heteropogon contortus being dominant. A species richness of 26 species was recorded in 200 rr?. Trees were up to 4m tall, as were the rocks, and covered 20% of the area. Grasses of up to 2 m tall covered 70% of the area and the total cover was 90%. Many birds occurred as this provided a natural refuge for wildlife (Plate 3.2).

Confined to small areas this variation of Brachystegia woodland is a form of Brachystegia escarpment woodland (Paris, 1991) found in the Mwanze region on the rocky outcrops.

%-

X''4

. '

N.

Plate 3.2: Mixed Woodland at point Dl (Releve 9) which was a diverse rocky outcrop community.

(iii) Sterculia appendiculata woodland (Releves 20 & 21)

This community is found rrinly between point E and F and less frequently towards D, but well represented at site F, which is a rocky hillside slope with shallow stony soil. There are many tall Sterculia appendiculata, and a few shorter trees such as Terninalia sericea, Ximenia caffra, Ormocarpum kirkii with a distinct absence or rare occurrence of Brachystegia spp. Grasses were also less frequent, with Heteropogon contortus being a common species. In general herbs were commoll with Psoraleasp. being a dominant in these sites.

Total cover was high (95 - 100 %) but tree cover (5 - 10%) was low. Smaller trees/shrubs (3 - 5m tall) were more common (25 - 50% cover) and grass/herbs from 0.4 m to 1.5 m tall accounted for 70% of the cover. Only 19 species were found per 200n? releves. There were a number of savanna species present in this woodland, such as Acacia karroo, A. nigrescens, Combretum appendiculatumand this woodland is more closely related to savanna (Plate 3.3).

Vegetation and Floristics:R Lubke 63 Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

The vegetation in this region was all described by Paris (19910 as Brachystegia escarpment woodland (G7) and is a variation where Sterculia appendiculata is abundant and discernable from the general Brachystegia woodland.

3.3.2 DEGRADED WOODLANDS/SAVANNA (RELEVtS 14-16 AND 22)

The mixed low altitude savanna of Combretum appendiculatum, Diplorhycus condylocarpon, Pseudolachnostlylis maprouneifolia, Diospyros kirkii and Acacia spp. is mainly replaced by agricultural lands in this area, and the sites that were sampled along and adjacent to the power line corridor (the accessible sites) were all represented by crops (see below). The baobab tree (Adansonia digitata) was present in many of these sites, as was the camels foot (Bauhinia petersiana). The commonest cultivated crop was maize (Zea mays).

* U -

| -4

Plate 3.3: Sterculia appendiculatawoodland at site F (Relev6 20).

In some cases these relev6s represented degraded woodlands rather than savanna. Trees were 3 - 5 m tall, except where baobabs were present (10i) and covered 15 - 30 %. Grass and crop heights were from 1 - 2 in tall and accounted for between 40 - 80% of the cover. Total species number varied greatly from 12 to 27 species per 200 rt~.

64 Vegetation and Floristics:R Lublce Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecor EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: SpecialistReports

Plate 3.4: Savanna or degraded woodlands (Releve 22).

In regions defined by Paris (1991) as Brachystegia escarpment woodland (G7) and mixed low altitude savanna (G13) the degraded woodlands and savanna occurs. Most sites are replaced by rural agriculture which has a major influence in our classification of this vegetation type as defined above.

3.3.3 RURAL AGRICULTURE (RELEVES 1-4,13,17-19)

Rural mixed agriculture replaces woodlands and savanna in much of the region along the route of the proposed power line. Although 3 different communities were identified by the TWINSPAN classification (Figure 3.1) only one is represented on the figure. Trees from 3 to 6 m tall were not common in these sites (< 1% to 15%), and most of the 90 - 95% cover represents crops. Cultivated trees included Mango, banana, guava, tangerine, eucalyptus and pawpaw. Indigenous or introduced species maintained in these lands include Bauhinia petersoniana, Toona ciliata, Annona senegalensis, Adansonia digitata and Sterculia appendiculata amongst others.

The crops consist mainly of maize and pulses, but other crops such as pumpkins, sweet potato and okra are common in this mixed rural agriculture of southern Malawi (Plate 3.5). Table 3.1 provides a list of crops that were recorded along with their use.

Grassland sites of Paris (1991), savanna (G13) and Brachystegi woodland (G6 & G7) are often completely replaced by rural agriculture in the Middle Shire Valley (Paris, p.20) or the Mwanze Highland. Paris (1991) defines this rainfall cultivation area as A2 or A5 according to the combination of crops that are cultivated.

Vegetation and Floristics:R Lubke 65 Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

Table 3.1: List of agriculture and economically important plants (information and numbers from Williamson, 1975)

NO. NAME COMMONNAME USE 558 Zea mays Maize Meal (Nsima) Fodder 128 Citrus aurantium Orange Fruit & Juice 131 Citrus reticulata Tangerine Fruit 231 Eucalyptus spp. Blue Gum Poles & timber for construction; firewood/charcoal 101 Caricapapaya Pawpaw Fruit & vegetable 91 Cajanus cajan Pigeon pea Vegetable 359 Musa paradisiaca Banana Fruit 289 Ipomoea batatas Sweet potato Vegetable 356 Mucunapruriens Vegetable - in times of drought 509 Toona ciliata Toon tree/Sederela Furniture/ornamental 339 Mangifera indica Mango Fruit 340 Manihot esculenta Cassava Meal, (Nsima) vegetable (root & leaves) 542 Vigna unguiculata Cow pea/khobwe Beans/leaves 464 Sesamum indicum Sesame/chitowe Seeds for oil/leaves - vegetable 1 Abelmoschus esculentus Okra/Thelele Fruits - vegetable 179 Cucurbita maxima Pumpkin/Dzungu Vegetable - fruit, leaves, flowers Bamboo 487 Strychnos spinosa Mtene Fruits 428 Psidium guajava Guava/Guwawa Fruits 450 Saccharum officinarum Sugar cane/Mzimbe Sugar/Juice 411 Bauhiniapetersiana Camel- foot/Msekese Bark - string and rope. Pods - soap 404 Phaseolusvulgaris Beans/Mbwanda Leaves/Fruits - vegetable 179 Cucurbita maxima Squash Fruit/leaves - vegetable 49 Arachis hypogaea Peanut/ground Fruit nuts/Ntedza 177 Cucumis sativus Cucumber/Mankhaka Fruit/leaves - vegetable

66 Vegetation andFloristics: R Lubke Coastal& Environmental Services: MozambiqueMalawi PowerLine Interconnecor EA, Supplementary Volume 2: SpecialistReports

.,.- .".

I .,

. ' '" ' '', ',

.i -i

Plate 3.5: Inter-cropping near the Thambani Forest Reserve typical of the rural agricultural practices along the length of the proposed route. Note the presence of a mango tree within the maize field.

A,.

V . .

*% *..- ,I

Plate 3.6: A citrus orchard with inter-cropped maize at releve 4, south of Mwanza.

Vegetation and Floristics: R Lubke 67 Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: SpecialistReports

3.3.3 COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE

Commercially established agriculture takes the form of the production of fruit juice from the Baobab and tamarind trees, and a few citrus plantations in the Mwanza district.

South of Mwanza the plantations of citrus will hardly be impacted upon by the power line (Plate 3.6). Of greater concern are the scattered baobab trees (4dansonia digitata) that occur in the savanna regions along the proposed route, mainly in the central and northern regions. Tamarind trees (Tamarindus indica) are found mainly along the river valleys whereas baobabs are wide spread, often in groups or small populations. The fruit of both trees are being harvested and a fruit juice production company (funded by a German Funding Agency - GTZ) is operational here (Plate 3.7). These fruit trees are also used by the local people, so they are an important component of the landscape, which should not be removed.

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w..

Plate 3.7: Plant for processing the fruit of baobab and tamarind fruit juice.

3.3.4 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETATION ALONG THE POWER LINE ROUTE

Directly south of the route in the Mwanza highlands in the west is he Thambani Forest Reserve. Here the Brachystegia woodland/ Brachystegia escarpment woodland (Paris, 1991) is well preserved. However, along the route the Mwanza highlands are well populated and for this first 5km there is degraded woodland.

Ten kilometres of rural agriculture, with much citrus cultivation follows. The 'most pristine' areas of woodland occur n the next 4km up to the Kurumadzi River being Brachystegia woodland and mixed woodland on the rocky outcrops.

Across the Kurumadzi River for the next 14km there are regions of well preserved Brachystegia woodland and Sterculia appendiculata woodland. The woodland is replaced by

R Lubke 65 Vegetation and Floristics: Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnecorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: SpecialistReports rural agriculture in some areas and the woodland changes to savana and degraded woodland in the eastern and north-eastern sections of the route.

Rural agriculture occurs for the remaining 42km replacing patches of Brachystegia woodland but mostly savanna in this region. Very small sections of savanna remain (<3%).

3.4 FLORISTICS

The objectives of this section are to list the plant species that occur in the study area, identify any species of special concern and comment on the conservation status of specific plant species.

3.4.1 METHODS

Plant specimens were identified in the field using a field herbarium where possible. Specimens that could not be identified in the field were identified by Ms E. Brink at the Selmar Schonland Herbarium in Grahamstown, South Africa. Voucher specimens are housed at the herbarium.

Species of special concern (SSC) were identified from Hilton-Taylor (1996) and SABONET 2001. Alien species were identified using Arnold & de Wet (1993) and Williamson (1975).

3.4.2 FLORISTIC COMPOSITION

A total of approximately 170 vascular plants were recorded from the study area (Appendix 1). The flora was assessed in terms of the major divisions of vascular plants, and within this, the major families of flowering plants were examined. A total of 4 monocotyledonous families and 32 dicotyledonous families were identified. Of the monocotyledons, grasses were the largest family, with 21 species. The grasses are widespread and occur in all communities, the largest dicotyledonous family as the Fabaceae (29spp).

3.4.3 SPECIES OF SPECIAL CONCERN

Amongst the 170 plant species recorded in the study area, none have any form of rarity status as identified from available literature (Hilton-Taylor 1996; SABONET 2001).

3.4.4 CULTIVATED AND ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT PLANTS

Common cultivated plants are listed in Table 3.1 above, while the weedy species are listed in Table 3.4a.

Table 3.4a: List of weeds and potentially invasive plants

NAME COMMON NOTES NAME Lantana camara Lantana Extremely invasive around villages Bidens spp. Blackjacks May be used as a food source Eucalyptus sp. Goira Cultivated and not apparently invasive Psidium guajava Guava Cultivated but can become invasive

Although alien weeds and invasive species are often a problem in southern Africa, there was little evidence of the invasion of weeds in the study area. For example Lantana camara is Vegetation and Floristics:R Lubke Coastal& EnvironmentalServices. Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnector EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports cultivated for a hedge in villages and homesteads, but is not noticeably invasive. Likewise the Eucalyptus spp. plantations appear to be confined to plantation sites.

3.5 ETHNOBOTANY

3.5.1 INTRODUCTION

Since the conception of the term in 1895, 'ethnobotany' has proved to be difficult to define. It was originally regarded simply as the use of plants by aboriginal people (Cotton 1996), but has come to enconpass all human societies as well as all types of interrelations including symbolic, evolutionary and ecological. Modem ethnobotany thus recognises the reciprocal and dynamic nature of the relationship between humans and plants (Alexiades 1997).

Traditional medicine is an ancient art that is still widely practised throughout East Africa, particularly in rural areas (Kokwaro 1993), and despite the provision of formal health services, people in rural areas are still heavily dependent on natural remedies. However, ethnobotany encompasses the use of more than just medicinal plants. It examines the use of plants in all facets of life, from food to construction of houses to the crafting of baskets. The Miombo woodlands have been useful for a long time as a source of various forest products and services for the subsistence needs of rural communities. The following brief description of ethnobotanical uses of plants is taken from a study undertaken by the Forestry Research Institute of Malawi. The study was conducted in areas on the fringes of three Forest Reserves (Chimaliro, Deda and Liwonde), which are situated to the north of the proposed power line. The usage is, however, likely to be similar in the area of the study site.

3.5.2 METHODS

No specific ethnobotanical study was undertaken, as the power line does not impact on large tracts of natural vegetation. Impacts were therefore not anticipated to be significant. Anecdotal information was collected during the field survey, and a brief review of available literature undertaken (Williamson, 1975).

3.5.3 MEDICINAL PLANTS

Traditional medicine is the most common medical system in Malawi. The use of medicinal plants is thus an important use and over 20 species are used. Most of these are used for self- treatment, traditional healers being consulted for specific diseases. Most plants are traded locally. Some are exported to Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa. Many of the species are becoming increasingly more difficult to find.

The medicinal plants identified within the study area were those used to treat common illnesses such as stomach complaints, headaches and surface wounds. The preparation of these plants was simply boiling of the leaves or other plant parts to make an infusion for drinking or rubbing onto the skin. Common species used for medicinal treatments were not specifically identified in this study. However, they generally occur in the natural woodland communities, and therefore these sites are an important source of plant material for medicinal use.

3.5.4 EDIBLE PLANTS

Although subsistence farming is practised, the natural vegetation supplements the nutritional requirements for most rural families, with 10 to 15 % of the daily diet of people consisting of indigenous edible plants. The natural vegetation s harvested for fruit, vegetables and spices. Vegetation and Floristics:R Lubke Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecor EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

The plants may be used indirectly to supplement the food sources or used commercially to produce fruit juice. The commonly used plant species are the baobab and tamarind (see section 3.3.4 above).

Indigenous fruits: The Miombo woodlands are rich in variety and quantity of indigenous fruit trees and much valued by the rural communities for their role in food security, particularly during seasonal food shortages when food crops are not ready for harvesting. Fruits are nutritionally rich is sugars, essential vitamins, minerals, vegetable oils and proteins. Utilization and trade of fruits are integral components of local economies and culture, and play important roles in household welfare.

Mushrooms: In Malawi, mushrooms are important sources of food and income in rural areas, particularly before the first crops mature. They can be sold fresh or dried and stored for later use. Over 20 species are used.

3.5.5 UTILITY PLANTS

* Firewood Although most of the trees in the area are used for fuel, certain species such as Brachystegia spiciformis, Pericopsis angolensis and Uapaca kirkiana are among the most commonly used. Firewood collection, for domestic use, is done throughout the year, mainly by females. Males usually collect wood to sell for cash. Areas in the immediate vicinity of largely populated centres have been cleared, resulting in the woodlands within these areas having a simple structure or in some instances converted into grasslands. The collection of firewood involves using dead trees as well as cutting down trees. Various sizes of wood, ranging from twigs to logs are used depending on the purpose. Dry wood of small dimensions is preferred for domestic needs.

Of significance is the collecting of wood for charcoal, used extensively for heating and cooking, and during the site visit it was evident that the production and sale of charcoal is having a very significant impact on indigenous trees in and around the study area. Most of the trees that are used for the production of charcoal are no longer present outside forest reserves (see list below). The government has realised that this is no longer a sustainable practice and have therefore made it illegal to produce and sell charcoal, unless produced from commercially planted trees.

Trees commonly used to make charcoal include:

1. Tsamba - Brachystegiafloribunda 2. Mbawa - Khaya anthotheca 3. Msangu - Faidherbiaalbida 4. Mtanga tanga - Albizia lebbecli 5. Mpakasa

During one of the site visits a count of charcoal bags from the Mpatamanga Forest Reserve until the first village (a distance of approximately 23km) was undertaken to get an idea of the impact. Along this distance 48 bags of charcoal (six of them relatively small) were seen being carried on 36 bicycles. This amount of charcoal relates to more or less the equivalent of one truckload, and seeing that this count was undertaken over a 35-minute period in the afternoon one can see what impact this is having on forest reserves in and around the study area.

* Building material

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Poles: The lack of wealth is a major factor contributing to the use of indigenous plants. Only the wealthy inhabitants of a village are able to build permanent brick houses. Consequently, Miombo woodlands are a major source of general construction materials for the rural communities for the construction of houses, barns, latrines, fences, granaries and livestock enclosures. Varying pole sizes are used, but suitable poles are usually difficult to find and people have to sometimes travel great distances. The majority of the people still build semi- permanent dwellings with wooden poles, reeds, bamboos and mud. Some introduced species such as Eucalyptus spp. and Toona ciliata are cultivated for building materials. Grass is harvested for thatching, as this is a common type of roof. Hyperthelia dissoluta is the preferred species and is also harvested for selling.

Bark andfibres: Fibres are used mainly for fastening building material or cargo and making cords for harnessing cattle and other domestic requirements around the homestead (string and rope, mats, baskets, fishing nets, lines, bags and snares). Brachystegia species and Bauhinia peteresiana are commonly used, with desirable attributes of fibre strength and ease of peeling. Implements: Hoe, axe and spear handles, pestles and mortors, cooking sticks, bowls, bows, arrows, drums, knob kerries, ox-harnesses and ox-carts are some of the most common domestic implements made from wood. Different species are generally preferred for different items, many of which are becoming scarce.

Hedges Introduced plants such as Lantana camara are used for hedges around dwellings and agricultural lands.

Weaving and baskets Bamboo is harvested for weaving baskets and granaries, chairs, bed mats and shelves. After felling, palm trunks are peeled, left to dry and used for producing chairs, tables, shelves and toys. Reeds are used for mats, basketry, fence construction around homesteads, granaries and doors. Grass is an important construction material, and is used mainly as a protective material for roofing and fencing. Traditional rural houses, animals pens and tobacco sheds are mostly thatched using grass.

3.5.6 OTHER NATURAL RESOURCE USE

Honey: Honey gathering is no longer as common as it used to be as it is forbidden in forest reserves, mainly to avoid fires. There is great potential in establishing beehives, close to forests as has been done in other areas of Malawi.

Game and insects: Meat from the wild has long been an important source of protein for rural communities. Hunting expeditions are usually organized and local implements and dogs are used. Commonly hunted game includes certain antelope species, hares, mice and birds (particularly guinea fowl). Game is most important in areas surrounding woodlands. Caterpillars and termites are insects frequently eaten.

3.6 ASSESSMENT OF IMPACTS ON THE VEGETATION AND FLORISTICS

The major impacts that may be associated with the power line are presented below and summarised in Table 3.6.

IMPACT 1: LOSS OF NATURAL PLANT COMMUNITIES

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Cause and comment: The vegetation in the path of access roads will be completely and permanently removed. It is assumed that a cleared area of 20 x 20 m is required for self-support towers, and 40 x 40 m for cross-rope suspension towers. It is further assumed that a centre line of 8 m must also be kept clear of vegetation, except grasses and herbs. The significance of this vegetation loss is dependent on a number of factors, namely:

* The extent of the particular plant community within the study area and beyond. * The structural complexity of the community. * The species richness and floristic composition. * The ecological importance. * The importance of the plant community as a faunal habitat.

Woodlands are the only natural plant communities that fall within the power line route. Within these plant communities the vegetation structure is not highly complex (the woodlands have a moderately complex structure) and the vegetation does not have a high conservation value or species richness, since it is mostly of a secondary nature.

Significance statement: The removal of plant communities will definitely occur within the path of access roads, around power line pylons and cable drum stations, and within the servitude. This will result in an impact of moderate severity within a localised area in the long-term. The overall significance of this impact will be MODERATE.

IMPACT 2: CUTTING OF TREES UNDERNEATH THE POWER LINE

Cause and comment: During both the construction and operation (maintenance phases) of the power line, trees directly beneath the lines will have to either be removed or cropped so as not to exceed an assumed maximum height of 3.5m. This may have no direct effect on the survival of the trees, but could have negative effects on biomass production and fruit yield in the case of individual fruit producing trees. Of particular concern are the commercially used trees such as the baobab and tamarind.

Significance statement: The removal or cropping of trees will definitely occur during the construction and maintenance of the power line. This will have a permanent impact of moderate severity within a localised area, and will result in an impact of MODERATE negative significance.

IMPACT 3: LOSS OF OR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURAL LAND

Cause and comment: These communities are widespread throughout the study area, and although they have a very low conservation value, they form a vital part of the rural subsistence farming. However, the social implication of reduced agricultural production is addressed in Chapter 5.

Significance statement: The loss of agricultural land in the path of the power line will occur, but will be restricted to the servitude of 50 m, and possibly 8 m as people could still be allowed to grow annual crops such as cassava and maize within the servitude. The loss of agricultural land will probably

Vegetation and Floristics:R Lubke 73 Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports result in a slightly severe, long-term impact of MODERATE significance, but the significant will be reduced to LOW if cropping within the servitude is permitted.

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Table 3.6: Summary of impacts relating to vegetation and floristics that will result from the proposed power line project.

IMPACTS WITHOLIT MITIGATION l RISK TEMPORAL SPATIAL CERT. SEVERITY SIGNIF. Impact 1: Loss of natural plant Definite Long term Localised Definite Moderate MODERATE communities Impact 2: Cutting of trees Definite Permanent Localised Definite Moderate MODERATE underneath the power line Impact 3: Loss of or impact on Definite Long term Localised Probable Slight LOW agricultural land Impact 4: Loss of or impact on Definite Long term Localised Probable Slight LOW commercial agriculture Impact 5: Introduction or spread of May occur Short to Study area Probable Moderate LOW alien species medium term Impact 6: Loss of ethnobotanical Definite Permanent Localised Definite Moderate MODERATE resources

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IMPACT 4: LOSS OF OR IMPACT ON COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE

Cause and comment: Commercial agriculture is not widespread in the study area, and is mainly confined to localised citrus plantations. However, disturbance to commercial operations will result in the loss of portions of established fields, and this has financial implications to the landowner. Loss of commercially exploited species such as the baobab and the tamarind trees has been dealt with under impact 2.

Significance statement: The bss of portions of commercial farmland within the servitude of the power line may occur, but will be extremely localised. This loss will probably result in a slightly severe, long-term impact of LOW significance.

IMPACT 5: INTRODUCTION OR SPREAD OF ALIEN SPECIES

Cause and comment: The disturbance associated with the construction of the power line and access roads may lead to the introduction of alien plants species, or the further spread of existing alien species along the power line route. Current land use has not caused a significant spread of alien plant species, so further disturbance of the landscape through the development of the power line may not represent a major problem, provided the impact is managed.

Significance statement: The introduction or spread of alien species may occur as a result of vegetation clearance, and aliens may be spread during the construction phase. This will probably have a moderately severe, short to medium term impact at the study area level of MODERATE significance before mitigation. By preventing the spread of alien plant species by not transferring soil over large distances, not disturbing vegetation unnecessarily and not transporting plant material extensive distances from sites where it has been cleared, the residual impact will be LOW.

IMPACT 6: THE LOSS OF ETHNOBOTANICAL RESOURCES

Cause and comment: The cutting and clearing of trees and other species during both the construction and maintenance phases of the power line could have negative effects on plant species of ethnobotanical importance. This is especially important with regard to indigenous the fruit producing trees, wood used for charcoal and certain species of medicinal important. Not only is the fruit an important dietary supplement for the local people, but fruit is also important for the production of commercial fruit juice.

Significance statement: A reduction in fruit availability will definitely occur as a result of the construction and maintenance of the power line, owing to the removal or cropping of trees within the 50m servitude. The loss of fuel wood and medicinal plants is less important, but the impact have be permanent and of moderate severity within a localised area, resulting in an impact of MODERATE significance.

76 Vegetation and Floristics: R Lubke Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecor LIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

3.7 CONCLUSION

The construction and operation of the power line will result in only a few impacts on the vegetation along the route. Owing to the disturbed nature of the vegetation within the area and the relatively small area of vegetation that needs to be cleared, these impacts are generally of low environmental significance.

3.8 RECOMMENDATIONS

Considering the generally disturbed or secondary state of the vegetation and the absence of rare/endangered plant species, it is not of critical important to be concerned about additional changes to the natural vegetation. However, the following specific recommendations are made:

1. Removal of trees: Avoid removing trees, where possible, as these have both ecological and ethnobotanical value. In particular species such as baobab and tamarind trees should be avoided. 2. Alien vegetation: Prevent the spread of alien plant species by not transferring soil over large distances, not disturbing vegetation unnecessarily and not transporting plant material extensive distances from sites where it has been cleared. 3. Vegetation clearing: Restrict the amount of vegetation cleared for the placement of pylons and avoid unnecessary damage to natural vegetation by complying with all specifications contained in the Construction Environmental Management Plan. In particular, clearly demarcate the smallest area possible that can be disturbed. 4. Environmental Management Plan: Prepare an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for the construction and operational phase of the power line. This EMP should provide guidelines and specifications for vegetation rehabilitation. 5. Environmental Site Officer: Employ an Environmental Site Officer during the construction phase to ensure that these, and other recommendations contained in the Environmental Management Plan are implemented.

3.9 REFERENCES

Alexiades, M.N. (ed.) (1997). Selected guidelinesfor ethnobotanicalresearch: afield manual. Scientific Publications Department. The New York Botanical Garden.

Arnold, T.H. and de Wet, B.C. (eds) (1993). Plants of southern Africa: names and distributions. Memoirs of the Botanical survey of South Africa. No 62 Binns, Blodwen 1972. Dictionary of Plant Names in Malawi. Government Printer, Zomba. Coates Palgrave, K. 2002. Trees of Southern Africa. New revised edition by Meg Coates Palgrave. Struik Publishers, Cape Town.

Cotton, C.M. (1996). Ethnobotany - Principles and Applications. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Chichester, U.K.

Vegetation and Floristics:R Lubke 77 Coastal & EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2. Specialist Reports

De Koning and Balkwill (1995). Terrestrial vegetation. In: Kalk, M. (ed.) A natural history of Inhaca Island. 3rd edition. Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg.

Hilton-Taylor, C (1996). Red data list of Southern African plants. National Botanical Institute, Pretoria.

Kokwaro, J.O. (1993). Medicinal Plants of East Africa (2 nd ed.) Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi.

Paris, S. (1991). Land Resources Appraisal of Blantyre Agricultural Development Division. Malawi Government Ministry of Agricultural/ United Nations Development Programme, FAO. 134N

White, F. (1983). The vegetation of Africa. A descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. UNESCO, Paris.

Williamson, J. (1975). Useful Plants of Malawi University of Malawi, Zambia.

78 Vegetation and Floristics:R Lubke Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecor EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

APPENDIX A: A preliminary list of plant species recorded in the project area (* = Naturalised; ** = naturalised & cultivated, # = coloniser of disturbed habitats).

Genus Name Common name Rel Collector No. No. (RAL) K9 Poaceae K73a Hypotheila dissoluta Tsekela 10/3 4692 K80 Heteropogon contortus Nsine/Mtsanu 5/9 4658 K83 Themeda triandra Nyumbo 5/16 4652 K107 Paspalum Luva 14/3 4702 K046 Sorghum Mphunga 5/35 4655 K089 Digitaria 5/5 4657 K Grass A 12/10 4694 K Grass Mphunga 14/6 4704 99 Andropogon amplectans Kapholokanjira 5/8 4653 99 Andropogon Phenemphe 7/8 4640 99 Andropogon Mphenemphe 5/32 4659 9901 Loudetia simplex 5/6 4656 9902 Eragrostis Kamvelele 5/10 4649 9902 Eragrostis capensis Mlandabanja 12/19 4698 9902 Eragrostis 14/13 4708 9903 Pogonarthria 8/17 4643 9900730 Hyparrhenia rufa Nyumbo 8/25 4644 9900730 Hyparrhenia rufa 12/20 4697

1 PTERIDOPHYTE 7 MONOCOTYLEDONAE 360 Pellaea calomelanos Katsitsemzukwa 7/5 4636 458 Cyperaceae 471 Bulbostylis hispidula 11/17 4695 1246 Velloziaceae 1247 Xerophyta Cheyo 5/28 4667 1250 Dioscoreaceae 1252 Creeper - Dioscorea? Kamvalankhalamba / 5/3 4654 Dululu 1312 DICOTYLEDONEAE 1961 Ficus glumosa Del. Kachele 5/12 4674 1961 Ficus abutifolia (Mig.) Mig. Chidyambira 6/24 4632 2136 Ximenia cafra Mpinjipinji 5/17 4670 2136 ?Ximenia cafra 20/5 4718 3168 Crassula 6/20 4625 3446 Acacia Sovi 10/18 4691 3446 Acacia polycantha 2/9 4725 3451 Fabaceae 3504 Brachystegia Mzale 5/24 4732 3504 Brachystegia spiciformis Kachumbe 5/14 4673, _4651 3504 Brachystegia spiciformis Tsamba 5/23 4669

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3504 Brachystegia boehemii Miombo 5/21 4668 3528 Bauhinia Mpondo 6/29 4633, 15/1 4712 3536 Senna abbrevigata _ 18/7 4713 3702 Indigofera 6/22 4626 3703 Psoralea 20/3 4716 3718 Tephrosia 21/19 4724 3718 Tephrosia 14/19 4709 3718 Tephrosia 4719 3718 Tephrosia Mieza 4638 3718 Tephrosia Kamtedza 4637 3718 Tephrosia Nthuzinankhuku 4690 3821 Dalbergiella nyasae Mlembela 5/25 4661 3821 Dalbergia melanoxylon Phingo 5/30 4672 3828 Pterocarpus angolensis Mlonbwa 59/26 4686 29/14 4272 Polygalaceae 4273 Polygala 4684 4295 Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia 4663 Pax 4325 Hymenocardia acida Tul. Kantchintcho 22/11 4728 4344 Euphorbiaceae 4345 Bridelia cathartica Bertol f. 4634 4407 ?Chigaya (Chigaga = Acalypha; Mato 9/12 4676 Chigawa = Manihot esculenta; Chigogo Tricalysia) 4448 Clutia 4647 4448 Clutia 4624 4498 Euphorbia hurta 4699 4498 Euphorbiaceae yellow flowers Thonga 5/13 4671 4563 Lannea 20/16 4721 4563 Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Chirusa 14/26 4711 Engi. 4586 Loxostylis Chiumba 8/12 4641 4917 Rhoicissus revoilii Planch Nkotamo 7/15 4635 4918 Cyphostemma gigantophyllum Mandula 6/18 4629 (Gilg & Brandt) Wild & Drummond 4918 Cyphostemma sp. Indet. Thombolimo 14/21 4710 4975 Triumfetta 4703 4983 Abutilon 4628 5012 Malvaceae 5013 Hibiscus Tong'o 4727 5538 Combretum 20/12 4722 5538 Combretum Chinama 14/7 4705 5538 Combretum Matumboanjani/Mga 22/5 4626 ga 5544 Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC. Tsatsache 12/7 4696

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5592 Heteromorpha trifoliata Mpoloni 9/15 4487 5872 Cussonia Mbwabwa 22/10 4733, 9/8 4679 5892 Apiaceae 6116.01 Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. 4687 6406 Nyongola? (Nyongolo= Mbalambala 9/25 4681 Diospyros sp.) (Bridelia cathartica) 6406 Diospyros? Balitsa 9/24 4682 6406 Diospyros kirkii Mchenje 5/18 4665 6460 Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. Mateme 9/23 4683 6558 Apocynaceae 6558 Apocynaceae Tombozi 9/10 4677 6589 Diplorhynchus condylocarpon Tombozi 5/15 4666 6752 Asclepiadaceae 6791 Asclepias Nyangayagwape 4660 7186 Vitex mombassae Vatke Mpsipsa 22/10 4730 7280 Lamiaceae 7350 Plectranthus 4662 7578 Scrophulariaceae 7627 Harveya 4627 7972 Acanthaceae 7973 Barleria Jelejele 4650 7973 Barleria 4677a 8135 Rubiaceae 8136 Oldenlandia 4646 8136 Pavetta crassipes K. Schum. Chisense 12/25 4700 8352 Canthium ciliatum Pembele 8/10 4642 8750 Asteraceae 8751 Vernonia Chisoso 4707 8751 Vemonia 4717

Legume Mkwandulo 4688 Labiatae Kamauka 4735 Labiatae Njenjedza 4729 Labiatae 4723 Labiatae 4678 Labiatae 4648 Gillardia Maluwasimpe 4664 Tree 1 Mzulu 6/27 4630 Tree4 9/17 4680 Tree- large leaves Gonondo 5/19 4675 Tree Ntchenje / Mfuma 7/22 4639 Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. 22/18 4731 Tree 20/2 4715 Neorautanenia ficifolius (Benth.) Chigaga 8/26 4645 C.A. Smith Cultivated tree Nzengo 19/9 4714

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Tree2 Kasokolowe 6/28 4631 Tree Mjanga 14/2 4701 Tree3 Mphakasa 9/16 4685 Tree _ 22/18 4706 Albizzia Chiteta 22/6 4734 Papillionatae 20/15 4720 10/21 4689

82 Vegetation and Floristics: R Lubke CHAPTER 4

FAUNAL ASSESSMENT

W R Branch

Bayworld P O Box 13147 Humewood Port Elizabeth 6013

Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Report

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 87 4.1 Introduction ...... 91 4.1.1 Terms of reference ...... 91 4.1.2 Faunal studies and conservation ...... 91 4.2 Methodology ...... 92 4.2.1 Field surveys ...... 92 4.2.2 Threatened and sensitive species ...... 92 4.2.3 Limitations and cautions ...... 92 4.2.4 Habitat diversity ...... 92 4.2.5 Protected areas ...... 92 4.3 Faunal diversity ...... 93 4.3.1 Amphibians ...... 93 4.3.2 Reptiles ...... 93 4.3.3 Birds ...... 94 4.3.4 Mammals ...... 94 4.4 Key environmental impacts ...... 96 4.4.1 Introduction ...... 96 4.4.2 Impacts associated with current land use ...... 96 4.4.3 Impacts associated with the power line ...... 98 4.5 Conclusions ...... 103 4.5.1 Identification of sensitive areas ...... 103 4.5.2 Mitigation of impacts to birds ...... 103 4.6 Recommendations ...... 106 4.6 References ...... 106

LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 4.4.2a: Summary of impacts associated with current land use in the proposed route Fig. 4.4.3a: Summary of impacts associated with construction and operation of the power line in the proposed route.

LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Amphibians of southern Malawi that may occur along the proposed route Table 4.2: Reptiles of southern Malawi that may occur along the proposed route (Part 1 - Lizards) Table 4.3: Birds of conservation concern in Malawi and along the proposed route (red) Table 4.4: Impacts to fauna associated with the current land use regime Table 4.5: Impacts to fauna associated with the construction and operation of the power line

FaunalAssessment: W R Branch 85 I

i i i Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnectr EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Introduction Much of the fauna and flora within the region of the proposed power line route is typical of a disturbed area. It consists of a mosaic of agriculture and secondary growth with fragments of primary vegetation. The fauna is depauperate, with large mammals mostly locally extinct and the remaining fauna comprising small cryptic or commensal vertebrates.

A mixture of natural and disturbed plant communities were observed that provided a variety of faunal habitats, namely:

* Cultivated and fallow fields * Open Woodland * Secondary Savanna * Riverine and wetland community * Miombo Woodland (Brachystegia Forest)

Cultivated rural areas typically have poor faunal populations and low species diversity. Therefore, rural habitats were not discussed in detail. Discussion of the habitat associations of the fauna was based on existing knowledge of the biology of the observed species.

Amphibians Southem Malawi has a diverse amphibian fauna and 33 amphibian species may possibly occur along the proposed route. There are no endemic amphibians in the region and no Malawian amphibians are listed as threatened in the IUCN Red List 2000. However, several frogs have restricted ranges although all extend into adjacent regions. The riverine and wetland habitats along the proposed power line route provide a suitable habitat for many amphibians. The main project action likely to adversely impact on the amphibians is habitat destruction associated with vegetation clearance for the access roads and power line pylons. This may be exacerbated by siltation and water turbidity accompanying construction and possible subsequent erosion. If the latter is mitigated then the loss of habitat is likely to be relatively small in extent and therefore unlikely to significantly destroy habitat or fragment amphibian populations.

Reptiles Reptiles play an important role in nutrient cycling within ecosystems, and in population control of their prey. Due to the diverse habitats along the proposed route a rich reptile fauna is likely to occur (up to 65 species). Endemicity in Malawian reptiles is low and most endemic species are associated with montane habitats and are not found in the region transected by the power line. The Zambezi soft-shelled terrapin (Cycloderma frenatum), which occurs in the larger rivers and wetlands, is listed as 'Near Threatened' in the Red List 2000. A number of other reptiles are listed on CITES legislation (all in Appendix II). They are listed under general categories (Pythonidae, Testudinidae, Varanidae, Cordylus or Chamaeleo) because elsewhere in Africa they have been subject to over-exploitation. The level of exploitation of reptiles as food in the region is unknown, as is the impact of the destruction of forested and wooded habitats. It is likely that some large species have been locally eradicated or now occur in reduced numbers.

Birds A diverse avifauna occurs in southern Malawi, which includes hombills, raptors and game birds. Many are forest species, and their absence probably reflects hunting, persecution, and the loss of suitable habitat for nesting. Few (8) of the birds occurring along the proposed route FaunalAssessment: WR Branch 87 Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnector EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Report are listed in threatened or near-threatened categories of international or regional summaries. The long history of agriculture in the region has probably had a significant impact on waterfowl and forest and woodland birds.

Mammals Approximately 120 mammal species once occurred in southern Malawi. Viable populations of few of the large mammal species now remain in the area of the proposed route, except in adjacent unfenced game reserves (e.g. Majete GR). Small mammals and bats dominate the remaining mammal fauna. None of these are endemic and few are listed as threatened in international or regional summaries, or placed on CITES appendices.

Key Environmental impacts Impacts of CurrentLand Use Current land use has had a significant negative impact on faunal diversity in the region, particularly on medium and large mammals, and many groups of birds. Amphibian and reptiles diversity is less severely depleted.

Impacts during the Construction Phase Impacts associated with construction involve the clearing of vegetation for a corridor beneath the power line, construction of access roads to the proposed route, and for pylons, drum stations and the substation. This results in loss of habitat, with consequent impacts on species diversity and loss of threatened species.

Impacts during the OperationalPhase Impacts resulting from the presence of the power line include mortalities to threatened birds from electrocution or collision, and secondary impacts on fauna resulting from increased access to previously pristine habitats. The most significant of these impacts, and the one that has generated the most international and regional interest, is that of bird mortalities on power lines. The problem of negative interactiors between wildlife and electricity structures is an international one, and the most frequently killed birds include large raptors and cranes, storks, bustards, flamingos, etc.

Four impacts result from the proposed power line project, and all are of LOW to MODERATE significance. This is primarily because the area has been disturbed through current land use practices, and the fact that impacts can managed.

Impacts Significance Impact 1: Loss of habitat Low to moderate Impact 2: Fragmentation of habitat Low Impact 3: Loss of species diversity Low Impact 4: Loss of species of special concern Low

In order to manage impacts on vertebrates it is recommended that:

* Route design: The route considered in the report is designed to reduce environmental impacts and should be unchanged without further study. * Environmental Management Plan: An Environmental Management Plan should be prepared to provide guidelines for reducing ecological impacts during the construction phase. Adherence to these guidelines should be monitored.

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* Bird-friendly Pylons: Pylon designs along the whole route should be chosen to maximise the distance been conductive elements, and incorporate alternate perching areas for birds. Nesting and perching birds may bridge conducting elements (either by spread wings or bird streamers). Species of special concern (mainly raptors) can be electrocuted and leading to expensive power disruptions. * Birdflight diverters: To reduce large bird collisions power lines crossing or running close to bird flight paths (e.g. major river courses and large wetlands) should be made more visible with suitable bird flight diverters (BFDs). The most suitable type and spacing of BFDs should be determined in consultation with specialists.

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4. TERRESTRIAL FAUNA

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.1.1 TERMS OF REFERENCE

The specific terms of reference for the faunal study were:

1. To identify and list species of terrestrial vertebrates (all mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians) occurring along the route, based on the literature, published specimens or site records, and the likely occurrences of these species along the proposed route. 2. To identify Species of Special Concern (endemic, range-restricted, threatened). 3. To assess the habitat preference of the vertebrates and use these habitat preferences to assess the presence and abundance of vertebrate species. 4. To identify sensitive habitats and vertebrate species, and discuss existing impacts on the various populations. 5. To identify what habitats, groups of fauna, or ecological systems would be affected by the power line. 6. To address impacts and concerns relating to the terrestrial fauna raised by IAPs in the Scoping report; i.e. impacts on fauna, including those in adjacent wildlife reserves; an assessment of the extent of wildlife poaching. 7. To assess the significance of the identified impacts, and provide practical and realistic recommendations (from a cost perspective) to mitigate these.

4.1.2 FAUNAL STUDIES AND CONSERVATION

By African standards the vertebrate fauna of Malawi is relatively well known. However, many of the scientific studies on the terrestrial vertebrates of the country are of limited scope, and previous synopses are outdated and currently of limited value. Amphibians are best documented and have been recently reviewed (Stewart 1967; Poynton and Broadley, 1985-91; Broadley 2000; Channing, 2001). Reptiles have never been formally reviewed, although synopses of Malawi snakes (Sweeney 1961), the herpetofauna of southeast Malawi (Stevens 1974) and the Zambezi Basin species (Broadley 2000) are available. Others are listed in faunal and taxonomic reviews (e.g. Broadley 1966; 1980, 198 1a,b). The birds of Malawi have been popularly summarised in Newman et al, (1992), and wetland-associated species of the Zambezi Basin are summarised in Mundy (2000). Mammals in Malawi were last reviewed by Ansell and Dowsett (1988), and an updated taxonomy was compiled from details in Smithers (1983, 1986), Skinner and Smithers (1990), Wilson and Reeder (1993), Kingdon (1997) and Mills and Hex (1997). Cotterill (2000) has also reviewed reduncine antelope of the region.

A total of 9 protected areas occur in Malawi (Anon.. 1998), covering a total of 1.059 million hectares (11.3% of Malawi). This figure is misleading in terms of conservation ideals, as only the five reserves are fully protected (696 000 ha) and even this large area is misleading as the degree of control and protection afforded the fauna and flora is often poor (Stuart and Adams 1990; Cotteril 2000). No Biosphere Reserves, and only a single World Heritage Sites and one Wetland of International Importance have been proclaimed in Malawi, even though there are a number of candidate sites (Stuart and Adams 1990). No conserved sites are directly traversed by the proposed route, although the route does pass close to the northern boundary of the unfenced Majete Game Reserve (682 sq km.), the fifth largest reserve in the country.

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4.2 METHODOLOGY

4.2.1 FIELD SURVEYS

No faunal survey of the proposed route was made. However, general site visits were undertaken by CES staff and habitat diversity was surveyed and photographed during field trips. An assessment of the vegetation en route appears in Chapter Three. The following report is thus a desktop review of the terrestrial vertebrate fauna occurring along the proposed power line route based on a compilation of published knowledge (see above).

4.2.2 THREATENED AND SENSITIVE SPECIES

No Red Data Books (now called Red Lists) have been prepared for Malawi. A list of potentially threatened species was prepared from Red Data Books from southern African countries (e.g. Barnes 2000; Branch 1988; Smithers 1986), and from international lists of threatened species (e.g. CITES legislation or the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (Hilton-Taylor, 2000); Birds to Watch 2 (Collar et a., 1994); and 1998-99 World Resources (Anon. 1998).

4.2.3 LIMITATIONS AND CAUTIONS

No detailed faunal survey of the power line route was undertaken and this report is therefore based on existing literature and may be biased towards the more highly visible (e.g. birds) or common, commensal species. Moreover, although Malawi is relatively well studied the presence of undescribed species cannot be discounted.

4.2.4 HABITAT DIVERSITY

A variety of natural and disturbed plant communities have been documented along the proposed route, namely: * Cultivated and fallow fields * Open Woodland * Secondary Savanna * Riverine and wetland community * Miombo Woodland (Brachystegia Forest)

In addition to these plant communities a number of physical habitats, e.g. inselbergs, occur. Cultivated rural areas typically have impoverished faunal populations and low species diversity.

4.2.5 PROTECTED AREAS No formally protected areas occur along the route of the proposed power line, although the route does pass close (+ 5 km) to the northern boundary (unfenced) of the Majete Game Reserve and skirts the northern boundary of the Thambani Forest Reserve.

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4.3 FAUNAL DIVERSITY

4.3.1 AMPHIBIANS

Diversity Amphibians are an important and often neglected component of terrestrial vertebrate faunas, and Malawi has a diverse amphibian fauna. In the last authoritative reviews of the Malawi amphibian fauna (Stewart 1967; Poynton and Broadley 1985-1991; Channing 2001) only 53 species and subspecies were recorded, of which 40 occur north of the Zambezi River. There are no endemic Malawi amphibians (Poynton and Broadley 1991).

A total of 33 amphibian species may occur along the proposed route (Table 4.1). A number of species that inhabit Miombo woodlands (the Malawi rain frog, Breviceps mossambicus, and the shovelfooted squeaker, Arthroleptis stenodactylus) undergo direct larval development and do not have a free-swimming tadpole stage. They are therefore not dependent on standing water. Most other species breed in seasonally inundated pans and vleis occurring in the wetlands and along drainage lines. Frogs linked to permanent water sources include the Tropical Platanna (Xenopus muelleri) and larger grass frogs (e.g. Ptychadena oxyrhynchus, P. mossambicus).

Species of Special Concern No Malawi amphibians are listed as threatened in the Red List (Hilton-Taylor, 2000), or in other relevant regional reviews (Channing 2001). Although no endemic frogs occur in the region (Poynton and Broadley 1985-91), one species with a restricted range does occur. Lindner's dwarf toad (Bufo lindneri) is known from scattered populations in southern Malawi, southern Tanzania and coastal Mozambique (Poynton and Broadley 1987; Channing 2001). The species is poorly protected and not recorded from any conserved areas. However, it is not considered locally or globally threatened. It is found in sandy areas with open bush (Channing 2001).

Habitat destruction associated with vegetation clearance for the access roads and power line corridor is the main project action likely to adversely impact amphibians. This is lelatively small in extent and is unlikely to significantly destroy or fragment amphibian populations provided care is taken to contain erosion and siltation of watercourses. The most sensitive habitats are thick woodland habitats, the destruction of which may cause the localized loss of forest specialists such as the shovel- footed squeaker (Arthroleptis stenodactylus).

4.3.2 REPTILES

Diversity Reptiles form a significant, but neglected component of terrestrial vertebrate faunas in Africa. With the exception of land tortoises all terrestrial reptiles are carnivorous, although some larger lizards do supplement their diet with vegetable matter in certain seasons. Reptiles therefore play an important role in nutrient cycling within ecosystems and in the population control of their prey.

The reptile fauna of Malawi has never been formally reviewed, but an assessment of probable taxa in the region can be made from synopses of adjacent areas (Broadley, 1966, 1990, 2000; Branch 1998; Broadley and Howell, 1991). Integration of the above publications indicates that at least 60-70 reptile species occur in southern Malawi. Due to diverse habitats in the proposed route a rich reptile fauna is likely to occur. However, endemicity in Malawi reptiles is relatively low, and most occur as disjunct populations on isolated montane grasslands or rock outcrops (Broadley, 1966). FaunalAssessment: W R Branch 93 Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Report

A total of at least 65 reptile species are likely to be found in the region (Table 4.2, including 21 lizards, 2 amphisbaenians, 35 snakes, five chelonians (tortoises and terrapins) and one crocodile).

Species of Special Concern The lack of a National Red List for Malawi means that an assessment of the conservation status of the reptile fauna must be made by comparison with international lists and/or those from adjacent countries (e.g. Branch, 1988). No Malawi terrestrial reptiles are listed as threatened in the Red List 2000 (Hilton-Taylor, 2000) although the Zambezi soft-shelled terrapin (Cycloderma frenatum), which may occur in the larger rivers and wetlands of the region, is listed as Near Threatened. A number of other reptiles are listed on CITES legislation (all on Appendix II). They are listed under general categories (Pythonidae, Testudinidae, Varanidae, Cordylus or Chamaeleo) because elsewhere in Africa they have been subject to over-exploitation, either for the skin trade (pythons) or pet trade (chameleons and tortoises) (see Table 4.2). Trade in these species is not known to be significant at present.

4.3.3 BIRDS

Diversity A diverse avifauna occurs n Malawi. Although a few birds are commensal, rapidly and successfully adapting to modified environments, the majority of birds are sensitive to disturbance and either migrate away from, or suffer greater mortality within, degraded habitats. However, because of their high mobility, birds are capable of rapidly recolonising rehabilitated habitats, provided suitable microhabitats become available. Due to their ability to fly they are also tolerant of low levels of disturbance.

No recent scientific review of all Malawi birds exists, but a popular summary is available (Newman et al. 1992), and Stuart and Adamas (1990) indicate an avifauna of about 650 species. Due to the varied habitats, the proposed route can be expected to have a relatively diverse avifauna. Wetlands and evergreen forests are likely to attract numerous summer waterfowl, both intra-African and Palaearctic migrants.

Species of Special Concern A total of 20 SSC birds occur in Malawi (Hilton-Taylor, 2000; Collar et al, 1994), including: three Endangered species, eight Vulnerable species, and nine Near Threatened species (see Table 4.3). Many of these birds are montane forest specialists and few occur along the proposed route. Moreover, of the only eight species (5 Vulnerable and three Near Threatened) that occur along the route four are non-breeding migrants (Lesser Flamingo, Madagascan pond heron, Corn Crake, and Lesser Kestrel) whose main threats occur in the breeding parts of their range. Although populations of the African Skimmer are in decline, it is a specialist river feeder that nests and roosts on sand banks in major rivers. It will be neither impacted by habitat loss or increased mortality from the proposed development. The power line may have a negative impact on two threatened species. Vultures are known to suffer mortalities from electrocution whilst roosting or nesting on pylons (Marcus 1972; Anderson 2001). Wattled cranes and flamingos (Borello, et al. 1997) die mainly from collisions with power lines that they do not see, or via electrocution from faecal streams (see below).

4.3.4 MAMMALS

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Diversity Over 1150 mammal species occur in Africa (Kingdon 1997), of which 195 occur in Malawi (Anon., 1998; Stuart and Adams 1990). The mammal fauna of Malawi was last reviewed by Ansell and Dowsett (1988), who only recorded 187 species from the country. However, taxonomic revisions (e.g. Cottrill 2000) and range extensions have increased the mammalian fauna to over 200. However, no mammals are endemic to Malawi (Anon. 1998) as the fauna is mainly transitional and the country relatively small.

The Malawian mammal fauna shows its greatest affinities with Zambia (Ansell and Dowsett, 1988), and fewer species can be expected in the southern parts of the country. The majority of this diversity now comprises small mammals; particularly viverids, rodents and bats, and few viable populations of large mammals remain along the proposed route. It is probable that villagers along the route hunt antelope for bush meat. Cottrill (2000) notes that:

"Waterbuck and reedbuck originally occurred throughout the Lower Shire in suitable habitat (Ansell & Dowsett 1988). These populations were virtually extirpated with widespread settlement by rural human populations and associated development. They only persist in the Liwonde and Majete Reserves. Reedbuck still occur in certain protected areas, notably Nyika National Park (East 1989a). Elsewhere in Malawi, waterbuck only survive in protected areas such as Liwonde National Park and Nkhotakhota and Majete Game Reserves."

Species of Special Concern None of the few mammals still surviving along the proposed route are endemic. A total of 24 mammal species that occur or may still occur as vagrants along relatively undisturbed habitats along the proposed route are included in the Red List 2000 (Hilton-Taylor, 2000). The majority are included in the sensitive category of Near Threatened (19 species; this includes many species in the now defunct category of Conservation Dependent; Mace 2000). The others occur in the threatened categories of Vulnerable (3 species), or remain poorly-known and are considered Data Deficient (DD). Most of the very large and charismatic threatened species, i.e. lion (Historical and Vagrant, Vulnerable), wild dog (Historical, Vulnerable), elephant (Historical, Endangered) and black rhinoceros (Historical, Critical) are now extinct, along with the more visible and larger antelope (Table 4.4).

The chequered elephant shrew (hynchocyon cireni) is a very rare species that is widely spread in southern Malawi. Stuart and Adams (1990) note that its occurrence and conservation requirements remain poorly known, and Kingdon (1997) notes that the races in Malawi, SE Tanzania and E Democratic Republic of the Congo are not endangered, but are declining in densely settled areas. The species is a popular food item and is extensively hunted. Most of the few mammals surviving in the region are dependent on well-wooded or forest habitats. Their populations have been severely impacted by habitat destruction, via the clearance of woodland habitats for bush plots and more frequent fires set to improve cattle grazing.

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4.4 KEY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

4.4.1 INTRODUCTION

The majority of habitats along the proposed power line route have a long history of human settlement and subsistence agriculture. The fauna is thus already impacted relative to that in pristine habitats. Power line impacts fall into two main categories. Impacts in the first category are associated with the construction phase, and involve the clearing of vegetation for access roads to the proposed route, for the pylon bases, and for a cleared corridor beneath the power line. Additional impacts result from the operational phase of the power line. Direct operational impacts include the danger of electrocution and/or collision with the structures. Secondary operational impacts result from increased human access to previously pristine habitats, and include land clearance associated with rural development, and the increased non- sustainable use of faunal resources. The various impacts are discussed below.

4.4.2 IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH CURRENT LAND USE

Current land use in the region is one of subsistence agriculture and natural resource harvesting. If not conducted in a sustainable manner these land use practices can have negative consequences for ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. A massive loss of faunal diversity in the region has already occurred. This is attributable to poor socio-economic development in the region. It means that many people view wildlife as a ready source of protein. In addition, large-scale habitat destruction, particularly of forest patches along watercourses and tributaries has resulted from a long tradition of rural farming. This is exacerbated by a need for wood for fuel and housing construction. The widespread practice of burning grasslands during the dry season also impacts directly on the fauna, depriving it of food sources, shelter, nesting material, etc.

Fiscal constraints on governmental infrastructure mean that there is little effective implementation of conservation or land use legislation in the area. These factors have impacted the vertebrate groups differently. Current and previous agricultural practices have caused extensive fragmentation of habitats along the proposed route, and all are severely impacted by long-term land use practices. It is evident that in the medium to long-term current land use will have a significant impact on faunal diversity.

IMPACT 1- LOSS OF AMPHIBIAN DIVERSITY

Cause and comment: Wetland habitats along the proposed power line route, particularly along drainage lines associated with the major rivers, provide suitable habitat for many amphibians. Fallow lands retain high amphibian diversity, particularly for terrestrial, burrowing species (e.g. Bufo, Phrynomantis, Hemisus, Breviceps sp.). The many disturbed habitats of the proposed route probably still retain high amphibian diversity and viable populations.

Significance Statement: Current land use practices have a LOW environmental impact on amphibians, as they are not utilised to any great extent and their primary habitats are not extensively disturbed.

IMPACT 2 - LOSS OF REPTILE DIVERSITY Faunal Assessment. W R Branch 96 Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

Cause and comment: Rural landscapes still retain a rich diversity of reptiles, particularly lizards. However, due to the extensive human population it is probable that very large snakes, such as pythons and the larger venomous species, may be locally extinct or occur in low densities. Many small, terrestrial, nocturnal species probably remain common in the region. Freshwater habitats in the more inaccessible regions probably retain specialist species, such as crocodiles, terrapins (including the threatened Zambezi soft-shelled terrapin), Nile monitor and frog-eating water snakes (e.g. Philothamnussp. and Crotaphopeltishotamboeia).

The level of exploitation of reptiles for food in the region is unknown but is likely to be limited. Nile monitors (Yaranus niloticus) are commonly eaten by rural communities but often remain very common despite these hunting pressures. The sothern African rock python (Python natalensis) is usually killed for food and its skin retained for sale and the fat used for medicinal purposes. It is also viewed as a threat to domestic animals. Tortoise fat is also used for traditional medicine.

Significance Statement: The large-scale clearance of forest and well-wooded savanna, and other direct impacts from hunting, has probably had a MODERATE impact on many reptiles along the proposed route.

IMPACT 3 - LOSS OF BIRD DIVERSITY

Cause and comment: Many groups of birds, including hombills, raptors and game birds, become locally rare due to hunting pressures. Many are forest species, and their absence or relative rarity may reflect the loss of suitable habitat for nesting (lack of tree holes) and/or the loss of food sources (felling of indigenous fruiting trees). The absence of most small raptors (sparrowhawks, goshawks, etc) and larger eagles may be due again to the loss of their prey items. They may also have been persecuted as a threat to livestock (goats and chickens). Game birds, such as guinea fowl and francolin experience sustained hunting pressures as local villagers usually catch them whenever possible.

For example Parker (1999) has noted that one of the most threatened avian habitats in southenm Mozambique is tall Brachystegia forest. Similar deforestation occurs along the proposed route. The long history of agriculture in the region has probably had a significant impact on forest and woodland birds, particularly species such as parrots, barbets, hombills and loeries (turacos) that are dependent on fruiting trees and hollow logs for nest holes.

Significance Statement: The impact that current land use practices have on birds is of MODERATE environmental significance, as birds in the proposed route are impacted by both hunting and habitat destruction.

IMPACT 4 - LOSS OF MAMMAL DIVERSITY

Cause and comment: The majority of the megaherbivores historically present in the region have become locally extinct due to unsustainable hunting and habitat loss (Ansell and Dowsett 1988). Only the smallest species (e.g. suni, reedbuck, Sharpe's grysbok) are likely to survive in patches of forests, whilst other species may occur as local vagrants in transit from protected areas such a Majete Game Reserve. The extensive clearing of savannah and forest habitats has resulted in

FaunalAssessment: WR Branch 97 Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementaryv olume 2: Specialist Report a direct loss of food reserves for large mammals, and increased vulnerability to predation in clearings and at the forest edge. Habitat and food plants are also lost due to the frequent fires set to improve cattle grazing and control vegetation.

Significance Statement: The overall impact of current land use practices on the mammals of the proposed route is HIGH to VERY HIGH.

Summary It is evident that current land use is having significant impacts on the faunal biodiversity and thus ecological functioning of the area. Only amphibian and small reptile diversity probably remains relatively unaffected by the extensive habitat destruction, mainly because wetlands remain largely intact.

EVERY HIGH

13HIGH

MMODERATE

JLOW

ENO SIGNIFICANCE

2 1DON'T KNOW

Fig. 4.4.2a Summary of Impacts associated with Current Land Use in the proposed route

4.4.3 IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE POWER LINE

IMPACT 5 - LOSS OF HABITAT

Cause and comment: Despite their non-pristine state the habitats in the proposed route still serve as refugia for the surviving fauna. Vertebrates differ in their dependence on specific habitats, and thus their adaptability to habitat fragmentation. Forest and wetland specialists are generally more greatly impacted by habitat fragmentation than species inhabiting open grassland and savannah habitats. The latter also tolerate disturbed habitats better, and include a greater spectrum of commensal species that tolerate, to varying degrees, man-induced landscape changes.

Wetlands (e.g. upper Lipongwe River catchment) and wooded habitats (e.g. Thambani Forest Reserve) are the most sensitive habitats along the proposed route.

Miombo Woodland. This habitat formerly blanketed much of the proposed route, but has now been replaced by a mosaic of disturbed habitats and pockets of original vegetation. The most extensive patch of relatively undisturbed Miombo woodland occurs in the Thambani Forest Reserve. Other small pockets of woodland are associated with increased run-off from the emergent rock inselbergs. Ihese woodland pockets serve as a refuge for many forest and woodland specialists. They also supply diverse resources utilized by the surrounding villagers.

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Construction of the proposed power line will result in direct and permanent habitat loss. A servitude line of 50m is proposed, with the central corridor of 8m cleared to grass level. In addition further land will be cleared for the pylon footprints (600 x 20 x 20m), drum stations (60 x 50 x5Om), the substation and firebreaks around these sites. Given further damage resulting from the construction of access roads and areas to store displaced vegetation, a substantial amount of habitat will be directly impacted. This amount is insignificant compared with the extent of surrounding habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, and the power line for the most part runs through a mosaic of degraded woodland.

To mitigate the potential impact of habitat loss it is essential that the selected route avoid the more sensitive wetland and wooded habitats. The selected alignment does avoid most of the sensitive areas and will not cross the Shire River, which may serve as a possible flight path for cranes and flamingos, etc., moving between the extensive wetlands in the Shire valley. Care is also required during the cDnstruction of access roads and tower structures. Bush cleared beneath the power lines along the central 8m corridor should be pushed carefully to adjacent regions. Vegetation cropped from the 3m-height limit of the buffer corridors on either side of the central corridor should be accumulated with these piles. They should not be burnt, but left as brush piles to form temporary refugia for displaced fauna, and to also serve as seed banks for revegetation of disturbed areas.

Significance Statement: A permnanent habitat loss will definitely occur due to the construction of the power line. However, the extent of habitat loss is relatively minor in a regional and national context, and the proposed route also avoids the most sensitive habitats. The significance of habitat loss is LOW to MODERATE.

IMPACT 6: FRAGMENTATION OF HABITATS

Cause and Comment: Fragmentation of habitats can lead to the loss of viable populations, especially in animals requiring large home ranges. The disruption to gene flow between 'island' populations reduces biological fitness in the long-term, compromising the ability of populations to adapt to future environmental perturbations. Species that are sensitive to habitat fragmentation are characteristically resident, habitat-specialists with low fecundity. Most of these species, e.g. prosimians, antelope, pythons, etc, are already locally extinct or occur at very low numbers.

Forest habitats contain most habitat specialists, particularly birds and mammals. In Tanzania forest-dependent bird diversity shows a roughly linear relationship between forest size and the numbers of birds (Dickinson et al, 1995). However, forests below 10 krm2 in area tend to support a poor assemblage of forest bird species with no threatened species, suggesting that forest patches below this size are unable to maintain diverse bird communities and therefore have lower conservation importance. No comparable studies on the impact of habitat destruction and fragmentation on forest birds in Malawi exist.

The bisected topography of the proposed route means that it traverses varied habitats. The linear nature of the power line will, by its nature, fragment habitats. Fragmentation of well- wooded and forested habitats will cause the greatest impact. However, the relatively narrow fragmentation caused directly by the power line will not significantly inhibit the movement of species, although it will lead to a slight rise in mortality due to increased visibility to predators. Significance Statement:

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The fragmentation of habitats will probably result in a slight decrease in vertebrate biodiversity in the long-term at the sub-regional level Mitigation of this impact is impossible. However, the environmental significance of habitat fragmentation on vertebrate biodiversity is LOW.

IMPACT 7: LOSS OF SPECIES DIVERSITY

Cause and Comment: Impacts of the proposed power line on the surviving fauna will be minimal for most groups. Amphibian diversity may be impacted by possible small scale, localized changes in water flow dynamics in the region caused by the presence of access roads and pylon footings. However, the wetland habitats along the Shire River valley are almost contiguous and most frogs in the region have rapid colonizing abilities. The surviving reptile fauna comprises species relatively tolerant of agricultural development. Many are commensal (e.g. striped skink and day geckos) and may even increase in numbers in disturbed situations and along forest edges and ecotones.

Birds are by far the most speciose vertebrate component in the region, and over 250 species can probably be expected. Most are non-migratory, and include some of the most common birds in Malawi. Summer migrant waders and waterfowl utilizing seasonal wetlands in the Lower Shire region and Zambezi Delta region may transit the region, but are tolerant of low to medium farming levels. The remaining mammal diversity in the region is very low, and the lack of forest refugia means that most mammals, particularly large bovids and carnivores, have been eradicated by habitat loss and hunting pressures. With the exception of rodents and bats, most mammals in the region are poor colonizers and require protected habitats to maintain viable population levels. The proposed power line is unlikely to significantly increase mortality or movement of the remaining mammal fauna.

Increased access to remote areas via the power line corridor and service roads can be expected to lead to increased hunting pressure on the few remaining large mammals.

Significance Statement: A loss of vertebrate species diversity in the long-term at the sub-regional level will probably result from construction and operation of the power line. For most groups the environmental significance of this impact will be LOW.

IMPACT 8: LOSS OF SPECIES OF SPECIAL CONCERN

Cause and Comment: Although no bird, reptile, amphibian or mammal species are endemic to the proposed route, some species are rare whilst others are of conservation concern. Most amphibians in the region are widely distributed throughout southern Malawi, and the local lowland amphibian fauna lacks any threatened species. A number of reptile species in the region are listed on CITES Appendix II but are wide-ranging species threatened throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Most of these species are linked to aquatic habitats, e.g. crocodiles, pythons, terrapins, and the Nile monitor. The threatened Zambezi flapped terrapin (Cyclodermafrenatum, NT) occurs in the Shire River but is unlikely to be significantly impacted by the proposed power line. Most birds in the region are also widely distributed through the region, and relatively few (8) are listed in the threatened (5 VU) or near threatened (NT 3) categories of the Red List 2000. Most of the mammals of conservation concern in the region are now bcally extinct due to

Faunal Assessment: W R Branch 100 Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnector EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports habitat loss and hunting pressures, or occur as vagrants from the adjacent Majete Game Reserve.

Apart from mortalities resulting from the initial direct impact of habitat clearance, few species will be impacted after the construction phase. However, sensitive species used as resources (food or muti) by local villagers, e.g. duiker, pangolin, python, monitors, chelonians, etc., will be indirectly impacted as the access roads to the power line route will allow easier access for people to some areas, resulting in increased utilization of the target species.

The most significant impact will be to large threatened birds, including vultures, raptors, storks, cranes and possibly migrating flamingo. These species are threatened by both collisions with power lines during movement, or electrocution whilst alighting (during resting or nesting) on pylons. Not all impacts of electrical structures on birds are negative. Where design improvements have significantly reduced bird mortality from collision or electrocution, the presence of pylons may be beneficial for many birds, particularly raptors. These structures may provide significant roosting or nesting sites (e.g. Anderson, 2001; De Goede and Jenkins, 1997), particularly where suitable large trees are absent (either naturally in semi arid areas or following extensive bush clearance and habitat destruction). Due to their height and unobstructed views they are also excellent perches for many hunting raptors (De Goede and Jenkins, 2001; Malan, 2002). The Threatened Martial Eagle has successfully utilized properly designed pylons in the Karoo for nesting, without experiencing high mortalities or causing expensive power disturbances in the process (De Goede and Jenkins, 2001).

Mitigation of this impact entails the construction of pylons designed to reduce bird electrocutions (i.e. with large gaps between conductive elements, with suspended insulators, and with bird guards to prevent birds perching in dangerous positions). Suitable structures (flappers, etc) to reduce bird collisions with power lines should be incorporated along identified flight paths. These are likely to occur whether the power line crosses major river courses, and/or near large wetland. Moreover, it is essential that the incidence and location of possible bird mortalities be monitored after the construction phase so that future steps can be implemented if bird mortalities become significant.

Significance Statement: The power line will impact only a few threatened vertebrates. The impacts on threatened birds, particularly raptors, vultures, cranes, storks, flamingos, etc., will probably occur in the long-term at the district and regional level and result in slight to moderately severe impact of LOW to MODERATE environmental significance. With mitigation this impact would be LOW.

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EVERY HIGH

1- HIGH

lOMODERATE

-LOW

ONO SIGNIFICANCE

ODON'T KNOW

Fig. 4.4.3a Summary of impacts associated with construction and operation of the power line in the proposed route.

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4.5 CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded that most impacts on fauna are of LOW significance, due primarily to the disturbed nature of the affected environment, and the fact that the power line will not result in the extensive clearing of vegetation, and hence will not directly lead to substantial habitat loss. The main impacts of concern are:

* Loss of bird species of special concern and migratory species due to collisions with the power lines where they intercept bird flight paths. * Increased human access resulting in secondary impacts of increased habitat destruction and unsustainable hunting or use of resources.

The following discussion provides further information on these important aspects.

4.5.1 IDENTIFICATION OF SENSITIVE AREAS

The greatest impact to the fauna will be increased mortality to large birds. This often results from birds flying at night and colliding with the power lines, or from electrocution to roosting or nesting birds alighting on the support structures. Power lines crossing regular flight paths used by birds coming to roost at favoured areas, or on migration routes can cause significart mortalities (Marcus 1972; Ledger and Auditore 1990; Hobbs and Smith, 1992; Borello et al., 1997; van Rooyen and Ledger 1999; Kruger 1999).

Although no detailed information concerning bird interactions with power lines in Malawi is unavailable, a potentially sensitive site is the crossing of the Shire River. The river may serve as a migration route for endangered cranes and flamingos undertaking seasonal or breeding migrations.

4.5.2 MITIGATION OF IMPACTS TO BIRDS

The most significant of these impacts, and tlr one that has generated most international and regional interest, is that of bird mortalities on power lines. There were no records of interactions between wildlife and electricity structures in southern Africa prior to 1972. In that year a large number of Cape Vultures were killed on 88kV distribution lines in the former Transvaal province of South Africa (Markus 1972). The problem of negative interactions between wildlife and electricity structures has given rise to a vast amount of literature. This interest reflects not only concern for increased mortality of threatened species, but of the financial costs to both electricity consumers and suppliers of frequent outages and consequent loss of productivity and profitability.

Birds may also cause power disturbances without suffering mortality. This may happen via damage to equipment from nesting material, or even from bird streamers. These long, ejectile streams of semi-solid faecal waste may reach over 2m in length, and are produced by large storks and cranes. If voided as the bird flies over high voltage lines they can lead to shortages that cause a significant number of recurrent power disturbances. Outages resulting from birds (either from collisions, electrocutions or from bird streamers) can result in significant financial costs to both electricity consumers and suppliers. The cost to Eskom of each incident is in the region of R60 000 per incident (De Goode and Jenkins, 2001). The Electric Power Research Institute in the United States estimates that power disturbances cost the US economy between $15 and $23 billion each year. Birds are a major contributory cause of these disturbances.

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Studies in southern Africa have dealt largely with biological and engineering impacts, i.e. the impact on threatened species that may be significantly affected, and engineering solutions to the problem (Ledger and Auditore 1990; Hobbs and Ledger 1986; Hobbs and Smith 1992; Van Rooyen 2002). Co-operative management has only lately been recognized as a vitally important aspect in the field of electricity/wildlife interactions. This led to the formation of an Eskom/Endangered Wildlife Trust Strategic Partnership in 1996. A monitoring programme from 1 August 1996 to 23 December 1997 noted 243 localities of negative interactioris, involving 584 incidents of either collisions with power lines or electrocution on electricity structures. A breakdown of the results obtained revealed that the most frequently killed birds included: Blue crane (81), White stork (76), Ludwig's bustard (64), Lesser flamingo (37), Greater flamingo (22), Kori bustard (16) and Grey crowned crane (15). Installing 270 000 bird guards to existing pylons to reduce disturbances from birds cost Eskom R37 million during the period 2000- mid-2002. The reduction in streamer-related faulting on a sample of 21 lines before and after the installation of bird guards showed a reduction in faults of 80%, a saving of R18 million in a six month period (Van Rooyen, 2002). It also resulted in significant reductions in bird mortalities.

Following a detailed analysis of 160 bird mortalities in a 33 month period on the Eskom distribution network of structures up to 132 kV, Kruger (1999) found that the greater majority (147) were due to electrocutions, with only 13 occurring through collisions. A variety of studies on the relationship between electrocutions and the construction of high-voltage structures (Hobbs and Ledger 1986; Kruger 1999; Van Rooyen and Ledger 1999) reveal that the size and distance between high-voltage elements in 400kV structures usually precludes electrocution of even the largest raptors and birds such as cranes and storks. This is particularly true of the "compact cross-rope suspension" tower, which is not known to cause high mortalities with roosting or nesting birds. Due to the distance between conductive elements these structures also suffer few disturbances due to bird streamers.

Kruger (1999) analysed raptor electrocutions on Eskom distribution structures and found that pylons of T-Structure and Kite design were responsible for most bird mortalities (55%). There was a direct correlation between the body size of birds and the spacing between conducting elements, and over 90% of electrocuted birds had a wingspan between 120-250 cm. The hazard to wet birds vas much greater than to dry ones, due both to the increased conductivity of wet feathers and the loss of flight capability and control that wet birds experience. The chances of raptors being electrocuted when wet also increases because of their habit of spreading their wings to dry. Kruger (1999) notes that the increasing use of steel pole supports (used for their strength, durability and resistance to damage) on new 88 kV and 132 kV feeder lines increased the risk of bird electrocutions. The Eskom 259 Series incorporates a single earthed pole with three staggered insulators, each 1.5m in length. Raptors perching on the insulators have an increased risk of electrocution. It was recommended that steel pole pylons only have suspended insulators and no exposed loop of wire should be present above the insulators. The risk of electrocution can be further reduced by fitting a wooden perch to the top of poles (Kruger, 1999; Van Rooyen and Ledger, 1999).

Raptors and vultures may be electrocuted whilst roosting ard/or nesting on structures. Especially threatened are vultures, which congregate at carcasses and where they see other vultures, and which prefer high perch heights. However, Parker (1999) noted an almost complete lack of vultures in adjacent Mozambique. Low vulture densities in these regions probably reflect intensive human impact on wild game.

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Bird collisions with power lines occur because most birds have a limited zone of 3-D vision because their eyes are placed on the sides of the head. This makes judgment of distance difficult, as the distance of an object is judged by its movement against the background or rate at which it's apparent size changes (Underhill, 1998). Their distance from thin power lines is therefore difficult for birds to judge and large birds when flying under certain light conditions (e.g. at night or when facing into the sun) may not see power lines until too late resulting in injury and often death. The most sensitive species are cranes, storks, bustards, flamingos, etc. Raptors rarely collide with power lines as they usually move during the day, roost on high perches, and also have high visual acuity. They therefore usually avoid collisions with power lines.

Collisions can become significant when power lines cross well-established bird flight paths, either on migration routes or between foraging and roosting areas. Although most bird migrations are undertaken at heights well above those of power lines, this may not be the case for flamingos or for other waterfowl (flufftails, moorhens, crakes, etc.). In addition, some birds undertake long migrations at night, and are particularly vulnerable to collisions with power lines. Recent reports have noted the death of flamingos along a power line that crosses the Limpopo floodplain, confirming earlier reports of fatalities in the country (Borello et al, 1997).

Realistically, it will be impossible to eliminate all bird collisions and electrocutions (Kruger, 1999; Van Rooyen and Ledger 1999). A more reasonable goal is to reduce mortalities to sustainable levels. Four key elements of risk management can be applied to reduce these impacts (Kruger 1999): a) Risk identification, b) Risk evaluation, c) Risk control, and d) Risk financing.

The present report has highlighted aspects of risk identification, and suggests mitigatory measures that could be applicable for risk control (see below). Aspects of risk evaluation and risk financing require quantification of the identified impacts. The assessment of the economic consequences of these impacts, in terms of the frequency and duration of supply outages (and hence quality of service), and the image of the utility in terms of the public, stakeholders, competitors and future national and international investors (Kruger 1999), also needs evaluation. The cost of retrofitting mitigatory measures is more time-consuming and expensive than their proactive installation at the time of construction.

A variety of structures have been designed to increase the visibility of power lines in highly sensitive regions (Ledger 1994). The Bird Flapper (BF) is a recent development that has been jointly developed by an Eskom employee and Preformed Line Products (Pietermaritzburg). The BF-prototype is currently undergoing field trials to test its effectiveness in reducing bird collisions. An advantage of the flapper compared to other bird flight diverters (BFD) is that it can be fitted to a reticulation line with a link stick on foot. This eliminates the need for expensive live- line equipment or the interruption of the power supply. A further advantage is that it eliminates further damage to the environment caused by live-line vehicles. It also provides a solution for terrain that cannot be negotiated with vehicles, e.g. wetlands. Along bird migration routes and other sensitive regions it is recommended that flappers be spaced as close as 5- lOm. Large spiral BFDs have been used successfully in Spain, but have not been as successful in southern Africa (Kruger 1999). Visual markers, such as flappers and spirals, are ineffectual for birds undertaking migrations at night, e.g. flamingos. For these species, fluorescent light sources (Mace Technologies) may be hung from the cables. Luminescent flappers are effective for cranes and waterfowl at roosting sites, but their passive luminance fades during the evening. They remain effective, however, at dusk for birds coming in to roost in pans and wetlands. Coloured spiral bird flight diverters must be installed on the earth wires

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4.6 RECOMMENDATIONS

In order to manage impacts on vertebrates it is recommended that:

1. Route design: The route, as defined in this report, is followed as it has been designed to reduce ecological impacts. 2. Environmental Management Plan: The Environmental Management Plan provides guidelines for reducing ecological impacts during the construction phase. 3. Install bird flight diverters: Appropriate bird flight diverters (BFD) are installed to increase the visibility of the power lines where they pass in close proximity to the Shire River, or any other areas shown in the future to cross bird migratory paths. Exact locations will need to be determined in consultation with the environmental site officer during the construction phase, and the most suitable type and spacing of BFDs should be determined in consultation with specialists. 4. Bird-friendly Pylons: Pylon designs along the whole route should be chosen to maximise the distance been conductive elerrents, and incorporate alternate perching areas for birds. Nesting and perching birds may bridge conducting elements (either by spread wings or bird streamers). Species of special concern (mainly raptors) can be electrocuted and leading to expensive power disruptions. 5. Monitoring of bird mortalities: The impact of the power line on bird mortality needs to be regularly monitored. Dead or injured birds discovered below the power line during routine maintenance of the route corridor or during repair work for outages should be identified and recorded. Results should be collated and forwarded to a conservation agency such as the Endangered Wildlife Trust, which has had a long and beneficial partnership with Eskom in assessing the significance of bird mortalities on existing and proposed lines.

4.6 REFERENCES

Anderson, M. 2001. Vultures nesting on electricity pylons. Afr. Wildlife 55(5): 10-11. Anonymous. 1998. 1998-99 World Resources. A Guide to the Global Environment. Oxford University Press, New York, 1998, 369p. Barnes, K.N. (ed.) 2000. The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Birdlife South Africa, Johannesburg, 169p. Borello, W.D., Mundy, P & Liversedge, T.N. 1997. Movements of Greater and Lesser Flamingos in southern Africa. In: Migrating birds know no boundaries. Leshem, Y., Lachman, E. & Berthold, P. (eds.). Torgos 28: 201-218. Branch, W.R. (ed.) 1988. South African Red Data Book - Reptiles and Amphibians. S. Afr. Nat. Sci. Prog. Rpt 151: i-iv, 242p. Branch, W.R. 1998a. Field Guide to the Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa. Struiks Publ., Cape Town, 328 pp, 407 maps, 535 col. pls. Broadley, D. G. 1966. The herpetofauna of southeast Africa, unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. Broadley, D. G. 1980. A revision of the African snake genus Prosymna Gray (Colubridae). Occ. Pap. natn. Mus. Mon. Rhod. Ser. B: Nat. Sci., 6(7): 481-556. Broadley, D. G. 1981a. A review of the populations of Kinixys (Testudinidae) occurring in south-eastern Africa. Ann. Cape Prov. Mus. (Nat. Hist. 13 (14): 195-215.

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Broadley, D. G. 1981b. A review of the genus Pelusios Wagler in southern Africa (Pleudodira: Pelomedusidae). Occ. Pap. natn. Mus. Mon., B. Nat. Sci. 6 (9): 633-686. Broadley, D. G. 2000. Herpetofauna of the Zambesi Basin Wetlands. pp 279-392. In: Timberlake, J. (ed.). Biodiversity of the Zambezi Basin Wetlands. Occasional Publications in Biodiversity. No. 8 (CD ROM), Biodiversity Foundation of Africa, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Channing, A. 2001. Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa, Protea Books, Pretoria, 470p. Collar, N.J., Crosby, M.J. and Statterfield, A.J. 1994. Birds to Watch 2. The world list of threatenedbirds, Birdlife International, Cambridge. Cotterill, F. 2000. Reduncine antelope of the Zambezi Basin. pp 145-200. In: Timberlake, J. (ed.). Biodiversity of the Zambezi Basin Wetlands. Occasional Publications in Biodiversity. No. 8 (CD ROM), Biodiversity Foundation of Africa, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. De Goede, K. & Jenkins, A. 2001. Electric eagles of the Karoo. Africa. Birds and Birding 5(5): 63-67. Dickinson, A., N.D. Burgess and G.R. Clarke, 1995. Tanzanian coastal forests: Status and biological diversity. pp 25-36. In: Conservation of Biodiversity in Africa. Local Initiatives and Institutional Roles. Eds. L.A. Bennun, R.A. Aman and S.A. Crafter, Nat. Mus. Kenya, 400p. Hilton-Taylor, C. 2000. 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. Ed. Hilton-Taylor, C, IUCN, Glands, 61p + CDROM. Hobbs, J.C.A. and Ledger, J.A. 1986. The Environmental Impact of Linear Developments; Powerlines and Avifauna. Third International Conference on Environmental Quality and Ecosystem Stability. Israel, June 1986. Hobbs J.C.A. and Smith T.V. 1992. Avian Interactions with Utility Structures: Southern African Experiences. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Avian Interactions with Utility Structures, Miami, Florida, 13-15 September 1992. Electric Power Research Institute. Kingdon, J. 1997. The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals, Academic Press, San Diego, 465 pp. Kruger, R. 1999. Towards solving raptor electrocutions on Eskom distribution structures in South Africa, unpubl. M.Sc. thesis, University of Orange Free State. Ledger, J. A. 1994. Marking devices to prevent bird collisions with overhead lines. EWIAC, Johannesburg. Ledger, J.A. and Auditore, T. 1990. The Impacts of Powerlines on Wildlife. Electricity SA, March/April 1990, Crown Publications, Johannesburg.43-47. Mace, G.M. 2000. Summary of the results of the review of IUCN Red List categories and criteria 1996-2000. Annex 7, pp57-61. In: Hilton-Taylor, C. 2000. 2000 IUCNRed List of Threatened Species IUCN Species Survival Commission, Cambridge. Malan, G. 2002. Power poles and pale chanting goshawks. Afr. Wildlife 56(1): 20-21. Markus, M.B. 1972. Mortality of Vultures Caused by Electrocution. Nature 238:228. Mills, G. and Hex, L. 1997. The Complete Book of southern African Mammals, Struik Wincester, Cape Town, 356p. Mundy, P. 2002. Wetland birds of the Zambezi Basin. pp 213-278. In: Timberlake, J. (ed.). Biodiversity of the Zambezi Basin Wetlands. Occasional Publications in Biodiversity. No. 8 (CD ROM), Biodiversity Foundation of Africa, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Parker, V. 1999. The Atlas of the birds of Sul do Save, Southern Mozambique. Avian Demographic Unit and Endangered Wildlife Trust, Cape Town and Johannesburg, 276p. Poynton, J.C. & Broadley, D.G. 1985. Amphibia Zambesiaca 1. Scolecomorphidae, Pipidae, Microhylidae, Hemisidae, Arthroleptidae. Ann. Natal Mus., 26: 503-553.

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Poynton, J.C. & Broadley, D.G. 1986. Amphibia Zambesiaca 2. Ranidae. Ann. Natal Mus., 27: 115-181. Poynton, J.C. & Broadley, D.G. 1987. Amphibia Zambesiaca 3. Rhacophoridae and Hyperoliidae. Ann. Natal Mus., 28: 161-229. Poynton, J.C. & Broadley, D.G. 1988. Amphibia Zambesiaca 4. Bufonidae. Ann. Natal Mus., 29: 447-490. Poynton, J.C. & Broadley, D.G. 1991. Amphibia Zambesiaca 5. Zoogeography. Ann. Natal Mus., 32: 221-277. Skinner, J.D. and Smithers, R.H.N. 1990. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. Rev. ed. University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 7 7 1pp. Smithers, R. H. N. 1983. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria. Smithers, R. H. N. 1986. South African Red Data Book - Terrestrial Mammals. S. Afr. Nat. Sci. Prog. Rpt. 125, 214p. Smithers, R.H.N. and Tello, J.L.T.L. 1976. Checklist and atlas of the mammals of Malawi, Mus. Mem. Natl. Mus. Monum. Rhod. 9:1-147. Stevens, R.A. 1974. An annotated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles known to occur in southeastern Malawi. Arnoldia (Rhodesia) 6(30): 1-22. Stewart, M.M. 1967. Amphibians of Malawi. State University of New York Press, New York. Stuart, S.N. and Adams, R.J. 1990. Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands. Conservation Management and Sustainable Use. Occ. Pap. IUCN SSC. No. 6, 242p. Glands, Switzerland. Sweeny, R.C.H. 1961. Snakes of Nyasaland. Nyasaland Society, Zomba. Timberlake, J. (ed.). 2000. Biodiversity of the Zambezi Basin Wetlands. Occasional Publications in Biodiversity. No. 8 (CD ROM), Biodiversity Foundation of Africa, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Underhill, L. 1998. Why birds collide with powerlines and how "flappers" help? Bird Numbers 7(3): 18. Van Rooyen, C.S., 2002. The national bird guard project. Endangered Wildlife 39: 63. Van Rooyen, C.S. and Ledger, J.A. 1999. Birds and utility structures: Developments in southern Africa. pp 205-229. In: Birds and Powerlines. Ferrer, M. and Janss, G.F.E. (eds.), Quercus. Spain. Wilson, D.E., and Reeder, D.M (eds) (1993). Mammal species of the world: A taxonomic and geographic reference. 2nd ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, in association with the American Society of Mammalogists. London and Washington, 1206pp.

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Table 4.1: Amphibians of southern Malawi that may occur along the proposed route

Taxon Common name Habitats * ssc CLASS: AMPHIBIA ORDER: ANURA FAMILY: ARTHROLEPTIDAE SUBFAMILY: ARTHROLEPTINAE Schoutedenella xenodactyloides Dwarf squeaker M Arthroleptis stenodactylus Shovel-footed squeaker M FAMILY: BUFONIDAE Bufo gutturalis Guttural toad D, S, M, W Bufo lindneri Linder's dwarf toad S Bufo maculatus Flat-backed toad D, S, M, W FAMILY: HYPEROLIIDAE I Afrixalusfornasinii Giant spiny reed frog W Afrixalus crotalus Snoring spiny reed frog W Hyperolius argus Argus reed frog W Hyperolius tuberlingus Tinker reed frog W Hyperolius marmoratus Painted reed frog D, S, M, W Hyperoliuspusillus Water lily frog M, W Kassina maculata Red-legged kassina W Kassia senegalensis Bubbling kassina D, S, M, W Leptopelis argenteus Silvery tree frog M Leptopelis mossambicus Mozambique tree frog M, W Leptopelisparbocagii Cryptic tree frog M FAMILY: MICROHYLIDAE Phrynomantis bifasciatus Red-banded frog M, S Breviceps mossambicus Mozambique rain frog D, M, S FAMILY: HEMISIDAE Hemisus marmoratum Mottled shovel-nosed frog S, M, W FAMILY: PIPIDAE Xenopus muelleri Tropical platanna D, S, W FAMILY: RANIDAE Afrana angolensis Angola river frog W Phrynobatrachusacridoides East African puddle frog W Phrynobatrachusmababiensis Mababe puddle frog W Phrynobatrachusnatalensis Natal puddle frog M, W Ptychadena anchietae Plain grass frog W Ptychadena oxyrhynchus Sharp-nosed grass frog W Ptychadena schillukorum Schilluk grass frog M, W Ptychadena taenioscelis Dwarf grass frog W Ptychadena mossambica Mosambique grass frog W Ptychadena mascareniensis Mascarene grass frog W Pyxicephalus edulis African bullfrog W, S Tomopterna cryptotis Tremelo sand frog M, W, S

FAMILY: RHACOPHORIDAE _ Chiromantisxerampelina Grey tree frog W, M I I D- 6,S- 11,1 TOTAL 33 [7 M- - 0 II W- 26 I

* D = Disturbed, S = Secondary Woodland, M = Miombo Woodland, W = Wetland, I = Inselberg. Table 4.2: Reptiles of southern Malawi that may occur along the proposed route (Part 1 Lizards)

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Taxon Common name Habitats * | SSC SUBORDER: LACERTILIA INFRAORDER: GEKKOTA FAMILY: GEKKONIDAE |_|_| SUBFAMILY: GEKKONINAE Hemidactylus mabouia Tropical house gecko D, S, M Hemidactylus platycephalus Flat-headed house gecko M, I Lygodactylus capensis capensis Cape dwarf gecko D, S, M, INFRAORDER: ANGUIMORPHA FAMILY: VARANIDAE Varanus albigularis Rock monitor S, I Varanus niloticus Nile monitor W Cites 11 INFRAORDER: IGUANIA FAMILY: CHAMAELEONIDAE Chamaeleo dilepis dilepis Flap-necked chameleon D, S, M Cites 11 FAMILY: AGAMIDAE Agama mossambica Mozambique ground agama D, S, M INFRAORDER: SCINCOMORPHA FAMILY: LACERTIDAE Nucras ornate Ornate sandveld lizard S, M Ichnotropis squamulosa Common rough-scaled lizard D, S, M FAMILY: SCINCIDAE SUBFAMILY: LYGOSOMATINAE Lygosoma afrum Peter's writhing skink D, S, M Mabuya varia Variable skink D, S, M Mabuya maculilabris Speckle -lipped skink M Mabuya striata Striped skin k D, S, M Mabuya boulengeri Boulenger's skink M, W Mabuya margaritifer Rainbow skink I Panaspiswahlbergi Common snake-eyed skink D, S, M FAMILY: GERRHOSAURIDAE Gerrhosaurusflavigularis Yellow-throated plated lizard D, S, M Gerrhosaurusnigrolineatus Black-lined plated lizard D, S, M Gerrhosaurusmajor major Great plated lizard S, M FAMILY: CORDYLIDAE Cordylus tropidosternum Tropical girdled lizard S, M Cites 11 Platysaurusintermedius nyasae Nyasa flat lizard I

* D = Disturbed, S = Secondary Woodland, M = Miombo Woodland, W = Wetland, I = Inselberg.

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Table 4.2: Reptiles of southern Malawi that may occur along the proposed route (Part 2 - Snakes)

Taxon | Common name | Habitats * SSC SUBORDER: AMPHISBAENIA FAMILY: AMPHISABAENIDAE Zygaspis quadrifrons Round-headed worm lizard S, M Dalophiapistillum Spade-headed worm lizard S, M SUBORDER: SERPENTES INFRAORDER: SCOLECOPHIDIA FAMILY: LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE Leptotyphlops scutifrons Peter's thread snake S, M FAMILY: TYPHLOPIDAE SUBFAMILY: TYPHLOPINAE Rhinotyphlops mucruso Zambezi blind snake S, M INFRAORDER: HENOPHIDIA FAMILY: BOIDAE SUBFAMILY: PYTHONINAE Python natalensis Southern African python W, M Cites II INFRAORDER: CAENOPHIDIA FAMILY: ATRACTASPIDIDAE SUBFAMILY: ATRACTASPININAE Atractaspisbibronui Southern burrowing asp S, M SUBFAMILY: APARALLACTINAE Aparallactus lunulatus Reticulated centipede-eater M Amblyodipsaspolylepispolylepis Purple-glossed snake S, M FAMILY: COLUBRIDAE SUBFAMILY: LAMPROPHIINAE Lycodonomorphus obscuriventris Water snake W Lamprophis capensis Southern brown house snake D, S, M Lycophidion capense capense Cape wolf snake D, S, M Mehelya capensis capensis Cape file snake D, S, M Mehelya nyassae Black file snake S, M SUBFAMILY: NATRICINAE Natriciteressylvatica Forest marsh snake W Natriciteres olivacea Olive marsh snake W SUBFAMILY: COLUBRINAE Crotaphopeltishotamboeia White-lipped cat snake D, W Meizodon semiornatus Semi -ornate snake M, Philothamnus angolensis Angola green snake W, M Philothamnus hoplogaster Southern green snake W Philothamnus s. semivariegatus Variegated bush snake D, S, M Telescopus semiannulatus semiannulatus Tiger snake M Dipsadoboaaulica Marbled tree snake M Dispholidus typus Boomslang S, M Thelotornis oatesii Oates' twig snake S, M Dasypeltis scabrascabra Common egg-eater D, S SUBFAMILY: Incerta sedis Prosymna stuhlmanni Stuhlmann's shovel-snout M * D = Disturbed, S = Secondary Woodland, M = Miombo Woodland, W = Wetland, I = Inselberg.

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Table 4.2: Reptiles of southern Malawi that may occur along the proposed route (Part 2 - cont.)

Taxon [ Common name [ Habitats * | SSc SUBFAMILY: PSAMMOPHIINAE Hemirhagerrhisnototaenia Bark snake S, M Psammophis orientalis Stripe-bellied sand snake D, S, M Psammophis mossambicus Olive grass snake D, S, M Rhamnophis rostratus Rufous beaked snake S, M FAMILY: ELAPIDAE SUBFAMILY: ELAPINAE Elapsoidea boulengeri Boulenger's garter snake M Naja annulifera Snouted cobra Naja mossambica Mozambique spitting cobra D, S, M Dendroaspispolylepis Black mamba S, M FAMILY: VIPERIDAE SUBFAMILY: CAUSINAE Causus defilippii Snouted night adder W SUBFAMILY: VIPERINAE Proatherissuperciliaris Swamp adder W Bitis arietans arietans Puff adder D, S, M ORDER: CHELONIA I SUBORDER: CRYPTODIRA I FAMILY: TESTUDINIDAE 11 SUBFAMILY: TESTUDININAE Kinixys belliana belliana Bell's hingeback tortoise M Cites 11 SUBORDER: PLEURODIRA I FAMILY: PELOMEDUSIDAE 11 SUBFAMILY: PELOMEDUSINAE 11 Pelusiossinuatus Serrated hinged terrapin W Pelusios subniger Pan terrapin W Pelusios castanoides castanoides Yellow-bellied hinged terrapin W Pelomedusa subrufa Mud terrapin W FAMILY: TRIONYCHIDAE 11 Cyclodermafrenatum Zambezi flapped terrapin W Red List NT

ORDER: CROCODYLIA 11 FAMILY: CROCODYLIDAE I Crocodylus niloticus Nile crocodile W Cites II D - 2 1, S-36 TOTAL REPTILES 65 NI- 46, W - 17. 7

* D = Disturbed, S = Savanna and Open Woodland, M = Miombo Woodland, W = Wetland, I = Inselberg.

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Table 4.3: Birds of conservation concern in Malawi and along the proposed route (red)

ICommon Name iScientific Name |Family Presence iRed List A iticatn SIk Iimr Ri nchop. jlavirosir RY\;( IlY)V'Il)D \H lPrcsent |I.R nt (N I) 1Iadavai,car Pondnlicronr At lalenlau t A 1KI) DA)I I I'rcselt VI J A IdI 2bd, ( 1 2b

I .ippcl-ftccd Vulilurc TorgosIreac cIlolu, A( (' I' I I R I DA I P'r~cint Vt J II

I c.scr 1 iamingo Phoemcoplnrup s inini ,111()1 N ()OI I RIDl)AII T'nIrait I K rit (VI ) \Watt led Crane (Gruim cnril(uus ( Rl II)DAI I rmint V i AI acec icd |(Toh (rlke I'Cr Cl'( RrAk I.i D A I I ransit Vl A2r

I SSO Kestrcl Falco nanninuni IA LM( N II)I\I Valrant VI A I bcc h2hc

Great Snipe Gallinagomedia SCOLOPACIDAE Not Present LR/nt (NT) Shoebill Balaeniceps rex BALAENICIPITIDAE Not Present LR/nt (NT) Taita Falcon Falcofasciinucha FALCONIDAE Not Present LR/nt (NT) Stanley's Bustard Neotis denhami OTIDIDAE Not Present LR/nt (NT) Blue Swallow Hirundoatrocaerulea HIRUNDINIDAE Not Present VU Alce+2ce, Cl+2b Thyolo Alethe Alethe choloensis MUSCICAPIDAE Not Present EN A I c+2c, B I +2abcde, C I White-winged Apalis Apalis chariessa MUSCICAPIDAE Not Present VU BI+2abcde Yellow-throated Apalis Apalisfascicularis MUSCICAPIDAE Not Present EN Bl+2abce East Coast Akalat Sheppardiagunningi MUSCICAPIDAE Not Present VU BI+2abce Spotted Ground-thrush Zootheraguttata MUSCICAPIDAE Not Present EN BI1+2abcde, C2a Olive-headed Weaver Ploceus olivaceiceps PLOCEIDAE Not Present LR/nt (NT) Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus ACCIPITRIDAE Not Recorded LR/nt (NT)

Total along route 8 (5 VU, 3 NT) Total in Malawi 20 (3 EN, 8 VU, 9 NT)

FaunalAssessment: W R Branch 113 Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Report

Table 4.4: Impacts to fauna associated with the current land use regime

Lilihoo Temnoral Sce Spaial Scale Cerainni, Sisniflcance * 'en Uilkiek mocc a *Shonttr-S) LLIWed DefinLetr . .ern High UL'ni,keI toeccwr Mledoi,!remn -2')wn M nepaLb Prkbdble* H,gh IMIPACT mI c. Longoti.rr,m217,4n C"pmnn U Po,bIle 4'Y. M.,Arnx Peanta *ritmi*n Cn.ions,o - [Insure <40% L.. *-si,; N.l fi;mie Nanoal.- Don't kno'w - International

Ijmr.c i -IL -'l krrnphib,an Diervir) kjrmoNkdiurni Term D-;nintl p,hhle I "\x Impact 2 - Loss of Reptile Diversity Occurring Medium-term Distnict Definite MODERATE Impact 3 - Loss of Bird Diversity Occurring Medium-term District Definite MODERATE Irmract 4- Loss of Mammal Diversity Occurring Lonl-term District Definite HIGH to VERY National HIGH

Table 4.5: Impacts to fauna associated with the construction and operation of the power line

Likelihood Temoral Scale SD2tial Scale Certaintn Sionificance % meninIiSeN m occoD -Shon * sL LjocWleim v-nV4,M High L*nlihel,wo.,c,r Mledium i.mm !I:-T M.rinepath PPmobble.-o- High I NI PACT McVccr. *Ionjm-L ',ngOm Opeiraionalmn . Posmable40.; M.xlen A ,1 OCCW .Peaunmil Oo),n- * , acniiC LInsure <40,. .- OccWnng - Dstnct - No sigmca -National - Don't know - Iniernatonal

EXPILITATONOI - -, , i TEIMUT ALPAUNA * .^ ;*'- - '. -. . lrr,xi 5- Hkbiui I -oi% IH// ,.csr Lons-ierm I Dlrrnvi Letie LO\x I migatr - Fragrn,ntrlion of Habnim It t/esc Lona-termn D,4tncl finui L Imr ., - Lo^^oriFna..nl D.%er;,. Pjrm,habje LO'l Impnad -i I. !SOISSI t/al ,r.: L,.-ern D,trrt pr.*abk ti _National MODERATE

FaunalAssessment: WR Branch 114 CHAPTER 5

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT

HILDE VAN VLAENDEREN

Associate Consultant Coastal & Environmental Services P 0 Box 934 Grahamstown 6140 LIVENESS J. KAMANGA

Bunda College PO Box 219 Lilongwe Malawi I t

i Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 119 5.1 Introduction ...... 123 5.2 Terms of reference ...... 123 5.3 Methods ...... 124 5.4 Public participation ...... 127 5.5 Baseline setting ...... 127 5.5.1 Introduction ...... 127 5.6 Macro socio-economic setting ...... 127 5.6.1 Historical and current setting ...... 127 5.6.2 Developmental challenges ...... 129 5.6.3 Governance and institutions ...... 131 5.7 Baseline description of the study area ...... 131 5.7.1 Introduction ...... 131 5.7.2 Social profile of the study area ...... 132 5.8 Assessment of the impacts of the Mozambique -Malawi interconnection power line project ...... 140 5.8.1 Introduction ...... 140 5.8.2 Assessment of national level impacts ...... 141 5.8.3 Assessment of local level impacts ...... 142 5.9 Summary and key recommendations ...... 155

LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Demographic information for the Mwanza and Neno Districts. Table 2: Seasonal cultivation calendar. Table 3: Health services in the study area. Table 4: The full range of impacts at National and local level are summarised below.

LIST OF PLATES Plate 5.1: A meeting of rural villagers potentially affected by the proposed power line. Plate 5.2: Goats are the most commonly reared livestock.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction This socio-economic impact assessment (SIA) was commissioned by the Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi (ESCOM) and focuses on the interconnection between the transmission systems of Electricidade de Mocambique aid ESCOM through an approximately 220 km 220/400 kV line from Matambo substation in Mozambique to Phombeya substation in Malawi. The Malawian section of the power line, which stretches from Kanjunchi Hill, in the Mwanza District, to the proposed Phombeya Substation in the Balaka District, forms the focus of this SIA.

The report examines impacts at national, district and local level. At local level impacts are examined within the context of the way in which people, currently residing in the area, survive both as economic and social beings. The report describes their socio- economic environment, identifies anticipated impacts and makes recommendations for their management and mitigation. It is important however to emphasise that a social impact assessment can never present a complete picture of the full range and extent of impacts. Dynamic social situations and heterogeneous interest groups present too wide a range of impact possibilities to be completely covered.

Methods This report is based on data derived from the following sources: * A scoping study conducted during February 2003. * An intensive field visit in April 2003. * Interviews and group meetings with stakeholders at national, district and local level. * Specific research methods used include: key informant interviews, focus groups and rapid rural appraisal techniques such as seasonal calendars. * Literature search and collection of secondary data.

National Context Malawi was a British protectorate from 1891 to 1964, when the country gained independence. In 1966, Malawi became a Republic under the leadership of Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda. For thirty years, Malawi had a dictatorship governing system. A referendum held in June 1993 paved the way for the introduction of multi-party democracy and in May 1994, the United Democratic Front Party won the first multiparty elections. Thus, Malawi now has a multi party system.

Malawi's economy is largely dependent on agriculture. During the early years of independence (1964-1978), Malawi's development was considered adequate in terms of GDP and prospered in the 1970's with the assistance of foreign aid and investment.

From 1979 Malawi's economic performance has been affected by three main external factors, namely droughts, falling agricultural commodity prices, and rising transport costs resulting from the disruption of transport routes due to civil war in Mozambique. Also the development of rural enterprise has been handicapped by the lack of agribusiness

Socio-Economic Impact Assessment: H Van Vlaenderen & L Kamanga 119 Coastal & Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports development skills, entrepreneurship as well as inadequate credit delivery and rural banking facilities. External debt has increased from 93% of GDP in 1992 to 155% in 1998. The terms of trade deteriorated by 31% between 1990 and 1998. During the same period, donor flows became more erratic. Telecommunications, energy logistics and transport did not provide the required stimulus for private sector development. Currently Malawi ranks amongst the poorer countries.

Area Baseline Description The PowerLine Two alternative trajectories were proposed for the power line. The preferred line routing enters Malawi near Kanjunchi Hill in the Mwanza District and passes near the Thambani Forest. The line runs more or less parallel with the M6 (Mwanza-Blantyre) and passes the villages of Kasapa, Gonamwake, Chiwembu, Masakambewa, Raundi and Mlongolola The power line enters the Neno District after crossing the Wamkurumadzi River. It passes the village of Chasesa, crosses over the M6 near Mbemba, after which it continues parallel to the Ml (Blantyre-Lilongwe Road) and passes nearby Mkwinda. The line then crosses the Kam'wamba - Kasamba road entering into Balaka District and terminates approximately 11 km further at the proposed Phombeya substation, near Mpandasoni Village. The preferred power line route runs predominantly through customary lands used for subsistence agriculture and communal lands used for resource harvesting, only one homestead will be affected and no graveyards will be affected. There are several households however, which will be affected by the power line through loss of agricultural and or natural resources, as land will be required for the sub station (15 ha) and pylons and land will be cleared from beneath the power line for construction and future maintenance of the line. In the case of the substation, pylons and the road there will be a permanent loss of the resources to the affected communities. The area for the substation will be leased.

The alternative route (Blantyre West) option initially follows the same route as the Mwanza-Phombeya route but just before the S137 Road (Mpatamanga Road) this option deviates away from the preferred route and heads in a southeasterly direction and more or less follows the S137 Road to Blantyre. As this line approaches Blantyre there are numerous settlements, including Kubaluti Township, which involves more than 92 houses and several churches. This option was therefore excluded as a possibility.

Description of the Local Context The area in which the power line runs is amongst the least populated areas of the country. Maize is the main food crop and is mixed with a variety of crops including pigeon peas, cowpeas, beans and groundnuts. Other crops grown in the area include cassava, sorghum, sweet potatoes, millet, wheat, cotton, tobacco, paprika, bananas, mangoes, sugar cane, guava, tangerines, oranges, lemons, chillies and vegetables. Cultivation practices are traditional and mainly through manual labour. The yields in the area are largely low due to poor soil fertility, erratic rain patterns and poor management practices. Livestock raised in the area include cattle, poultry, goats, pigs, rabbits, guinea fowl and sheep. Most of the livestock consists of local breeds and are reared for meat consumption. Natural

120 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment: H Van V1aenderen & L Kamanga Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports resources are important for people's survival and supply households with energy (wood), building materials, foods and medicine.

According to the Integrated Household Survey (1997 - 1998) there is a high incidence of poverty in the area. About 90% of the population in the area is informally employed in subsistence farming. Several small villages have started small income generating development projects, including the manufacturing of clay pots, beekeeping, guinea fowl projects and the production quarry stones, to augment their income.

Services in the area are generally poor, educational, health and sanitation facilities are substandard in terms of quantity and quality.

Several NGOs and other organisations operate in the area to help communities in the fields of agriculture, rural development projects, environment, health, credit, relief and rehabilitation.

Assessment of Impacts At national level there can be no doubt that the power line will benefit Malawi. This is largely through increased potential for the efficient delivery of services and the provision of an incentive to international companies to invest in Malawi.

At District and local level the project may go some way towards enhancing services and the development of rural industries and commerce as well as providing some employment.

It is at the local level however that some of the negative impacts manifest themselves. The loss of land, homestead and access to resources may, if not well managed, lead to disruptions of people's livelihood and ultimately may increase morbidity levels. It may at the same time increase pressure on available land and affect the ecology of the area.

The current changes in the land policy and the functioning of local government structures places an extra stress on the resolution of land and resource compensation. The methodology and input of the various local stakeholders needs to be carefully worked out in order to optimise fair and widely accepted compensation strategies.

Expectations of job opportunities are fairly high amongst local residents, however only a few positions will be available. It is very important to instil a realistic expectation with regard to benefits from the power project and to develop a strategy of equitable distribution of job opportunities amongst the affected parties.

Finally it is important that in the development of strategies for compensation, resettlement, job allocation, safety and identification of beneficiaries for electrification, all partners, including the developer, local and district authorities work hand in hand.

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5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION

A socio-economic impact assessment (SIA) is an integral part of the environmental impact assessment (EIA) process. This SIA provides an assessment of the major social impacts associated with the construction and operation of the proposed 400 Kv power line between Kanjunchi Hill, in the Mwanza District, and the Phombeya Substation in the Balaka District. A description of the social environment in the study area is provided and the potential impacts of the proposed project are analysed, and practical guidance is provided on limiting or mitigating negative impacts and enhancing positive impacts. The report examines the impacts of the project within the context of the way in which people of the focus area survive as both economic and social beings.

In SIA, contrary to some of the other aspects of EIA, impacts are not always clearly identifiable and quantifiable. The social environment may often respond in unpredictable, complex and often intangible ways. Pertinent questions in SIA are therefore:

At what point is social change a direct impact of the development or not? What falls within the ambit of the responsibility of the developer and what are the responsibilities of the government?

5.2 TERMS OF REFERENCE

The following specific terms of reference shaped the scope of the socio-economic impact assessment:

1. Describe historical settlement trends in the area, including an overview of current formal requirements governing land settlement and land tenure in Malawi and an assessment of the existing legal and policy framework governing resettlement in Malawi . 2. Provide a broad socio-economic description of each of the affected settlements. These include a demographic profile of the settlement population, an inventory of affected settlement resources, an nventory of (planned) development initiative, health and education situation, an inventory of sites of cultural significance and a discussion of landownership and livelihood strategies. 3. Identify and analyse the suite of socio-economic impacts (positive and negative) that will result from the construction and operation of the power line. Ensure that impacts and concerns raised by IAP's during the scoping phase are addressed in the impact assessment. These include: * Compensation for loss of indigenous and cultivated trees (including those in the citrus and coffee plantation) /gardens and crops; * Compensation for loss of private land; * Threat of HIV infection as a result of immigrant labour;

Legal aspects pertaining to land ownership are discussed in Chapter 6, The Resettlement Framework Plan.

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* The impacts of resettlement; * Impact on community development projects; * The implications of the Project with regard to job creation and/or loss; * The implications of the Project on electricity tariffs * Threat of accidents as a result of the Project * The possibilities of stepping down the voltage of the main line for rural electrification * Identify ways in which negative impacts may be mitigated or managed and highlight ways of enhancing positive impact.

The study focuses on two alternative routes, namely the preferred route (Kanjunchi Hill in the Mwanza District to the proposed Phombeya station near Mpandasoni), and the alternative route (the Blantyre option), which initially follows the same route as the Mwanza - Phombeya route but just before the S1 37 Road it heads southeast and follows the 137 Road to Blantyre. The main focus however is on the preferred route, and arguments are provided for the selection of this option.

5.3 METHODS

This report is based on data derived from the following sources

* A scoping study conducted during February 2003 (See report: CES (2003) Environmental Impact Assessment Mozambique - Malawi Interconnection. Supplementary Volume (Volume 1: Scoping and terms of reference. CES, Grahamstown, South Africa.) During this phase discussions were held with relevant national, regional and district level officials, as mell as with the two NGO's who work extensively in the area, namely the Co-ordination Unit for the Rehabilitation of the Environment (CURE) and the Wildlife and Environment Society of Malawi (WESM). * Consultation of relevant literature, including the Malawi National Land policy, 1998 Malawi Population and Housing Census report, The United Nations Common Country Assessment Report of 2001, District Development plans and District Socio- economic profiles for the Districts of Balaka, Mwanza and Neno and ESCOM policy documents. The information contained in these reports was highly applicable to the present study and therefore used liberally. In certain cases some of the text contained in this document has been taken verbatim from the above reports. * An intensive field visit, which took place during a seven-day period in April 2003 to collect primary data.

During the field visit, primary data was collected through semi-structured interviews with government officials at District level, Traditional Authority level and village level, as well as with Mr D. Bauleni from ESCOM Projects (Plate 5.1).

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-Ii-

Plate 5.1: A meeting of rural villagers potentially affected by the proposed power line.

At District level and Traditional Authority Level, the interviews were aimed at accessing and discussing socio-economic profiles and development priorities of the District, and at eliciting officials' perceptions, impacts and suggestions with regards to the ESCOM Project, as well as to obtain permnission to conduct interviews at village level. The following officials of the three affected Districts were interviewed:

Mwanza District * District Commissioner. * Head of Planning and Development. * Environmental Officer. * Head of Administration.

Neno District * District Commissioner. * Traditional Authorities (Chiefs) of Symon and Mlaula.

Balaka District * District Commissioner.

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The traditional authorities of the Mwanza and Balaka Districts were not directly consulted by the research team. The District Commissioners of those two Districts informed them about the research.

At village level, interviews focused on obtaining an understanding of the socio-economic conditions in the villages, livelihood strategies, development priorities, and people's perception, impacts and suggestions with regard to the ESCOM Project. Use was also made of Rapid Rural Appraisal techniques (specifically seasonal diagramming) to gain insights into livelihood strategies and health and other impacts and problems. Men and women were encouraged to speak out.

Often women bear the brunt of development related impacts while accumulating least of its direct benefits. Thus it was important to identify roles and responsibilities of both men and women within their society, in order to ensure gender sensitivity in the identification of impacts and in the recommended mitigation. The villages included in the study area were sampled on the basis of their proximity to the proposed power line route. Those that could be directly affected were included. Convenience for sampling (access) was used for the inclusion of villagers in the research. The following villages were included:

Mwanza District: * Kasapa: An interview with the village headman and a focus group with six villagers (all women). * Gonamwake: An interview with the village headman. * Chiwembu: An interview with a councillor of the area and his wife. * Msakambewa: An interview with village headman and a focus group with six villagers (all women). * Raundi: A focus group with a group of six villagers, including the village headman. * Mlongolola: An interview with the village headman and a focus group with four villagers

Neno District: * Chasesa: Interviews with the village headwoman and with one villager * Mbemba: A focus group with a group of 3 three villagers (who lived near the proposed line, far from the village centre) * Mkwinda: Interview with the village headman and with a group of three villagers.

Balaka District: * Kamwamba: An interview with the headwoman * Mpandasoni: An interview with the village headwoman and her son.

The interview data was augmented by observations of facilities (trading centres, development projects) in the villages and of activities in and around the villages (natural resource use and livelihood strategies). Additional short interviews were held with

126 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment: H Van Vlaenderen & L Kamanga Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnector EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports representatives of the coffee estate near Chiwembu and with the employees of the Malambe Natural Resource Management and Development Centre. With regards to the alternative route (Blantyre West option) the route was followed and observations were made with regards to the settlements along the route. No interviews were held at village level along this route.

5.4 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

The data collection for the social impact study coincided with the public participation process. During the scoping and specialist study, care was taken to involve relevant interested and affected parties and to ensure two-way communication, which enabled interested parties to receive information as well as to query and provide suggestions.

5.5 BASELINE SETTING

5.5.1 INTRODUCTION

The baseline description has been divided into three sections, namely the national, the district and the local levels. Although the project will have impacts on all three levels, the greatest emphasis has been placed on the local level, as this is the level at which most negative impacts will take place.

The national level description highlights the current economic and social development indicators of Malawi, as well as the current formal requirements governing land settlement and land-tenure. The District descriptions focus on the demographics and broad economic, development and institutional dynamics of the districts involved.

The local level description is divided into a general section, which combines information on cultural resources, livelihood strategies, social dynamics and resources common to all localities in the study area, and a section that elaborates on specific data for each of the localities.

5.6 MACRO SOCIO -ECONOMIC SETTING

5.6.1 HISTORICAL AND CURRENT SETTING2

Malawi was a British protectorate from 1891 to 1964 when the country gained independence. In 1966, Malawi became a Republic under the leadership of Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda. The Malawi Congress Party became the only political party, leading to one-party rule. In 1971, Dr. Banda was declared life President of the Malawi Congress Party and the Government, thereby entrenching the one-party rule. For thirty years, Malawi had a dictatorship governing system. A referendum held in June 1993 paved the

2 Note: the information for the section historical and current setting is substantively based on the United Nations' Common Country Assessment report of 2001.

Socio-Economic Impact Assessment: H Van Vlaenderen & L Kamanga 127 Coastal & EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi PowerLine Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports way for the introduction of a multi-party democracy, with the first multi-party elections being won by the United Democratic Front in May 1994. Malawi's economy is largely dependent on agriculture. During the early years of independence (1964-1978), Malawi's development was considered adequate in terms of GDP and the country prospered in the 1970's with the assistance of foreign aid and investment.

From 1979 Malawi's economic performance has been negatively affected by three main external factors:

i droughts (except for some intermittent good harvest years, the traditional food and major cash crop sub-sectors have stagnated over a prolonged period); ii. falling agricultural commodity prices, and iii. rising transport costs resulting from the disruption of transport routes due to civil war in Mozambique.

Also, the development of rural enterprise has been handicapped by the lack of agribusiness development skills, entrepreneurship as well as inadequate credit delivery and rural banking facilities. External debt has increased from 93% of GDP in 1992 to 155% in 1998. The terms of trade deteriorated by 31% between 1990 and 1998. During the same period, donor flows became more erratic. Telecommunications, energy logistics and transport did not provided the required stimulus for private sector development.

Currently Agriculture accounts for 45% of GDP, 80% of employment and 85% of merchandise export earnings. The 1998 United Nation's Integrated Household Survey identified that 68.7% of households are engaged in agriculture and fishing. Rural income is mostly generated from the sale of cash crops, which account for about 73.8% of the smallholder's income. Other main sources of rural income are off- farm wages (accounting for about 13%), enterprise development (about 4.5%), and livestock (about 2.7%). The bulk of rural cash income accrues from five major crops: tobacco, tea, cotton, groundnuts and rice. Tobacco remains the most important cash crop but has recently faced unfavourable price trends. Likewise, unfavourable producer pricing policies have equally affected cotton, tea and coffee production and net returns to smallholders.

The manufacturing sector has contributed only 12-14% to the GDP, a proportion that has remained fairly constant over the years. For a long time, manufacturing has been oriented towards import-substitution, but more recently some efforts have been made towards export diversification largely under the Export Processing Zones Scheme. The tertiary sector has shown some trends towards expansion, particularly in the distributive trade sub-sector.

The current economy depends on substantial inflows of economic assistance from the IMF, the World Bank, and individual donor nations.

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5.6.2 DEVELOPMENTAL CHALLENGES

Malawi ranks amongst the poorest countries due to the factors described above as well as an additional number of critical development problems, such as limited foreign and domestic investment, poorly developed mineral resources, over consumption of the natural environment, low educational levels, high population growth, poor health status, limited employment opportunities, poor agricultural practices and limited physical infrastructure. Some of these challenges are expanded upon below.

Over-consumption of the natural environment More than 85% of the population lives in the rural areas, practising subsistence farming. In recent years, agricultural practice has changed from shifting cultivation to more intensive farming. As a result of rapid population growth and the imposition various land tenure systems, the size of farms has gradually decreased. The average arable land/population ratio in Malawi is 0.5 hectares per person, falling to below 0.3 hectares in more densely populated districts. The lack of alternative income generating activities beyond subsistence farming, as well as inefficient agricultural practices, has resulted in many poor people farming marginal land and relying on natural resources for their livelihoods. The need to cut down trees to clear more land for cultivation, as well as to meet the daily energy/fuel requirements of a growing population has led to serious degradation of the natural environment.

Several environmental NGOs and Youth Groups have recently sprung up. Village Natural Resources Committees are now being established in most communities to encourage environmental awareness, but the lack thereof still remains a big challenge.

Education In 1994 the Government made primary education free. As a consequence, enrolment shot up from 1.9 million to 3.2 million and later stabilised at 2.9 million. Despite the provision of free primary education, a significant number of primary schoolgoing age children have remained out of school, particularly girls. The main factors contributing to non-attendance are: lack of awareness among parents/guardians of the importance of education; lack of a legal framework for obliging parents to send children to school; inadequate quantity and quality (qualified teachers) of schools; and poverty, which compels children to seek work instead of attending school.

Physical infrastructure Despite investments in physical infrastructure (roads, power, communications, etc.), the country's physical infrastructure is poor due mainly to inadequate provision in the national budget for maintenance.

Health Morbidity and disease rates are high. The main health problems include malaria, tuberculosis bilharzias, HIV/AIDS and cholera.

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The Government has implemented specific preventive health programmes targeting major diseases prevalent in the country. In addition to the Malaria Control Programme, the Government has implemented, among others, the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) programme, the National Control of Diarrhoeal Diseases Programme, the Tuberculosis Control Programme, and the Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) Programme.

Despite these programmes continuing low health standards prevail, explained largely by the lack of adequate nutrition, the lack of health facilities as well as the poor quality of these services. According to official government statistics, there are only 503 health facilities, an average of one facility for 20,000 people. Not all health facilities have a doctor and the average population/doctor ratio is about 50,000:1. There are wide rural/urban disparities, with almost all doctors concentrated in urban areas. The quality of health services are poor, with many health centres housed in old buildings. These buildings are deteriorating due to a lack of maintenance, have no running water and no communication facilities. Lack of trained personnel and frequent shortages of equipment, drugs and medical supplies hamper health service delivery.

Malawi is one of the countries worst hit by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which has taken an increasing toll on the young and middle-aged population. Increasing morbidity and mortality among productive age groups leave orphaned children without support and deprives the economy of managers, workers and consumers. The epidemic thus affects all sections of society and all sectors of the economy, posing a major threat to the very process of development. The high rates of HIV prevalence in women of reproductive age, combined with high birth rates has resulted in a steadily increasing infection rate among babies through mother-to-child transmission.

Sanitation According to the United Nations Common Country Assessment, more than half (61.8%) of Malawian households have access to a safe water source. Less than half of the population use sources such as rivers, lakes and unprotected wells, exposing themselves to a high risk of water-borne diseases.

In the area of sanitation, 72% of the households included in the United Nations Survey reported having access to adequate sanitation facilities, if pit latrines are included. Excluding pit latrines, the percentage of households was only 5.8% (1.4% flush toilets and 4.4% improved pit latrines). The remaining 28% of the population had no access to any sanitation facilities and resorted to using the bush and barren land. Rural/urban breakdown of the figures is not available but conditions in rural areas are worse than in urban areas.

Power supply ESCOM generates about 89.2% of its electricity from a group of hydro-electrical power plants located on the middle part of the Shire River, with a total capacity of 215.6 MW. A 15 MW gas turbine in Blantyre, a 4.3 MW diesel power plant in Lilongwe and a 1.8 MW diesel power plant in Mzuzu serve as stand by for the interconnected supply. There is also a 4.5. MW hydro plant at Wovwe, used mainly to supply local load centres at Chilumba, Livingstonia and Karonga in the northern part of Malawi.

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Two voltage levels are used in the transmission system, namely 132kV, with a route length of 961 km (67% on wooden pole structures and the remainder steel structures) and 66 kV with a route length of 10 19km (50% in wood and 50% in steel structures).

In 1996, due to flooding at Tedzani Falls and siltation at Nkula Falls, availability of electricity dropped, while simultaneously the demand had been increased to 164.1MW.

Due to degeneration of the wooden electricity poles, vandalism of the steel frames and an increased demand, the electrical system is not keeping up with the increasing need and has to expand. It is against the above-sketched profile of Malawi that the significance of the ESCOM project needs to be seen and evaluated at the national level.

5.6.3 GOVERNANCE AND INSTITUTIONS

Malawi is divided into twenty-seven districts. Each district is further sub-divided into traditional authorities headed by chiefs and covering a number of villages, administered by village heads.

With the introduction of decentralisation, there are now 39 legally constituted District Assemblies. They comprise three City Assemblies, one Municipal Assembly, eight Town Assemblies and twenty-seven District Assemblies. Each Assembly covers a number of wards within the geographical boundaries of Traditional Authority areas. The first Local Government elections were conducted on 21 November 2000.

5.7 BASELINE DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

5.7.1 INTRODUCTION

In this section a description is provided of the area in which the proposed power line project is located.

The preferred power line runs predominantly through customary lands used for subsistence agriculture and communal lands used for resource harvesting. The preferred line routing enters Malawi near Kanjunchi Hill in the Mwanza District, and passes near the villages of Kasapa, Gonamwake, Chiwembu, Masakambewa, Raundi and Mlongolola The power line enters the Neno District after crossing the Wamkurumadzi River, and passes the village of Chasesa. After it crosses the M6 near Mbemba it passes nearby Mkwinda village. The line then crosses the Kam'wamba - Kasamba road entering into Balaka District and terminates approximately 11 km further at the proposed Phombeya substation, near Mpandasoni Village.

This preferred route will only directly affect one homestead, but there are several households that will be indirectly affected by the power line. This will mainly be through loss of agricultural and other natural resources, as land will be required for the sub station (I5ha), pylons and beneath the power line for the servitude and maintenance roads. In the

Socio-EconomicImpact Assessment: H Van Vlaenderen & L Kamanga 131 Coastal & EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnecto r EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports case of the substation, pylons and the road there will be a permanent loss of the resources. The area for the sub station will be leased.

The alternative route (Blantyre West) option initially follows the same route as the Mwanza-Phombeya route but just before the S 137 Road (Mpatamanga Road) this option deviates away from the preferred route and heads in a southeasterly direction and more or less follows the S137 Road to Blantyre. As this line approaches Blantyre there are numerous settlements, including Kubaluti Township, and more than 92 houses and several churches will be directly impacted. This option was therefore excluded from further investigation.

What follows is a description of the study area relevant to the preferred route.

5.7.2 SOCIAL PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA

The preferred option for the power line passes through three districts and five Traditional Authority areas (TA):

* Mwanza 3 (TA Nthache, TA Kanduku) * Neno (TA Mlauli, TA Symon), and * Balaka (TA Msamala)

The information for this section is gleaned predominantly from the Mwanza/Neno District Socio-economic profile, Feb 2001 and the Balaka District Development Plan, well as from field data and observations. Since the affected area is mainly located in the Mwanza/Neno Districts, the information below focuses on these two Districts.

3 The Mwanza District has recently been split into two districts, namely the Mwanza and Neno districts. The Neno District does not yet have administrative structures in place, but there is a District Commissioner in place.

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Demographics The area is amongst least populated areas of the country. The Mwanza District is the least populated in the Southern region (Table 1).

Table 1: Demographic information for the Mwanza and Neno Districts.

Traditional Villages Population Percentage Percentage Authority Area females males Nthache 61 31296 51.58% 48.42% (Mwanza) Kanduku 42 23735 52.22% 47.78% (Mwanza) Mlauli 35 17153 51.12 % 48.88% (Neno) Symon 45 25130 50.10% 49.90% (Neno) I_I Msamala Not Available 145048 52.22% 47.78% (Balaka)

Ethnic groups and language The main ethnic groups present in the study area are Ngoni, Mang'anja, Ambo and Anyungwes. English is the official language, but Chichewa is the most widely spoken language.

Culture and Religion Christianity is the dominant religion. Approximately 90% of the people are Christian, while 3 % are Moslem and the remaining 7% practice other forms of religion.

The majority of people follow the matrilineal system of marriage whereby the men live at their wife's home. In some parts of the area, boys and girls undergo initiation ceremonies. During these ceremonies the youth are advised on their adult roles.

No specific spiritual or cultural artefacts were identified in the area studies. Certain areas (graveyards of clearings in the forest) were however allocated to 'spiritual ceremonies'. The relocation of graveyards was considered, but it was established that none of the graveyards would be affected by the power line project.

Land tenure There are three main categories of land tenure in the area:

* Customary land: There is customary land, which is regarded by the communities as belonging to the people and which is he ld in trust by the Traditional Authorities and the Village heads. Each village has a certain amount of land, which can be allocated to individuals by the Village head in consultation with the Chief. Customary land constitutes the largest proportion (more than 70%) of available land. It consists mainly of small farm holding of an average of 1 ha per

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household. The landholdings in Neno District are generally larger than those in Mwanza. Research in the field revealed that resources in the 'as yet un-allocated customary land' were regarded as the property of the Village head, to whom compensation for loss of resources would need to be directed. Most of the area affected by the power line consists of customary land (allocated or unallocated). The proposed substation is located on customary land belonging to the Headwoman of Mpandasoni and her family. * Public land: Is the land that the Government has legislated for specific national development, security and tourism. Currently this land is designated for forest reserves, roads and building plots. * Private leasehold land: This is land formally leased from customary land and which may be leased for 99years. This includes the private estates. There are currently 17 estates operating within the Mwanza/Neno Districts, with Nankkhudwe/Mbandanga Coffee Estate having the largest landholding (400 ha). The other estates mainly grow maize, tobacco and raise livestock. The power line will impact on some of these Estates. Negotiations have already started between ESCOM and the coffee estate.

Agriculture, livestock and fisheries Maize is the main food crop. In small landholdings 90% of the land is planted with maize, whilst large landholdings plant 70 % of their land with maize. The maize crop is intercropped with a variety of crops including pigeon peas, cowpeas, beans and groundnuts. Other crops grown in the area include cassava, sorghum, sweet potatoes, millet, wheat, cotton, tobacco, paprika, bananas, mangoes, sugar cane, guava, tangerines, oranges, lemons, chillies and vegtables. The production of tangerines is of importance in the area as a source of income to over 2000 people.

Crops are predominantly grown under rain-fed conditions. Single season cropping is practiced in most parts of the area, but in some parts rainfall is sufficient for growing a second crop, especially of beans. Cultivation practices are traditional, with fields tilled manually. The yields in the area are largely low due to poor soil fertility, erratic rain patterns and bad management practices. Some of the farmers receive starter packs from the government (including seeds and fertiliser) or development organisations, which generally improves their yields. The distribution of the starter packs is reportedly based on the socio-economic status of farmers, and aims to assist the most needy. However, interviews revealed that the distribution is largely determined by the village head.

Livestock raised in the area includes cattle, poultry, goats, pigs, rabbits, guinea fowl and sheep. Most of the livestock consists of local breeds and is reared for meat consumption. Goat is currently the most commonly reared livestock (Plate 5.2), whereas the production of poultry has recently declined and that of rabbit increased. Livestock management is mainly traditional, but some livestock development has been attempted and some improved breeds introduced.

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There are some fish farms in the study area, predominantly in the two Traditional Authority areas in Neno. The fish being cultivated are Tilapia rendalli and Oreochromis shiranus. r YL---

-d t

Plate 5.2: Goats are the most commonly reared livestock.

Natural resource use Natural resources are important for people's survival and supply households with energy (wood), building materials, foods and medicine.

The use of natural resources is regulated as follows. If trees are cut on customary or communal land for construction purposes or in terms of clearing the land for cultivation, permnission is only required from the village head. However if trees are felled for commercial purposes, such as the production of charcoal (on own or communal land), permnission from the village head well as a fee are required. Firewood for personal consumption can be foraged freely on customary and communal land, however if firewood is collected for commercial purposes, a fee needs to be paid to the Village head. As is the case on a national level, the pressure on the land is increasing as a result of the increase in population and unsustainable land use practices.

Recently Village Natural Resource Management Committees have been forned. These aim to provide a link between the Forestry Departmnent and communities with regard to forest resources. Forestry has devolved some of its powers to these Committees. For example, they are empowered to formnulate their own regulations for sustainable management and utilisation of their forest and communal areas. They also empower

Socio-Economic Impact Assessment. H Van Vlaenderen & L Kamanga13 Coastal & EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnector EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports communities to inspect forest produce at roadblocks and confiscate illegally produced forest produce. These committees focus predominantly on curtailing the production of charcoal.

Commercial activities Approximately 70% of the commercial activity in the area is in trading, mainly small retailers. The majority of business entrepreneurs have limited access to lending institutions due to unfavourable credit conditions. The few wholesale stores are owned by companies, who work together with large retail stores, such as People's Trading Stores and Bata Shoe. These businesses are mainly located in Mwanza Town. The remaining commercial activity consists of a 20% investment in agro-business and less than 3 % in manufacturing.

Employment and livelihood strategies According to the Integrated Household Survey (1997-98) there is a high incidence of poverty in the area. The poverty head count is 71.4%, which is higher than the National percentage of 65.3%.

Only 10 % of people who are employed in the formal sector, either in the civil service or the private sector, leaving 90% of the population in the area informally employed in subsistence farming. Smallholder farmers sell their surplus produce in markets operated by the Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation (ADMARC), District Assembly and other privately operated markets.

December/January are the lean months during which planting takes place, and the months of April/May are those of harvesting. The period from June to November serves to prepare the land for new planting. A seasonal cultivation calendar is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Seasonal cultivation calendar.

Crop Planting Harvesting Maize/sorghum/beans December April/May Sweet potatoes January October Cassava January October Vegetables March April-August

The various estates and some of the larger farms in the area provide limited permanent and some seasonal labour for the surrounding villages. However employment during the lean season is difficult to find and wages are generally very low. Seasonal employment is often taken up at the expense of the farmer's own food production tasks. The peak household labour requirement coincides with the lean periods when labour productivity is at its lowest.

Several small villages have started small income generating development projects, including the manufacturing of clay pots, beekeeping, guinea fowl projects and the production of quarry stones, to augment their income.

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The natural environment provides an important resource for the local villagers. The production of charcoal is an important income generation strategy in some of the communities in the area, and all communities rely on the natural resources for firewood, construction material, wild foods and herbal remedies.

Gender Women are responsible for the productive activities of the household, namely agriculture, child rearing and domestic activities. Women also administer the household budget. Men remain dominant in the organisation of civil society, are responsible for the basic construction of the homestead and are seen as the breadwinners. Although husbands and wives increasingly share the tasks of the smallholder, including planting, harvesting, weeding and trading, when extra income is needed, it is the men who search for employment, leaving the women to maintain the homestead and the land. Sometimes men leave the home for several months and go as far as Mozambique to search for seasonal employment.

Physical infrastructure The area has an extensive road network, but about 78% of the roads in the area are earth or gravel surface roads. During the rainy season several villages become inaccessible, due to the bad conditions of the road. Bicycles and minibus services are the most popular transportation for people within the area. For distant travel people use cars, buses and mini buses.

Health, water and sanitation The area has poor health indicators in comparison with other areas. The Infant mortality rate for the Mwanza /Neno Districts combined is high (134 infant deaths per 1000 live births). Life expectancy for females is 46 years (the national figure is 49 years) and for males 44 years (the national figure is 47 years).

The leading causes of morbidity are malaria, followed by pneumonia, diarrhoea, tuberculosis, STI (including HIV), malnutrition and anaemia. HIV infection is estimated to reach up to 40%. From the focus groups it appeared that people had a good understanding of the facts around HIV/AIDS transmission, but indicated that a change of sexual practices is not always easy.

The medical care services in the area are insufficient and sub- standard. Medical care services consist of:

Health posts/clinics: These offer preventative and curative services such as health education, immunisation, contraceptives and treatment of minor diseases. Most are based at community level. Dispensaries:There are two private dispensaries in Kanduku Health centres: These provide curative services, prenatal and postnatal care. Hospitals: Mwanza District hospital is the only hospital serving the District

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Resources for healthcare, in terms of health personnel and equipment are inadequate. There is for instance only 1 medical doctor in the whole the Mwanza and Neno Districts combined, 1 dental assistant and 9 registered nurses. Table 3 shows the distribution of health facilities in the area Table 3: Health services in the study area.

Traditional Health Clinics Dispensaries Health Hospital Authority posts centres Area Nthache 21 5 0 1 0 (Mwanza) Kanduku 37 17 2 2 1 (Mwanza) Mlauli 12 15 0 2 0

(Neno) ______Symon 19 14 0 4 0 (Neno) I I I I I

In addition to the orthodox health facilities, local people seek medical advice and treatment from traditional practitioners and traditional birth attendants. The birth attendants have been trained.

Drinking water in the area is obtained from wells, springs, rivers and boreholes. In the Mwanza and Neno Districts combined only 38% of households have access to safe and potable water. Unsafe water is an important contributing factor to the health problems in the area.

Access to sanitary toilet facilities in the area is 57 %. About 43 % of households have no toilet at all.

Education The literacy rate is estimated at 41 % in the area (Mwanza). This low literacy rate is mainly the result of limited access to education and the low quality of education. Although the number of schools has increased and the ratio of teacher to pupil improved (average 1/61 ration), the quality of education has gone down. Most schools have inadequate trained teachers, a lack of learning and teaching materials and so or dilapidated classrooms. Most educational institutions are under Government regulation with only a few owned by the private sector.

Development initiatives Several NGOs and organisations operate in the area to help communities in the fields of agriculture, rural development projects, environment, health, credit, relief and rehabilitation. These include: ActionAID, Medicins sans Frontieres, World Vision International, OXFAM, Adventist Development Relief Agency and Co-ordination Unit for the Rehabilitation of the Environment (CURE). The UNDP monitors the distribution of food in the area.

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The African Development Bank is funding a number of projects in the Mwanza District, e.g. dairy and horticulture. MASAF assists communities with schools and road projects. The Wildlife and Environment Society of Malawi (WESM) also has a number of community-based projects within the study area including:

* Fruit juice production * Tree planting * Soil conservation * Agro- forestry * Bee keeping * Domestic guinea fowl * Promotion of the use of Vetiver sp. grass

District Development impacts The Poverty Alleviation Programme (PAP) of the Government of Malawi provides a framework for districts to develop their Poverty Reduction Strategies. Amongst the development impacts prioritised in the study area are:

* Improvement of literacy rates * Enhancement of food security * Decrease of environmental degradation * Prevention and management of the HIV/Aids problem * Improvement of sanitary conditions and access to safe water * Improvement of infrastructure and essential services * Improvement of health facilities * The curbing of crime

Perceptions of the Power Line Project In general, villagers perceive the Power Line Project in a positive light. They believe that the Project could increase employment opportunities directly through employment of local people in the construction and maintenance of the power line and indirectly as a result of increased development in the area, due to improved access to electricity supply. This could lead to the building of new clinics, schools and businesses.

It appeared that electricity for domestic purposes did not fall within the ambit of most villager's felt needs. However some villagers indicated the desire to have their homesteads electrified. The use of lights as a safety measure against criminal attacks was mentioned as a benefit of electrified homesteads

The need for powered maize mills was considered the highest prioritised by many of the women interviewed. Currently many women have to travel up to 8 km to the nearest mills.

People expressed concern:

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* that no effort would be made to improve electricity supply to the area. * about the possible loss of homesteads, crops and natural resources as a result of the power line. They requested information about the process and nature of compensation. * about local people's safety during and after the construction of the power line. They referred to possible accidents of electrocution. * about the influx of labour, with regards to an increase in HIV and teenage pregnancy.

5.8 ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACTS OF THE MOZAMBIQUE - MALAWI INTERCONNECTION POWER LINE PROJECT

5.8.1 INTRODUCTION

Although Malawi has recently embarked on a Poverty Alleviation Programme, it is still struggling with a myriad of developmental problems. Recently the power supply to the country has been falling short of the demand, with provision of power to different parts of the country frequently interrupted. A project such as the ESCOM proposal to interconnect the Mozambican and Malawian power grids is recognised as a potentially important contribution towards current development efforts in Malawi.

The focus of this section of the SIA is to identify and assess both the positive and negative impacts that the project will have on the socio-economic environment and on ways in which they may be enhanced and mitigated. Poverty is a key contributor to these negative impacts. Poverty encompasses a range of impacts including a lack of employment opportunities, limited access to services and infrastructure and food insecurity, precipitated by limited access to land and natural resources. These factors govern the weighting given to the significance of impacts.

The assessment of the impacts is based on the examination of documentation as well as data from the fieldwork, which has been summarised in the sections above. Discussions with interested and affected parties have been considered as a basis for the assessment. In addition, information and specialist knowledge accumulated during similar EIA work have contributed to this assessment.

Socio-economic impacts associated with the power project have been categorised, with the main headings addressing impacts related to a common theme. The specific impacts and potential mitigation strategies associated with these themes are discussed. National level impacts are first considered, followed by impacts at local level.

The following impacts emerged:

At national level

* Impact 1: Expansion of economic opportunities and provision of services

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At local level

* Impact 2: Loss of land and access to productive resources * Impact 3: Resettlement * Impact 4: Disruption of cemeteries and relocation of graves * Impact 5: Expansion of economic opportunities * Impact 6: Safety * Impact 7: Changes to social systems

Although the impact of resettlement is addressed here, Supplementary Volume 3 provides a detailed framework for resettlement. The full range of impacts at National and local level is summarised in Table 4.

5.8.2 ASSESSMENT OF NATIONAL LEVEL IMPACTS

The following impacts at national level were identified:

CATEGORY OF IMPACTS: EXPANSION OF ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES AND PROVISION OF SERVICES

IMPACT 1: EXPANSION OF ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES

Cause and Comment: The current availability of electricity supply in Malawi is such that it makes it difficult for potential investors, who are dependant on a regular and cost effective supply, to invest. The power supply is irregular and expensive. As such new investment is potentially limited by the uncertainty of electricity supply. The development of the power line will increase the potential of attracting investors by providing reliable and more cost effective power. The new power line (which will be additional to the existing power supply infrastructure) would provide sufficient power for the country, with a possible surplus, which could be sold to Mozambique in the future. Electricity tariffs are supposed to drop from 4c/kilo Watt to I c/kilo Watt.

The proposed mineral mining projects around Lake Malawi are undertakings that would benefit from the power line project. As such the income generated from the power line (and associated downstream activities) will increase the tax base of Malawi. In a situation where the country is struggling to service its debt obligations, the expansion of the tax base is of considerable benefit to the fiscus. Under imposed conditions of structural adjustment increased tax revenue frees up the potential for expenditure on social services. This is of benefit to the population at large.

Significance statement: The expansion of the national tax base will very likely occur and will probably result in a beneficial impact in the medium- and long-term at the National level. This benefit is of MODERATE positive significance

Recommendation: Optimisation of this impact entails encouraging the conditions under which tax monies are utilised in the most socially responsible manner. Although this is

Socio-Economic Impact Assessment: H Van Vlaenderen & L Kamanga 141 Coastal& EnvironmentalServices: Mozambique Malawi Power Line Interconnector EIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports beyond the scope of the &veloper to control, socially responsible spending of tax revenues would ensure this benefit remains of MODERATE significance.

IMPACT 2: INCREASING THE RELIABILITY OF SERVICES

Cause and comment: The current unreliable power supply has had negative impacts on services. Interrupted supplies at schools, hospitals and commercial centres have negatively impacted on the country.

Significance statement: The implementation of the power line project will very likely improve service provision and will probably have a medium- and long-term very beneficial impact at Nationallevel. This impact is of HIGH positive significance

IMPACT 3: PRODUCTION OF CHEAPER ELECTRICITY MAY DECREASE NEED FOR CHARCOAL.

Cause and comment: In the urban and per-urban areas, where charcoal is becoming increasingly expensive, access to cheaper electricity may see homesteads shifting from reliance on wood based fuels to electricity. This will have the dual effect of saving the hardwood resources that are being diminished by the demand for charcoal and in making fuel less expensive.

Significance statement: The implementation of the power line project will may decrease the reliance on charcoal, which will probably have a long-term beneficial impact at National level. This impact is of MODERATE positive significance

Recommendations: It is recommended that the government develop a campaign to promote the use of electricity in favour of the use of charcoal It is also recommended that strategies be developed to replace the production of charcoal in the rural areas with other income generation activities in order not to negatively affect the livelihoods of local communities. The successful execution of these mitigatory strategies could make this impact of HIGH positive significance, but the impact after optimisation remains MODERATE, as these recommendations will be difficult and expensive to implement, and are not the sole responsibility of Escom. The institutional complexities of implementing the recommendations are a further complexity that will reduce effectiveness.

5.8.3 ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL LEVEL IMPACTS

CATEGORY OF IMPACTS 2: LOSS OF LAND AND ACCESS TO PRODUCTIVE RESOURCES

The power line project will have a permanent impact on resources at the substation at Phombeya (15ha), the footprints of the pylons and the 90 km maintenance road, which will run parallel with the line in the servitude. In these areas the vegetation will be permanently removed. The power line will also have a permanent impact on trees grown

142 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment: H Van Vlaenderen & L Kamanga Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique Malawi Power Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports in the 50 m wide servitude (25 m on each side) of the 90 km power line, as all trees taller than three meters will be removed. The power line will have a temporary impact on the vegetation (other than tall trees) in the 50 m servitude (excluding the road). During the construction phase other areas may be damaged. After the construction phase, this area may be restored to its previous use (excluding trees higher than 3 m).

Much of the land that will be permanently or temporary lost is communal land or customary owned land that is lying fallow or is cultivated by local villagers. The loss of productive land and resources is the impact of greatest concern to the affected population. As described above access to land and resources that follow from this land is of critical importance to sustaining the livelihood of the communities, who are vulnerable as a result of poverty and their isolation from income-generating activities. Decreased levels of nutrition, as a consequence of loss of land and access to food, without mitigation, leads to increased levels of morbidity, particularly amongst children.

IMPACT 4: REDUCED CAPACITY FOR HOUSEHOLD SURVIVAL

Cause and comment: Most people living in the affected area are almost completely reliant on subsistence agriculture for their survival. There will be a threat to food security and possible increased levels of morbidity to those whose arable land will be lost as a result of the power line project. For areas affected by the maintenance road, substation and pylons, this loss will be permanent. For the areas within the servitude this loss will be temporary.

Significance statement: With regard to the permanent loss of land due to the building of pylons, substation and maintenance road. This loss will definitely take place, and will probably result in a permanent moderately severe impact at the household/localised level of HIGH negative significance.

Significance statement: With regards to the temporary loss of land within the servitude. This loss of arable land will definitely occur and this will probably result in a short- to medium-term moderately severe impact at the household/localisedlevel, resulting in an impact of MODERATE negative significance.

Recommendations: To reduce the significance of these impacts a series of mitigatory strategies are recommended for the purpose of compensation. These include:

1. The pylons should as far as possible be built in communal non-arable land. 2. Where possible crops in the servitude area should be maintained. 3. Alternative land of at least the same productive potential should be made available to affected land users in good time so as not to cause them loss of a harvest of their crops 4 4. The timing of the power line construction should be such that it causes least disruption to the agricultural seasonal calendar (preferably between June - October).

4These aspects are discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.

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5. Additional food (or financial compensation) needs to be provided during the period that affected people have no adequate access to crops 6. With regards to the loss of fruit trees, people need to be provided with new trees (and if necessary with additional space to plant the trees) and compensation should be provided for the period during which the trees do not produce equivalent to the trees they lost'. 7. People should be allowed to cultivate (except tall trees) in the area of servitude after construction of the power line is completed. 8. Damage to the land in the servitude as a result of the road construction should be minimized and assistance provided to farmers to prepare their land for cultivation after construction of the power line.

These mitigatory measures reduce the impact to a LOW negative significance.

IMPACT 5: REDUCED ACCESS TO NATURAL RESOURCES

Cause and comment: Much of the land that will be permanently or temporary lost is land that is heavily relied upon by communities for the collection of firewood, medicinal plants and wild food plants (see Chapter 3 for a more in-depth discussion).

Significance statement It is definite that there will be loss of land for the collection of natural resources and this will probably result in a long-term moderately severe impact at the individual /household level. This is an impact of HIGH negative significance. Recommendations: The following recommendations will assist in reducing the significance of this impact:

1. Where possible the vegetation in the servitude area should be retained. 2. Provide compensation for the loss of indigenous trees (See Chapter 6). 3. Allow people to harvest wood before the power line is built. 4. Provide the wood from the trees that are cut down within the servitude to the affected people. 5. Employ local labour to harvest the wood and cut the trees to ensure that the costs of bush clearing are cycled back into the local community. 6. Establish woodlots. This must be planned with affected communities, so that they are willing to take responsibility.

The successful implementation of these mitigatory will decrease the impact to a MODERATE negative significance.

IMPACT 6: INCREASED PRESSURE ON SURROUNDING LAND AND PRODUCTIVE RESOURCES

Cause and comment: The power line project will impact on land currently used by villagers for agriculture and the collection of natural resources. This will force them to

144 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment: H Van Haenderen & L Kamanga Coastal& Environmental Services: Mozambique MalawiPower Line InterconnectorEIA, Supplementary Volume 2: Specialist Reports access resources currently unused, which will impact on the ecological functioning of the area. In some villages the pressure on land is higher than in others. Some villages have access to larger areas of remaining communal land, as not all land has been allocated. In addition, the agricultural potential of some of the communal land is much higher in some villages than in others. The pressure on remaining communal land will therefore differentially impact on the villages.

Significance statement: It is definite that the loss of land will occur and this will probably result in a long-term moderately severe impact at the individual/household level. This is an impact of MODERATE negative significance.

Recommendations: In order to mitigate this impact the following measures are recommended:

1. It is important that the land required for the power line infrastructure is cleared in an environmentally friendly manner (least disruption possible). 2. It is important to engage all relevant participants, including the local people themselves in the necessary re-allocation of land. 3. It is important to engage the Village Natural Resource Committees in order to optimise the sustainable use of the village land.

The successful implementation of these mitigatory measures should decrease the impact to a LOW negative significance

IMPACT 7: REDUCED PRODUCTIVITY OF PRIVATE ESTATES

Cause and comment: The power line runs through several privately owned estates, which will impact on the crops grown in these areas.

Significance statement: It is definite that loss of land will occur and this will probably result in a long-term moderately severe impact at the power line level. This is an impact of MODERATE negative significance.

Recommendations: The following mitigatory measures are recommended:

1. Where possible the pylons should be constructed in such a manner that they do not interfere with the efficient running of the estate. 2. Loss of land and crops should be fairly compensated (see Chapter 6). 3. Where possible crops in the servitude area should be maintained. 4. ESCOM has indicated that there may not be a need for a maintenance road in the Estates, since access to the power line would be possible without a road. Maintenance roads should only be constructed in Estates if no alternative access by road is available.

The successful implementation of these mitigatory measures would reduce the impact to a LOW negative significance.

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IMPACT 8: POTENTIAL CONFLICTS WITH REGARD TO COMPENSATION FOR LAND AND PRODUCTIVE RESOURCES.

Cause and comment: Several factors may give rise to conflict over land and resource allocation and compensation. These relate mainly to a change in land policy and decision making powers at local level. The factors that may cause confusion or conflict include:

* The high level of poverty and heavy reliance on local natural resources and land will increase local residents' emotional response to land impacts. * The traditional custom of village heads' claiming personal compensation for the loss of communal village land and resources from communal land. * Differential compensation tariffs between the Departments of Agriculture and Forestry for the conpensation of natural resources. * The new Land Policy, which is in the process of being enacted and which will change the status of customary land into private land (see Chapter 6). * The increased role of local government (District) in the management of land impacts. * The development of Village Resources Committees and Village Development Committees, which contribute to the gradual democratising of decision making processes about land and natural resources at village level.

Significance statement: It is likely that the negotiations over compensation of loss of land and natural resources will occur, and this will probably lead to a short- to medium- term moderately severe impact at the power line and District level. This is an impact of MODERATE negative significance, although at an individual/household level the impact may be of HIGH significance.

Recommendations: If the process outlined in the Resettlement Framework Plan (Chapter 6) is followed, which aims at fair compensation based on a participatory process between all affected and interested parties, including the local people, this impact should decrease to a LOW negative significance. However, certain parties may still feel aggrieved, and the significance of the impact will therefore remain HIGH.

IMPACT 9: RESETTLEMENT AND LOSS OF HOMESTEADS

Cause and comment: In order for the power line to be built, one homestead may need to be resettled in Kasapa village. The loss of a homestead is a traumatic experience for those affected and, if not properly managed, may give raise to economic and social hardship.

Significance statement: It is very likely that the loss of a homestead will occur as a result of the construction of the power line and this will probably result in a long-term moderately severe impact at the household level. This is an impact of HIGH negative significance.

Recommendations: In order to minimise the impact, there must be compliance with the recommendations contained in Chapter 6.

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Successful implementation of these mitigatory measures should decrease the impact to a LOW negative significance.

IMPACT 10: DISRUPTION OF CEMETERIES AND RELOCATION OF GRAVES

Cause and Comment: Graves and cemeteries are an integral part of communities and contribute to impacts of individual and family identity. Local residents are very sensitive about the disruption of graveyards and it was repeatedly stated that graves could not be moved. It appears that the power line project will however not disrupt any graveyard.

Significance statement: The relocation of graves will definitely not be necessary. As a result there will be NO significant impact.

CATEGORY OF IMPACTS: EXPANSION OF LOCAL ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES

The construction of the power line may lead to several positive and negative economic implications at the District and local level. The following impacts are identified:

IMPACT 11: ELECTRIFICATION OF RURAL CENTRES AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

Cause and comment: The World Bank has indicated that it wants the project to have local, as well as national benefits. In this regard it has proposed that Escom examines means by which local centres, close to the preferred route might benefit through electrification. Escom has indicated that it is possible to use the route to step down and carry domestic power lines. The fieldwork undertaken for the EIA/SIA has shown that there is some potential for rural centres to utilise electricity. In particular the 'maize mills', some of the WESM development projects and certain retail outlets in the rural centres would be likely beneficiaries. However, the possible uptake of electricity should not be overestimated. The dominant use of wood and charcoal fuel for primary domestic purposes is likely to remain, at least in the short to medium term. The use of electricity relies on assured and constant access to cash, which is a scarce resource in many of the villages. Although the tariffs of electricity will be lowered, power will still be out of financial reach for most local communities.

A rural electrification process, has earmarked the electrification of certain areas is already underway. Some localities, more specifically in the Neno area are already earmarked for electrification.

Significance statement: The opportunities for electrification of certain rural commercial and development centres may occur. They will probably result in a medium- to long- term moderately beneficial impact at the household and District level. This is an impact of LOW to MODERATE positive significance.

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Recommendation: It is important that the identification of the rural centres for electrification from the new power line is done in a participatory manner involving the District Assembly, the communities and the rural electrification programme, in order to optimise efficiency and effectiveness with regards to minimizing conflict. It is important to ensure the input of women in this process, since the electrification of maize mills (a service used by the women) was identified as an important impact It is also important to prioritise the criteria of local job creation in the identification of centres qualifying for electrification. Successful implementation of these recommendations could provide this impact with a MODERATELY beneficial significance

IMPACT 12: DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY

Cause and comment: There appears to be some potential to develop rural commerce and industry as a by-product due to the availability of electricity, but will not occur in the short to medium term without first developing the markets for value added rural produce. Furthermore, the lack of cash required to invest in rural enterprises will limit the creation of downstream employment that might arise out of an electrification programme. In fact, by stabilising the urban electricity demand situation and making electricity cheaper, there may be a net loss of employment in the rural areas as cash generated by sale of charcoal diminishes.

Significance statement: The opportunities for the development of rural commerce and industry may occur. They will probably result in a moderately beneficial impact at the household/Districtlevel in the medium- to long-term. This is an impact of MODERATE positive significance.

IMPACT 13: JOB OPPORTUNITIES AS A RESULT OF THE POWER LINE PROJECT

Cause and comment: ESCOM has indicated that a small number of villagers may be employed to clear vegetation for the construction of the road and the pylons and that some permanent local employment will be required to guard the power line.

Significance statement: There will definitely be job opportunities created by the construction and maintenance of the power. These will definitely result in a short- to long-term beneficial impact at the individual and household level. However, the limited amount of employments means this impact is of MODERATE positive significance.

Recommendation: The recruitment for labour needs to be done in a transparent and fair manner.

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IMPACT 14: INFLUX OF PEOPLE AS A RESULT OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE AREA

Cause and comment: The electrification of rural commercial centres and development projects as well as the development of rural industry, which may provide job opportunities, combined with the construction of the maintenance road (which enhances access) may lead to an influx of people to the area. This may lead to higher pressure on available land and increase tension amongst new immigrants and local people.

Significance statement: The influx of people to the area as a result of the power line may occur, possibly lead to a moderately severe impact in medium- and long- term at power line/District level. This is an impact of MODERATE negative significance. Recommendation: It is recommended that the District assembly, together with chiefs and village heads develop and maintain a strategy to deal with the influx of people. If this mitigatory measure is used successfully this impact will be of LOW significance, as a large amount of in-migration is not anticipated.

IMPACT 15: INCREASED RISKS TO LOCAL RESIDENTS HEALTH AND SAFETY AS A RESULT OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE POWER LINE.

Cause and comment: During the construction of the road and the building of the pylons it is possible that certain accidents could occur amongst the labour and/or local residents. Children playing in the construction area would be especially vulnerable

Significance statement: Certain accidents may occur during the construction of the power line and the maintenance road. This will definitely have a severe impact on the health and safety at individuallevel in the short-term. This is an impact of MODERATE negative significance.

Recommendations: It is recommended that the contractors ensure that their employees adhere to their safety policy, and that villages in the affected areas are made aware of the necessary safety precautions during the construction phase. This is best achieved through a brief training programme at village level, especially amongst the children, about the dangers associated with construction sites and power line. The successful implementation of these mitigatory factors will decrease the impact to a LOW negative significance.

IMPACT 16: INCREASED RISK TO LOCAL RESIDENTS' HEALTH AS A RESULT OF LIVING AND OR WORKING IN/NEAR IN AN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

Cause and comment: There is general worldwide concern about locating high voltage transmission lines close to human settlements, due to possible adverse health effects from the electromagnetic fields generated by power lines. The effects of these electromagnetic fields are still uncertain, as results from local and international research is considered scientifically inconclusive.

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A review undertaken by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences in 1999 (NIEHS, 1999) concludes that scientific evidence suggesting that electromagnetic fields (EMF) pose any health risk is weak. The strongest evidence comes from associations observed in human populations with two forms of cancer: childhood leukaemia and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia in occupationally exposed adults. However, experimental work has produced no causal relationships between exposure to EMF and cancer. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences concludes that, despite the lack of conclusive evidence, the health risk due to EMF exposure cannot be dismissed at present, and that a precautionary approach should be followed, guided by limits for magnetic fields as given by the International Radiation Protection Association (IRPA).

For the general public IRPA specifies an electric field level of 0.5kV for exposures up to 24hr/day, and up to 10Kv for a few hours a day. Magnetic flux levels of 1 000mG for exposures up to 24hr/day, and up to 10 000mG for a few hours a day are recommended. At a distance of 23.5m from the central 8m band of lines within the 55m servitude, the electric field levels will be approximately 0.1 to 0.5kV, and the magnetic field levels approximately 10mG. These levels are below the exposure limits recommended by IRPA (A. McFarlane,pers comm.).

Significance statement: It is possible that electromagnetic fields could adversely affect the health of nearby residents, and this will result in permanent impacts of unknown severity at a local level. Mitigation in the form of relocating nearby residents and establishing a servitude of 55m will probably reduce the significance of this impact to one of NO SIGNIFICANCE.

CATEGORY OF IMPACTS: CHANGES TO SOCIAL SYSTEMS

The social structures of the villages in the affected area have evolved over generations, and have dynamically responded to the changing social environment. The power line project will impact on people's land use and on economic and developmental opportunities, and will require new changes and adaptations in the local social structures. It is important that Escom pays particular attention to possible negative effects of the project on social systems.

IMPACT 17: INCREASED CONFLICT IN HOUSEHOLDS AND VILLAGES

Cause and comment: The project may alter existing power relations between different villages, households and members within a household thereby increasing the potential for conflict within villages and households in the following ways:

* The loss of ancestral land may undermine claims to power and status within households and communities. * Increased access to cash, for those who have access to temporary or permanent employment may change power relations in the communities and households. * Differential access to compensation may result in conflict in the community.

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Significance statement: The implementation of the project may result in increased conflict. This would probably have a moderately severe impact at the household and power line level in the short- and medium-termn This impact is of MODERATE negative significance.

Recommendation: If the process outlined in the Resettlement Framework Plan (Chapter 6) is followed, which aims at fair compensation based on a participatory process with all individuals involved, including the local people, this impact should decrease to one of LOW significance.

IMPACT 18: INCREASED INCIDENCES OF STD AND HIV/AIDS

Cause and comment: HIV/AIDS is a critical impact in Malawi and some of the estimates of HIV rates in the area are as high as 40%. It is well known that the disease follows projects where there is an influx of foreign workers and an injection of cash in communities with a subsistence existemre.

Significance statement: The implementation of the project may contribute to increased incidence of HIV/AIDS. This will definitely result in a medium- to long-term severe impact at the individual and household level. This is an impact of HIGH negative significance.

Recommendation: Mitigating the potential spread of HIV/Aids is difficult, and all mitigation measures should be a joint effort between Escom, the health authorities and community leaders. The following mitigatory measures are recommended:

1. ESCOM should train its workers in AIDS awareness. 2. All workers should be provided with condoms. 3. Ongoing, accessible and culturally appropriate awareness programmes around STD and HIV/Aids should be available to local communities.

Successful implementation of mitigating measures, as outlined above may possibly reduce the impact to MODERATE significance in the medium- to long-term

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Table 4: The full range of impacts at National and local level are summarised below.

IMPACT| WITHOUT MITIGATION WITH MITIGATION

Temporal scale Spatial scale | Risk I Certainty Severity Significance Significance CATEGORY OF IMPACTS: EXPANSION OF ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES AND PROVISION OF SERVICES Impact I Expansion of economic Medium- and National Very likes Probable Beneficial MODERATE MODERATE opportunities Long4erm Impact 2: Increasing the Medium- and lone- National Very likely Probable Very beneficial HIGH HIGH reliability of services term Impact 3: Production of Long4erm National Likely Probable Beneficial MODERATE MODERATE cheaper electricity may decrease need for charcoal CATEGORY OF IMPACTS: LOSS OF LAND AND ACCESS TO PRODUCTIVE RESOURCES Impact 4: Reduced capacity for Permanent Household Definite Probable Moderately HIGH LOW household survival - permanent severe loss Impact 5: Reduced capacity for Short- and medium- Household Definite Probable Moderately MODERATE LOW household survival: temporary term severe loss Impact 6: Reduced access to Long-term Household Definite Probable Moderately HIGH MODERATE natural resources severe

Impact 7: Increased pressure on Long-term Household Definite Probable Moderately MODERATE LOW surrounding land and productive severe resources Impact 8: Reduced productivity Long-term Power line Definite Probable Moderately MODERATE LOW of estates severe Impact 9: Potential conflicts Short- and medium- Power line and Likely Probable Moderately MODERATE LOW with regard to compensation for term District severe land and productive resources Impact 10: Potential conflicts Short- and medium- Individual and Likely Probable Severe HIGH HIGH with regard to compensation for term household land and productive resources CATEGORY OF IMPACTS: RESETTLEMENT Impactll :loss ofhomesteads Lon24erm Household Very likely Probable Moderately HIGH LOW severe I l

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IMPACTr WITHOUT MITIGATION WITH MMGATION

Temporal scale Spatial scale Risk Certainty Sevenity Significance Significance Impact 12: Disruption of Very NO IMPACT cemeteries and relocation of mulikely graves I CATEGORY OF IMPACTS: EXPANSION OF ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES Impact 13: Electrification of Medium- and lone- Household and May occur Probable Moderately LOW TO LOW TO rural centres and development term District beneficial MODERATE MODERATE projects

Impact 14: Development of rural Medium- and lone Household and May occur Probable Moderately MODERATE MODERATE commerce and industry term District beneficial Impact 15: Job opportunities Short- and long- Individual and Definite Definite Beneficial MODERATE MODERATE term household Impact 16: Influx of people Medium- and Power line and May occur Possible Moderately MODERATE LOW Long4erm District severe CATEGORY OF IMPACTS: SAFETY Impact 17: health and safety risk Short4erm Individual May occur Definite Severe MODERATE LOW as a result of the construction of the power line Impact 18: health risk as a result Permanent Local Very Possible Unknown severe NO of living near an electro- unlikely SIGNIFICANCE magnetic field CATEGORY OF IMPACTS: CHANGES TO SOCIAL SYSTEMS Impact 19: Increased conflicts in Short- and medium- Household and May occur Probable Moderately MODERATE LOW households and villages term servitude severe Impact 20: Increased incidences Medium- and lone- Individual/house May occur Definite Severe IHIGH MODERATE of STD and HIV/AIDS term hold

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5.9 SUMMARY AND KEY RECOMMENDATIONS

This report has considered the social and economic impacts of the proposed power line at national, district and local level. At national level there can be no doubt that the power line will benefit Malawi. This is largely through increased potential for the efficient delivery of services and the provision of an incentive to intemational companies to invest in Malawi.

At District and local level the project may go some way towards enhancing services and the development of rural industries and commerce as well as providing some employment.

However, it is at the local level that negative impacts become manifested. The loss of land, homesteads and access to resources may, if not well managed, disrupt people's livelihoods and ultimately increase morbidity levels. It may at the same time increase pressure on available land, with resultant ecological impacts (see Chapter 3).

The current changes in the land policy and the functioning of local government structures places an extra stress on the resolution of land and resource compensation. The methodology and input of the various local stakeholders needs to be carefully worked out in order to optimise fair and widely accepted compensation strategies.

Expectations of job opportunities are fairly high amongst local residents, however only a few positions will be available. It is very important to instil realistic expectations with regard to direct benefits from the power project, and to develop a strategy of equitable distribution of job opportunities amongst the affected parties.

Finally it is important that in the development of strategies for compensation, resettlement, job allocation, safety and identification of beneficiaries for electrification, all partners, including the developer, local and District authorities work hand in hand.

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