( SUNY series in Global Media Studies THE GLOBALIZATION Yahya R. Kamalipour OF CORPORATE and Kuldip R. Rampal, editors MEDIA .. HEGEMONY EDITED BY Lee Artz and Yahya R. Kamalipour state University of New York Press JI () 228 Robbin D. Crabtree and Sheena Malhotra CHAPTER 12 Thussu, D. K. (2000). International communication: Continuity and change. London: Oxford University Press. MTV Asia: Tomlinson, J. (1991). Cultural imperialism. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Localizing the Global'Media Tomlinson, J. (1999). Globalization and Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 24-hour CNN in India now via Doordarshan. (1995, July 1). The Asian Age, p. 3. Stacey K Sowqrds Woman kills daughter, herself. (1995, June 11), The Hindu, p. 3. MTV Asia, broadcast from Singapore to homes in' Southeast Asia, has become increasingly popular in the last few years, especially among middle- and upper- class youth. Initially founded in 1991, MTV Asia broadcast for three years, before ceasing programs in 1994 because of disputes with Murdoch's Star TV (Shuker, 1994). In April of 1995, MTV Asia was launched again, reaching over 40 million viewers, more than the 28 million MTV viewers in the United States (Thussu, 2000). One of the unique aspects of MTV Asia is that it has made substantial efforts to modifY programming to reflect and attract Southeast Asian youth cul- ture (Einhorn, 1997). For example, the programming includes VJs (video jockeys) of Southeast Asian descent, Asia's Top 20 Hitlist, request and interactive shows, and the promotion of Asian bands both in commercials and in airplay. These examples ostensibly indicate that American programming marketed to Asia has become less culturally imperialistic in nature in comparison to past marketing efforts and exports (Colista and Leshner, 1998; Goodwin, 1992: Goodwin & Gore, 1990; Jakubowicz, 1995; Mohammadi, 1995; Stevenson, 1994). In the past, the American media industries have been successful in Asian markets, which in turn have increased appetites for American popular culture. MTV seeks to satiate that demand in popular music. The effects of popular music on a particular audience can be wide ranging, especially in con- junction with television broadcasting (Frith, 1996; Jhally, 1987). In this essay, I argue that MTV Asia is essentially a cleverly repackaged and redisguised form of Western narratives of class, culture, values, and consumerism that shapes and influences Southeast Asians across class and culture in a poten- tially culturally disruptive manner. MTV Asia effectively demonstrates how middle-class and elite Southeast Asians accept and .participate in media hege- mony of Western popular music and ideologies. Identity Construction and Popular Music Several authors contend that narrati~es are the basis for how individuals make sense of their surrounding environment (Bhavnani& Phoenix, 1994; Frith, ( () 230 Stacey K Sowards MTV Asia 231 1996; Hall, 1996; Novitz, 1989; Somers, 1992; Vila, 1996). Novitz (1989) 1995; Shuker, 1994). Additionally, MTV has had substantial influence on the contends that narratives are based on past experience and are capable of 18-34 age group; before MTV, advertisers had difficulty in targeting this par- changing human thought patterns. Narrativity can also legitimize normativ- ticular age group (Jhally, 1987). ity. Narratives are, according to Novitz, a critical element in the formation of There are several implications of such a large viewership for popular group and individual identities. Bhuvnani and Phoenix (1994) argue that the music and its audience. First, MTV has created a music industry that makes discourses of narratives are the product of human interaction in which indi- it nearly impossible to achieve success without a music video and extensive viduals construct materialized plots to which others can relate. Stuart Hall airplay on MTV to inc;ease exposure. In fact,]ones (1992) and Shuker (1994) (1996) argues that because human identity derives from historical experience, contend that MTV airplay is the most effective way to break a new artist. identity is in constant flux in response to new conditions. Hall explains that MTV Asia has reserved a 20% quota for Asian videos, but as Banks observes identity is conceived from the human interiority that is constructed on the (1997),90% of the videos broadcast on MTV Asia are non-Asian videos. This basis of historical experience. Furthermore, identity is constantly changing, potentially means that Southeast Asian artists are crowded out of the popular because it is a temporary attachment. music markets or undesirable in comparison to the choices available from Frith (1996) and Vila (1996) maintain that music, especially popular Europe, Australia, or North America. music, provides narratives that have a powerful effect on audiences. In fact, ]hally (1987) and Nash (1999) also argue that MTV plays videos that Vila (1996) writes that the narrative is the bridge between music and the for- are targeted for white suburban youth. While MTV in the United States cur- mation of identity. Frith (1996), instead of viewing the composition of music rently airs African-American or Latina/o artists, the primary audience as something created by the individual, examines the role that music, as a per- remains white, middle-class viewers. Additionally, Banks (1997) has observed formance, story, or narrative, plays in both self and group identity. Music, that MTV Latin America has refused to play salsa or cumbia videos even according to Vila (1996), is a cultural artifact that, in part, constructs these though such styles of music are high in viewer demand. Unfortunately for identities. Music brings satisfaction to the listener and self-definition to the musicians without videos or that fail to target white, niiddle-class youth cul- listener. Both Vila and Frith contend that music is not just the affectation of ture, widespread success in the United States is di~ficult to obtain without the single individual, but also creates group identity. Frith writes that: MTV airplay. Furthermore, the American MTVprogram "Total Request Global," which features the top 10 countdowns from around the world, social groups [do not] agree on values which are then expressed in their cul- demonstrates that most songs requested in each region are American or Euro- tural activities (the assumption of homology models) but that they only get pean. While this program attempts to diversify its programming through to know themselves as groups (as a particular organization of individual and more global music exposure for American audiences, these global trends are in social interests, of sameness and difference) through cultural activity, through fact very much American (Banks, 1997; 1996). aesthetic judgment. (1996, p. 111, emphasis in original text) A primary purveyor of popular culture, MTV is above all a commercial enterprise that bases decisions on its advertising projections-which music Vila also suggests that music is a means for group identity by claiming that will attract the largest audience that can in turn be sold to the most advertis- music facilitates the forging of relationships with others and can furthermore ers. In essence, MTV is one large, continuous advertising scheme (Grossberg, affect the listeners' emotional state, by creating feelings of happiness, friend- 1993; Pettegrew, 1995; Shuker, 1994). Not only does MTV fund its endeav- ship, and solidarity. Thus, music is capable of articulating an understanding of ors through advertising of commercial products, but each music video func- both self and group solidarity by creating an emotional alliance with an indi- tions as an advertisement for the band or musician in the video. Additionally, vidual's interiority and with others. musicians also advertise products within videos, by wearing advertisers' clothing or using other products, such as Coca. Cola, Pepsi, and clothing (such as Nike, Phat Farm, or famous designers). Musicians or their songs Popular Music and MTV often are used in commercial advertising. Rather than serving as an arena for musical talent, MTV has "fetishized" popular music by conferring cultural Several authors have argued that MTV and music video have fundamentally significance to videos that they do not possess (Jhally, 1987). Thus, music changed not only the music industry, but also the way in which audiences videos provide a marketing tool, not just for the music, but also for other relate and construct meanings from popular music (Jhally, 1987; Pettegrew, commercial products, including the rhetorical power of celebrity conferred ( () 232 Stacey K Sowards MTV Asia 233 on chosen musicians. Pettegrew emphasizes that this fetishization has caused Malm & Wallis, 1992; Straubhaar, 1991). According to Petras, cultural impe- MTV, which claims to be a text of subversion or rebellion, to perpetuate cor- rialism is "the systematic penetration and domination of the cultural life of the porate hegemony, where viewers believe they are buying into underground popular classes by the ruling class of the West in order to reorder the values, culture of subversion, but in reality, legitimizing the ideologies of white, mid- behavior, institutions and identity of the oppressed peoples to conform with dle-class cultures and consumerism. the interests of the imperial classes" (1993, p. ~40). Colista and Leshner Finally, audio texts and simultaneous visual texts often change the view- (1998) argue that discussions of imperialism are' too simplistic because