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Microglia Diversity in Healthy and Diseased Brain: Insights from Single-Cell Omics

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Microglia Diversity in Healthy and Diseased Brain: Insights from Single-Cell Omics International Journal of Molecular Sciences Review Microglia Diversity in Healthy and Diseased Brain: Insights from Single-Cell Omics Natalia Ochocka and Bozena Kaminska * Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Microglia are the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS) that have dis- tinct ontogeny from other tissue macrophages and play a pivotal role in health and disease. Microglia rapidly react to the changes in their microenvironment. This plasticity is attributed to the ability of microglia to adapt a context-specific phenotype. Numerous gene expression profiling studies of immunosorted CNS immune cells did not permit a clear dissection of their phenotypes, particularly in diseases when peripheral cells of the immune system come to play. Only recent advances in single-cell technologies allowed studying microglia at high resolution and revealed a spectrum of discrete states both under homeostatic and pathological conditions. Single-cell technologies such as single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and mass cytometry (Cytometry by Time-Of-Flight, CyTOF) enabled determining entire transcriptomes or the simultaneous quantification of >30 cellular parameters of thousands of individual cells. Single-cell omics studies demonstrated the unforeseen heterogeneity of microglia and immune infiltrates in brain pathologies: neurodegenerative disorders, stroke, depression, and brain tumors. We summarize the findings from those studies and the current state of knowledge of functional diversity of microglia under physiological and pathological condi- Citation: Ochocka, N.; Kaminska, B. tions. A precise definition of microglia functions and phenotypes may be essential to design future Microglia Diversity in Healthy and immune-modulating therapies. Diseased Brain: Insights from Single-Cell Omics. Int. J. Mol. Sci. Keywords: microglia heterogeneity; disease-associated microglia; malignant gliomas; glioma associ- 2021, 22, 3027. https://doi.org/ ated microglia/macrophages; single-cell RNA sequencing; mass cytometry 10.3390/ijms22063027 Academic Editor: Alessandro Michelucci 1. Brief Introduction to Microglia Ontogeny, Turnover and Functions Received: 8 February 2021 1.1. Microglia Ontogeny, Distribution and Turnover Accepted: 12 March 2021 Microglia—the innate immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS)—belong to CNS Published: 16 March 2021 macrophages that encompass microglia and CNS border-associated macrophages (BAMs). Early studies using immunohistochemistry demonstrated that microglia represent about 10% of Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral the adult brain cell population and are present in all main CNS structures, although these cells with regard to jurisdictional claims in are not uniformly distributed [1]. In initial studies, staining for microglia markers F4/80 and published maps and institutional affil- receptors of FcIgG1/2b (Fc, fragment crystallizable), as well as type-three complement (Mac-1) iations. showed two types of positive cells in the adult mouse brain: microglia and cells associated with the choroid plexus, ventricles, and leptomeninges [2]. There is regional diversity in the abundance of microglia; more positive cells are found in the gray matter than the white matter. Microglia are numerous in the hippocampus, olfactory telencephalon, basal ganglia, Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. and substantia nigra. The less densely populated areas include fiber tracts, cerebellum, and the Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. brainstem, while the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus have average cell densities. This article is an open access article The proportion of microglia varies from 5% in the cortex and corpus callosum to 12% in the distributed under the terms and substantia nigra. conditions of the Creative Commons Regional heterogeneity of microglia has been detected in the adult human brain, with Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// lower densities in the gray matter compared with the white matter, and substantially creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ lower densities in the cerebellar cortex compared to the substantia nigra [3–5]. Common 4.0/). Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 3027. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22063027 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 3027 2 of 24 immunological markers include: CD (cluster of differentiation) 45, CD68, HLA-DR (a MHC class II cell surface receptor), IBA-1 (Ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1). Those microglia slowly renew at a median rate of 28% per year, and only 2% of microglia are thought to be proliferating at a given time [6,7]. Most studies in humans assessed microglial populations in embryonic/fetal tissues with immunological (CD45, MHCII, CD68, IBA-1) or histochemical markers (RCA-1) that do not distinguish between microglia and non-parenchymal macrophages. The issue of microglia maintenance in adulthood has been addressed in studies using bone marrow (BM) cell transplantation and parabiosis. The BM transplantation exper- iments in rats showed that solely perivascular macrophages are replaced and not the ramified microglia in the brain parenchyma [8]. In female human patients who under- went sex mismatched BM transplantation, only donor-derived perivascular macrophages were detected [9]. In the early cell transfer experiments with transplantation of the BM hematopoietic cells expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP), some GFP-expressing parenchymal microglia were found in the cerebellum, striatum, and hippocampus, suggest- ing a partial substitution by peripheral cells [10,11]. However, in later studies, in which an animal head was shielded to protect from irradiation, any significant infiltration of BM-derived cells into the brain was not observed, suggesting that the spotted substitution was due to radiation [12]. The experiments on parabiotic mice, in which the turnover of hematopoietic cells for prolonged periods can be studied, demonstrated a lack of microglia progenitor recruitment from the circulation in denervation or CNS neurodegenerative disease. Further studies combining parabiosis and myeloablation showed that recruited monocytes do not persist in the CNS [13]. The expression of a progenitor marker, nestin, is corroborating evidence that microglial progenitors were not hematopoietic cells. All those findings pointed to the persistence of microglia in CNS and a lack of the significant contribution from BM-derived monocytes [14]. In vivo lineage tracing studies, using the fractalkine receptor encoding gene Cx3cr1gfp/+ knock-in mice, established that microglia have a different ontogeny from mononuclear phago- cytes and colonize CNS early in the development. Several studies demonstrated that microglia are derived from primitive hematopoietic progenitors (c-KitloCD41lo progenitors) that orig- inate around embryonic day 7.25 (E7.25) in the yolk sac [15–17]. A recent study found two populations: non-Hoxb8 microglia and Hoxb8 microglia, with the latter derived from the second wave of yolk sack hematopoiesis infiltrating the murine brain around E12.5 [18]. In the zebrafish embryo, microglia derive from c-myb-independent erythro-myeloid progenitors but are replaced by c-myb-dependent hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) after birth [19]. These two studies suggest a second wave of proliferation and CNS colonization by microglial pro- genitors in the early CNS development. All the data point to the origin of microglia from the yolk sack hematopoiesis, early CNS colonization, and the lack of significant input from HSCs in adulthood. Similarly to microglia, BAMs are derived from hematopoietic precursors during embryonic development and establish stable populations, with the exception of choroid plexus macrophages, which have a shorter life span and are replenished from blood-borne monocytes [20]. Due to different ontogeny and location, microglia acquire a different gene expression signature than BAMs and peripheral macrophages [21]. In adulthood, microglia are dependent on constant stimulation of colony-stimulating factor-1 (Csf1) receptors. In both mice and humans, interleukin-34 (IL-34), an alternative ligand for Csf-1 receptor produced by neurons in the brain, is essential for microglia maintenance [22,23]. The initial colonization of the brain by microglia corresponds to development of its vascularization, although microglia may enter the brain via brain ventricles or across meninges [24]. In the human brain, microglia colonization coincides with the vascular- ization, radial glia formation, neuronal migration, and myelination [25]. The density of microglia in the developing CNS is two times higher than in the adult CNS, and the time-regulated decline in microglia number involves increased apoptosis and reduced proliferation [26]. Microglia acquire a definitive local density soon after birth, after a wave Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 3027 3 of 24 of microglial proliferation within the first 2 postnatal weeks followed by a decline by 50% between the third and sixth postnatal weeks [26]. Studies of microglia in human brain sections from embryos and fetuses from early gestational weeks (gw) showed that microglial cells penetrate into and spread throughout the cortical gray and white matter with the specific spatiotemporal pattern during the first 2 trimesters of gestation. Amoeboid microglia positive for IBA1 (ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1), CD68, and
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