DOCSLIB.ORG

Symbolic Representation of Number in Chimpanzees Tetsuro Matsuzawa

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Symbolic Representation of Number in Chimpanzees Tetsuro Matsuzawa Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Symbolic representation of number in chimpanzees Tetsuro Matsuzawa This paper aims to summarize the existing evidence for the chimpanzees possess for numerals. Fourth, it introduces symbolic representation of number in chimpanzees. common characteristics of the difficulties experienced by Chimpanzees can represent, to some extent, both the cardinal chimpanzees in various kinds of cognitive tasks. Finally, and the ordinal aspect of number. Through the medium of it discusses the number concept within the larger context Arabic numerals we compared working memory in humans and of cognition, illuminating cognitive development in chimpanzees using the same apparatus and following the same chimpanzees and the unique features of human cognition. procedure. Three young chimpanzees outperformed human adults in memorizing briefly presented numerals. However, we The Ai project: psychophysical measurement found that chimpanzees were less proficient at a variety of and the underlying logic other cognitive tasks including imitation, cross-modal The Ai project – encompassing a series of studies whose matching, symmetry of symbols and referents, and one-to-one principal subject has been a female chimpanzee named Ai correspondence. In sum, chimpanzees do not possess human- – began when Ai, at the age of 1.5 years, first touched an like capabilities for representation at an abstract level. The experimental keyboard on April 15th 1978 [3–5]. The last present paper will discuss the constraints of the number in a succession of ape-language projects launched in the concept in chimpanzees, and illuminate some unique features second half of the 20th century, the Ai-project was also of human cognition. the forerunner of a new research paradigm called Com- parative Cognitive Science (CCS) [6]. CCS is the com- Address bined study of psychophysics and ape-language, using Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, 41 Kanrin, Inuyama, Aichi computer-controlled apparatus. In its original form, CCS 484-8506, Japan aimed to compare perception, memory, and cognition in Corresponding author: Matsuzawa, Tetsuro humans with those of closely related species such as ([email protected]) chimpanzees. Crucially, such inter-species comparisons rely on identical methods: subjects, irrespective of species, use the same apparatus and follow the same Current Opinion in Neurobiology 2009, 19:92–98 procedure during testing. This review comes from a themed issue on Cognitive neuroscience Psychophysics is the classic psychological study of Edited by Michael Platt and Elizabeth Spelke measuring human sensation, perception, memory, and cognition in general. Psychophysics tries to unravel the Available online 14th May 2009 relationship between physical events and psychological 0959-4388/$ – see front matter events. Psychophysical researchers have established # 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. many laws, including, for example, Weber–Fechner’s DOI 10.1016/j.conb.2009.04.007 law and Steven’s power law. There exist well-established methods for measuring the relationship between the stimuli presented and the corresponding internal psycho- logical states. Thus, psychophysics can be extended to Introduction issues related to concept formation, such as the under- Using the Arabic numerals 0 through 9, the chimpanzee standing of number. Ai can represent both the cardinal and the ordinal aspect of number to some extent [1]. Similar skills have now The Ai project has two important features: the research been partially confirmed in six other chimpanzees [2,3]. presents humans and chimpanzees with exactly the same A recent study has used numerical stimuli to demonstrate tasks so that their performance can be compared in detail, an extraordinary memory capability in young chimpan- and that the research undertakes that comparison by zees [2]. In contrast with the memory test, chimpanzees using the methods of psychophysics. There is the syner- show poor performance in many other cognitive tasks that gistic connection between these two features for the require some form of abstraction. The present paper will enterprise of CCS. CCS aims to compare different species address the following five topics. First, it describes the at the level of cognitive mechanisms, and it is the great logic and framework for the study of the number concept virtue of psychophysical method that serves not only to in nonhuman animals. Second, it reviews the long-run- describe the performance of humans and nonhuman ning Ai project, focusing in particular on studies dealing animals but also to analyze that performance into its with the symbolic representation of number. Third, it component mechanisms. By adopting psychophysical describes the extraordinary memory capacity that young approach, you can go beyond questions of what trained Current Opinion in Neurobiology 2009, 19:92–98 www.sciencedirect.com Symbolic representation of number in chimpanzees Matsuzawa 93 chimpanzees can do and ask how chimpanzees and enumeration, quantity discrimination, and sequential humans do what they do: What cognitive capacities are responding. Today, much attention continues to be paid shared by the two species and what capacities distinguish to the concept of number in nonhuman animals [16,17]. them. Various researchers have published studies that they described as tests of numerical competence in macaque Ai was the first chimpanzee who learned to discriminate monkeys [18–20], cotton-top tamarin [21], elephant [22], the 26 letters of the alphabet during tests of shape parrot [23], pigeons [24], even salamanders [25] and bees perception and visual acuity [7]. She also mastered [26]. However, none of these compared the performance additional visual symbols such as specially devised geo- of human and nonhuman subjects directly, using the metric shapes (called lexigrams) and Japanese Kanji same methodology. Almost all the literature on nonhu- characters signifying different colors, in the course of man animals has focused on rudimentary forms of the experiments designed to examine her classification of number concept. By contrast, the Ai-project’s series of various colors [8]. number concept studies stands out clearly for two reasons. First, it focuses on the symbolic representation of number Ever since the beginning of the Ai-project, my colleagues using Arabic numerals. This symbolic representation and I have been focusing on the mathematical skills of allowed us to conduct direct comparisons between chimpanzees rather than on any form of bilateral com- humans and chimpanzees. Second, we applied psycho- munication between humans and chimpanzees—the latter physical measurements using a fully automated compu- having been the central theme of previous ape-language ter-controlled apparatus that completely excluded any studies. There were four reasons why we decided to kind of social cueing. concentrate on issues related to number concepts. The fourth reason why we decided to concentrate on First, the world of logico-mathematical skills was small. issues related to number concepts is the connection to the Mathematical cognition is a part of human cognition in psychophysical approach. Most domains of human cogni- general, but the number system is narrower and more tion are not yet amenable to psychophysical analysis, clearly and precisely defined in comparison to the lin- because the proper mathematical characterization of guistic system. The number system includes the levels of the cognitive domain is not clear. Number, however, is Integer that is a part of Real number, and that is a part of highly amenable to psychophysical analysis. Indeed, the Complex number. The scales of the number system Weber–Fechner’s law of psychophysics holds in the advance from Nominal to Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio numerical domain. scales. Therefore, focusing on the Integer, for example, we can examine both cardinal aspects (‘one, two, three, Cardinal and ordinal aspects of number and four...’) and ordinal aspects (‘first, second, third, introducing zero fourth...’) of the number concept in chimpanzees. From Ai is the first chimpanzee who mastered the use of Arabic the perspective of future work, we can examine the numerals to represent numbers [4]. She learned both combination of numerical elements to create new mean- cardinal and ordinal aspects of the number system. She ing: such as putting 1 and 0 together to create ‘10’ in the used the numerals to label real-life items, shown to her in decimal number system. Moreover, further questions a display window, in terms of their numerosity. She also open up regarding numerical operations such as addition became proficient at responding to Arabic numerals in and subtraction. These kinds of numerical manipulations ascending order, selecting them from a touch-screen in can be viewed as corresponding to the syntactical struc- the correct sequence. When the numeral ‘0’ was intro- ture of the language system. duced, Ai mastered its use in both the cardinal and the ordinal domains; however, the acquisition process and the Our second reason for focusing on number concepts was generalization tests in this case clearly highlighted the the accumulation of knowledge about mathematical constraints of the symbolic representation of number thinking in human subjects. Several important papers acquired by the chimpanzee [1]. Further detail on Ai’s had just been published about the child’s understanding experience with numerals follows below. of number, including Gelman and Gallistel’s
Load more

Recommended publications
  • EAZA Best Practice Guidelines Bonobo (Pan Paniscus)
    EAZA Best Practice Guidelines Bonobo (Pan paniscus) Editors: Dr Jeroen Stevens Contact information: Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp – K. Astridplein 26 – B 2018 Antwerp, Belgium Email: [email protected] Name of TAG: Great Ape TAG TAG Chair: Dr. María Teresa Abelló Poveda – Barcelona Zoo [email protected] Edition: First edition - 2020 1 2 EAZA Best Practice Guidelines disclaimer Copyright (February 2020) by EAZA Executive Office, Amsterdam. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in hard copy, machine-readable or other forms without advance written permission from the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA). Members of the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) may copy this information for their own use as needed. The information contained in these EAZA Best Practice Guidelines has been obtained from numerous sources believed to be reliable. EAZA and the EAZA APE TAG make a diligent effort to provide a complete and accurate representation of the data in its reports, publications, and services. However, EAZA does not guarantee the accuracy, adequacy, or completeness of any information. EAZA disclaims all liability for errors or omissions that may exist and shall not be liable for any incidental, consequential, or other damages (whether resulting from negligence or otherwise) including, without limitation, exemplary damages or lost profits arising out of or in connection with the use of this publication. Because the technical information provided in the EAZA Best Practice Guidelines can easily be misread or misinterpreted unless properly analysed, EAZA strongly recommends that users of this information consult with the editors in all matters related to data analysis and interpretation.
    [Show full text]
  • Called “Talking Animals” Taught Us About Human Language?
    Linguistic Frontiers • 1(1) • 14-38 • 2018 DOI: 10.2478/lf-2018-0005 Linguistic Frontiers Representational Systems in Zoosemiotics and Anthroposemiotics Part I: What Have the So- Called “Talking Animals” Taught Us about Human Language? Research Article Vilém Uhlíř* Theoretical and Evolutionary Biology, Department of Philosophy and History of Sciences. Charles University. Viničná 7, 12843 Praha 2, Czech Republic Received ???, 2018; Accepted ???, 2018 Abstract: This paper offers a brief critical review of some of the so-called “Talking Animals” projects. The findings from the projects are compared with linguistic data from Homo sapiens and with newer evidence gleaned from experiments on animal syntactic skills. The question concerning what had the so-called “Talking Animals” really done is broken down into two categories – words and (recursive) syntax. The (relative) failure of the animal projects in both categories points mainly to the fact that the core feature of language – hierarchical recursive syntax – is missing in the pseudo-linguistic feats of the animals. Keywords: language • syntax • representation • meta-representation • zoosemiotics • anthroposemiotics • talking animals • general cognition • representational systems • evolutionary discontinuity • biosemiotics © Sciendo 1. The “Talking Animals” Projects For the sake of brevity, I offer a greatly selective review of some of the more important “Talking Animals” projects. Please note that many omissions were necessary for reasons of space. The “thought climate” of the 1960s and 1970s was formed largely by the Skinnerian zeitgeist, in which it seemed possible to teach any animal to master any, or almost any, skill, including language. Perhaps riding on an ideological wave, following the surprising claims of Fossey [1] and Goodall [2] concerning primates, as well as the claims of Lilly [3] and Batteau and Markey [4] concerning dolphins, many scientists and researchers focussed on the continuities between humans and other species, while largely ignoring the discontinuities and differences.
    [Show full text]
  • Conflict and Cooperation in Wild Chimpanzees
    ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR VOL. 35 Conflict and Cooperation in Wild Chimpanzees MARTIN N. MULLER* and JOHN C. MITANIt *DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY BOSTON UNIVERSITY BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, 02215, USA tDEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN, 48109, USA 1. INTRODUCTION The twin themes of competition and cooperation have been the focus of many studies in animal behavior (Alcock, 2001; Dugatkin, 2004; Krebs and Davies, 1997). Competition receives prominent attention because it forms the basis for the unifying, organizing principle of biology. Darwin's (1859) theory of natural selection furnishes a powerful framework to understand the origin and maintenance of organic and behavioral diversity. Because the process of natural selection depends on reproductive competition, aggression, dominance, and competition for mates serve as important foci of ethological research. In contrast, cooperation in animals is less easily explained within a Darwinian framework. Why do animals cooperate and behave in ways that benefit others? Supplements to the theory of natural selection in the form of kin selection, reciprocal altruism, and mutualism provide mechanisms that transform the study of cooperative behavior in animals into a mode of inquiry compatible with our current understand- ing of the evolutionary process (Clutton-Brock, 2002; Hamilton, 1964; Trivers, 1971). If cooperation can be analyzed via natural selection operating on indivi- duals, a new way to conceptualize the process emerges. Instead of viewing cooperation as distinct from competition, it becomes productive to regard them together. Students of animal behavior have long recognized that an artificial dichotomy may exist insofar as animals frequently cooperate to compete with conspecifics.
    [Show full text]
  • Do Apes and Monkeys Rely Upon Conceptual Reversibility? a Review of Studies Using Seriated Nesting Cups in Children and Nonhuman Primates
    Anim Cogn (2001) 4:315–324 DOI 10.1007/s10071-001-0117-4 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Julie Johnson-Pynn · Dorothy M. Fragaszy Do apes and monkeys rely upon conceptual reversibility? A review of studies using seriated nesting cups in children and nonhuman primates Received: 2 October 2000 / Accepted after revision: 10 September 2001 / Published online: 26 October 2001 © Springer-Verlag 2001 Abstract The ability to seriate nesting cups as a sensori- Keywords Seriation · Skill development · Nonhuman motor task has posed interesting questions for cognitive primates · Perceptual-motor learning scientists. Greenfield et al. [(1972) Cognit Psychol 3:291– 310] found parallels between children’s combinatorial ac- tivity with nesting cups and patterns of phonological and Introduction grammatical constructions. The parallels suggested the possibility of a neurally based developmental homology A sizeable body of literature documents both variety and between language and instrumental action [Greenfield complexity in children’s manipulation of objects in free (1991) Behav Brain Sci 14:531–595]. Children who pre- play and in goal-oriented tasks (e.g., Bruner 1973; McCall dominantly used subassembly, a hierarchical method of 1974; Fenson et al. 1976; Wood et al. 1976). In children, combining cups, succeeded at seriating nesting cups more the ability to seriate, or order a set of objects by size from often than those who did not. Greenfield and others [e.g., smallest to largest, has been interpreted as a form of logi- Piaget and Inhelder (1969) The psychology of the child. cal cognition that stems from actions such as putting ob- Basic Books, New York; DeLoache et al. (1985) Child jects in piles, aligning objects, and arranging objects in an Dev 56:928–939] argued that success in seriation reflects array (Inhelder and Piaget 1964; Woodward 1972; Langer the child’s growing recognition of a reversible relation- 1980).
    [Show full text]
  • The Cognitive Animal Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives on Animal Cognition
    This PDF includes a chapter from the following book: The Cognitive Animal Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives on Animal Cognition © 2002 Massachusetts Institute of Technology License Terms: Made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ OA Funding Provided By: The open access edition of this book was made possible by generous funding from Arcadia—a charitable fund of Lisbet Rausing and Peter Baldwin. The title-level DOI for this work is: doi:10.7551/mitpress/1885.001.0001 Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/edited-volume/chapter-pdf/677498/9780262268028_c002400.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 Chimpanzee Ai and Her Son Ayumu: An Episode of Education by Master- 25 Apprenticeship Tetsuro Matsuzawa I have been studying chimpanzee (Pan troglo- use has never before been found in nonhuman dytes) intelligence both in the laboratory and animals. Humans show strong hand preference in the wild (Matsuzawa 2001). Chimpanzees in on the individual level, and there is also a strong the wild use and manufacture a wide variety of right bias at the population level. The chimpan- tools, such as twigs to fish for termites or a pair zees of Bossou show a slight bias toward the of stones to crack open hard-shelled nuts. Re- right for hammering at the population level, with cent studies comparing di¤erent communities of about 67 percent of group members being right- chimpanzees have shown that each community handers. However, there is perfect correspon- develops its own unique set of cultural traditions.
    [Show full text]
  • Bonobos (Pan Paniscus) Show an Attentional Bias Toward Conspecifics’ Emotions
    Bonobos (Pan paniscus) show an attentional bias toward conspecifics’ emotions Mariska E. Kreta,1, Linda Jaasmab, Thomas Biondac, and Jasper G. Wijnend aInstitute of Psychology, Cognitive Psychology Unit, Leiden University, 2333 AK Leiden, The Netherlands; bLeiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands; cApenheul Primate Park, 7313 HK Apeldoorn, The Netherlands; and dPsychology Department, University of Amsterdam, 1018 XA Amsterdam, The Netherlands Edited by Susan T. Fiske, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, and approved February 2, 2016 (received for review November 8, 2015) In social animals, the fast detection of group members’ emotional perspective, it is most adaptive to be able to quickly attend to rel- expressions promotes swift and adequate responses, which is cru- evant stimuli, whether those are threats in the environment or an cial for the maintenance of social bonds and ultimately for group affiliative signal from an individual who could provide support and survival. The dot-probe task is a well-established paradigm in psy- care (24, 25). chology, measuring emotional attention through reaction times. Most primates spend their lives in social groups. To prevent Humans tend to be biased toward emotional images, especially conflicts, they keep close track of others’ behaviors, emotions, and when the emotion is of a threatening nature. Bonobos have rich, social debts. For example, chimpanzees remember who groomed social emotional lives and are known for their soft and friendly char- whom for long periods of time (26). In the chimpanzee, but also in acter. In the present study, we investigated (i) whether bonobos, the rarely studied bonobo, grooming is a major social activity and similar to humans, have an attentional bias toward emotional scenes a means by which animals living in proximity may bond and re- ii compared with conspecifics showing a neutral expression, and ( ) inforce social structures.
    [Show full text]
  • Pdf/133/1/29/1828756/001152604772746675.Pdf by Guest on 25 September 2021
    Daniel John Povinelli Behind the ape’s appearance: escaping anthropocentrism in the study of other minds Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/daed/article-pdf/133/1/29/1828756/001152604772746675.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 Look at Megan. Not just at her distinc- dedicated his life to studying these tively chimpanzee features–her accen- remarkable animals–entertain the pos- tuated brow ridge, her prognathic face, sibility that their minds are, in profound her coarse black hair–but at the totality respects, radically different from our of her being: her darting eyes, her slow, own? How can I challenge the received studied movements, the gestures she wisdom of Darwin–con½rmed by my makes as her companion, Jadine, passes own initial impressions–that the mental nearby. Can there be any doubt that be- life of a chimpanzee is best compared to hind certain obvious differences in her that of a human child? appearance resides a mind nearly identi- Actually, it’s easy: I have learned to cal to our own? Indeed, is it even possi- have more respect for them than that. ble to spend an afternoon with her and I have come to see that we distort their not come to this conclusion? Upon re- true nature by conceiving of their minds flection, you will probably acknowledge as smaller, duller, less talkative versions that her mind is not identical to ours. of our own. Casting aside these insidious “But surely it’s not qualitatively differ- assumptions has been dif½cult, but it has ent, either,” you will still insist.
    [Show full text]
  • The KING Was Here!
    THOSE GUYS ARE GOOD.....SIERRA MADRE COLTS TAKE SUPER REGION! ..Page 10 SATURDAY, JULY 27, 2013 Inside this week: VOLUME 7 NO. 30 SIERRA MADRE COMMUNITY EMERGENCY RESPONSE TEAM (CERT) RECEIVES A GIFT Calendar Page 2 Sierra Madre News Page 3 Local government prepares for everyday emergencies. However, during a disaster, the number and scope of incidents can overwhelm conventional emergency services. The Sierra PASADENA/ALTADENA Madre Community Emergency Response SGV Journalist Janette Pg. 4 Team (CERT) helps in those situations in Williams Dies three main ways. First, there is an education program in which the public is made aware AROUND SGV Pg. 5 of how to prepare for emergencies and be FIRST ANNUAL HOMICIDE self-sufficient. Secondly, CERT conducts a SUMMIT FEMA recognized all-risks and all-hazards training program designed to help a person protect themselves, their family and ARCADIA NEWS Pg. 6 their neighbors in an emergency situation. Assemblyman Ed Chau To Speak And lastly, Sierra Madre CERT, under the sponsorship and direction of the Sierra Madre Fire Department, directly supports MONROVIA/DUARTE the first responders when they are in need of further assistance. WWI Medals Pg. 7 To help accomplish this mission, Gary Hood Returned To Family has generously donated a support trailer to the Sierra Madre CERT. Perhaps you saw it at EDUCATION & YOUTH the Fourth of July parade. The trailer will be Local Students In The Pg. 8 furnished with an assortment of equipment, Spotlight emergency supplies and also serve as an operational facility. FOOD & DRINK Pg.9 To further educate the community the Sierra Madre CERT conducts monthly meetings is which there is a CERT training session.
    [Show full text]
  • Human Uniqueness in the Age of Ape Language Research1
    Society and Animals 18 (2010) 397-412 brill.nl/soan Human Uniqueness in the Age of Ape Language Research1 Mary Trachsel University of Iowa [email protected] Abstract This paper summarizes the debate on human uniqueness launched by Charles Darwin’s publi- cation of The Origin of Species in 1859. In the progress of this debate, Noam Chomsky’s intro- duction of the Language-Acquisition Device (LAD) in the mid-1960s marked a turn to the machine model of mind that seeks human uniqueness in uniquely human components of neu- ral circuitry. A subsequent divergence from the machine model can be traced in the short his- tory of ape language research (ALR). In the past fifty years, the focus of ALR has shifted from the search for behavioral evidence of syntax in the minds of individual apes to participant- observation of coregulated interactions between humans and nonhuman apes. Rejecting the computational machine model of mind, the laboratory methodologies of ALR scientists Tetsuro Matsuzawa and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh represent a worldview coherent with Darwin’s continu- ity hypothesis. Keywords ape language research, artificial intelligence, Chomsky, comparative psychology, Darwin, human uniqueness, social cognition Introduction Nothing at first can appear more difficult to believe than that the more complex organs and instincts should have been perfected, not by means superior to, though analogous with, human reason, but by the accumulation of innumerable slight variations, each good for the individual possessor. (Darwin, 1989b, p. 421) With the publication of The Origin of Species (1859/1989a), Charles Darwin steered science directly into a conversation about human uniqueness previ- ously dominated by religion and philosophy.
    [Show full text]
  • Lethal Aggression in Pan Is Better Explained by Adaptive Strategies Than Human Impacts
    LETTER doi:10.1038/nature13727 Lethal aggression in Pan is better explained by adaptive strategies than human impacts Michael L. Wilson1,2, Christophe Boesch3, Barbara Fruth4,5, Takeshi Furuichi6, Ian C. Gilby7,8, Chie Hashimoto6, Catherine L. Hobaiter9, Gottfried Hohmann3, Noriko Itoh10, Kathelijne Koops11, Julia N. Lloyd12, Tetsuro Matsuzawa6,13, John C. Mitani14, Deus C. Mjungu15, David Morgan16, Martin N. Muller17, Roger Mundry18, Michio Nakamura10, Jill Pruetz19, Anne E. Pusey7, Julia Riedel3, Crickette Sanz20, Anne M. Schel21, Nicole Simmons12, Michel Waller22, David P. Watts23, Frances White22, Roman M. Wittig3, Klaus Zuberbu¨hler9,24 & Richard W. Wrangham25 Observations of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan In contrast, the adaptive strategies hypothesis views killing as an paniscus) provide valuable comparative data for understanding the evolved tactic by which killers tend to increase their fitness through significance of conspecific killing. Two kinds of hypothesis have increased access to territory, food, mates or other benefits1–5,10–17.Kin been proposed. Lethal violence is sometimes concluded to be the selection18 and evolutionary game theory19 yield a set of specific predic- result of adaptive strategies, such that killers ultimately gain fit- tions for how benefits and costs should vary with the context, age, sex, ness benefits by increasing their access to resources such as food or and genetic relatedness of the attackers and targets. Lethal aggression mates1–5. Alternatively, it could be a non-adaptive result of human occurs within a diverse set of circumstances, but is expected to be most impacts, such as habitat change or food provisioning6–9. To discri- commonly committed by males; directed towards males; directed towards minate between these hypotheses we compiled information from non-kin, particularly members of other groups; and committed when 18 chimpanzee communities and 4 bonobo communities studied overwhelming numerical superiority reduces the costs of killing.
    [Show full text]
  • Title Ecology of Long-Tailed Macaques (Macaca
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Kyoto University Research Information Repository Ecology of Long-Tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) and Title its Implications for the Management of Human-Macaque Interface in Singapore( Dissertation_全文 ) Author(s) John Sha Chih Mun Citation Kyoto University (京都大学) Issue Date 2014-03-24 URL http://dx.doi.org/10.14989/doctor.r12814 許諾条件により本文は2014-10-01に公開; ここに掲載した 著作物の利用に関する注意 本著作物の著作権は、著者、 日本哺乳類学会、Wiley社、Springer社に帰属します。本 著作物はこれらの著作権者の定めた条件に従って公開す るものです。ご利用に当たっては「著作権法」に従うこ とをお願い致します。出典は下記の通りです。; 第2章 :Sha JCM, Gumert MD, Lee BPYH, Fuentes A, Rajathurai S, Chan S, Jones-Engel L (2009) Status of the long‐tailed macaque Macaca fascicularis in Singapore and implications for management. Biodiversity and Conservation 18(11) 2909- 2926. DOI: 10.1007/s10531-009-9616-4; 第3章:Sha JCM, Right Gumert MD, Lee BPYH, Jones-Engel L, Chan S, Fuentes A (2009) Macaque-human interactions and the societal perceptions of macaques in Singapore. American Journal of Primatology 71(10)825-839. DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20710; 第4章 :Sha JCM & Hanya G (2013) Diet, activity, habitat use and ranging of two neighboring groups of food-enhanced long- tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). American Journal of Primatology 75(6): 581-592. DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22137; 第5章 :Sha JCM & Hanya G (2013) Temporal food resource correlates to the behavior and ecology of food-enhanced long- tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Mammal Study 38 (3): 163-175. Type Thesis or Dissertation Textversion ETD Kyoto University 主論文 Thesis Ecology of Long-Tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis ) and its Implication for the Management of Human-Macaque Interface in Singapore John Sha Chih Mun Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University December, 2013 Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...........................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • ©TH @Reem W©Rea Edife©Eefff
    ©TH @REEm w©REa EDife©EEffF Reading/ Writing (3-week assignment) 1. Complete the Performance tack on Can Animals learn or use language? (Week 1} a. Read and highlight important fact b. Answer the questions on the bottom of each page that has a question c. Complete the multiple choice and essay question on pages 29-30 2. On page 31- write down your claim (Can animals team or use lartguage?} /Wbe* 2/ a. Come up with 3 reasons and facts on why animals can or cannot learn or use language b. Write a counterclaim (what other people believe) and with a fact of why they believe that c. Write a conclusion. In the conclusion you need summarize your reasons on why you believe animals can or cannot use or leam language 3. Before Writing the essay: Do some practice skills. a. Complete the Organization Challenge for an Introduction, Body paragraphs 1-3, and conclusion. Review the complete essay to see how you did b. Reviewthe Essay Exampleto see howthe facts are put together 4. Writing your essay: use the graphic organizer to begin writing your essay with the facts you have gathered and then transfer it on to binder paper (you may type it if you would like). /Week 3/ a. Make sure you cite (for example: /n soune I /.rstates.„} b. Use quotation marks when copying a direct quote from the sources c. Each paragraph should have at least4 complete and detailed sentences Studies Weekly (One per Week) Historv/ Social Science Week ffl (People of Phoenicia) and Week #15 (More African Kingdoms) Read, highlight/ underline important facts.
    [Show full text]