Greening with Mangroves by IUCN Sri

Greening with Mangroves Value addition to the Paris Agreement, REDD+ and Bonn Challenge related efforts in Sri Lanka through the Management and Conservation of Mangroves and Associated Coastal Ecosystems Prof. Swarna Piyasiri, Dr. Ananda Mallawatantri, Dr. Damith Chandrasekera and Sandamali Pathirage

Draft – December 26, 2017

This document was developed with the support of Mangroves for the Future (MFF) programme to compile the knowledge related to a potential mangrove restoration effort in Sri Lanka. It is expected that the material presented, and the potential mangrove restoration area identified will support and add value to Sri Lanka climate mitigation and adaptation initiatives under Paris Agreement, REDD+ and Bonn Challenge through the Management and Conservation of Mangroves and Associated Coastal Ecosystems. The Mangroves for the Future (MFF) regional programme is implemented by IUCN (https://www.mangrovesforthefuture.org/).

About IUCN

IUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and civil society organisations. It provides public, private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress, economic development and nature conservation to take place together.

Created in 1948, IUCN is now the world’s largest and most diverse environmental network, harnessing the knowledge, resources and reach of 1,300-member organisations and some 15,000 experts. It is a leading provider of conservation data, assessments and analysis. Its broad membership enables IUCN to fill the role of incubator and trusted repository of best practices, tools and international standards.

IUCN provides a neutral space in which diverse stakeholders including governments, NGOs, scientists, businesses, local communities, indigenous peoples organisations and others can work together to forge and implement solutions to environmental challenges and achieve sustainable development.

Working with many partners and supporters, IUCN implements a large and diverse portfolio of conservation projects worldwide. Combining the latest science with the traditional knowledge of local communities, these projects work to reverse habitat loss, restore ecosystems and improve people’s well-being.

IUCN has been working in Sri Lanka since 1988. www.iucn.org https://twitter.com/IUCN/

Prof. Swarna Piyasiri, Dr. Ananda Mallawatantri, Dr. Damith Chandrasekera and Sandamali Pathirage

Page | ii

Published by : IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), Sri Lanka Office

Copyright : © 2017 IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.

Citation : Piyasiri, Swarna, Chandrasekera, Damith, Mallawatantri, Ananda, and Pathirage, Sandamali (2017). Greening Mangroves, December 2017. IUCN Sri Lanka Country Office. 25pp

ISBN :

Cover : Mangrove cover (Kumudini Ekaratne © IUCN)

Produced by : IUCN Sri Lanka Office

Designed and layout by : Krishani Peiris

Printed by :

Available from : IUCN Sri Lanka Country Office, 53, Horton Place, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka. www.IUCN.org/srilanka

Page | iii

Preface

IUCN Sri Lanka continuously exerts itself to help the Government of Sri Lanka, IUCN members and communities in the country to enhance the green cover in order to maximize mitigation and adaptation benefits. All efforts are undertaken in line with the Paris Agreement, Bonn Challenge and REDD+ in the global context and along the lines of the Government’s Vision 2025 and the Blue Green Era Development in the local context. Under the Bonn Challenge, which was undertaken in relation to the Paris Agreement, Sri Lanka announced an additional green cover up to about 200,000 ha through multiple initiatives. Mangrove forest could specifically play a key role in meeting this Bonn Challenge target and aid in adding about 10,000 ha, in terms of rehabilitation and improvements, using the historical mangrove areas and other areas next to the mangrove environments. This document is compiled based on a Preliminary Situation Analysis (PSA) carried out with the objective of documenting the status of mangroves management and conservation in the country, led by Prof. Swarna Piyasiri, Senior Professor, Sri Jayawardenapura University. Additional national level data and IUCN knowledge material related to Mangroves Ecosystems and Resilience have been added as well. We hope the material that are included herein will be useful to develop a strategy and an action plan to enhance the mangrove areas to harness sustainability and resilience benefits associated with mangrove ecosystems and as a resource for educational and research purposes.

Page | iv

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Mangroves in Sri Lanka ...... 1 1.1. Background ...... 1 1.2. Extent of Mangroves ...... 4 1.3. Mangroves in Lagoon Environments ...... 5 1.4. Mangroves and Salinity ...... 7 1.5. Mangrove Species and Distribution ...... 9 1.6. Mangrove Productivity ...... 12 1.7. Threats to Mangroves ...... 13 1.8. Selected Mangrove Restoration Efforts ...... 16 Chapter 2: Mangroves and Carbon Sequestration ...... 17 2.1. Carbon Sequestration by Species and Location ...... 17 2.2. Mangroves and Carbon Stocks ...... 18 2.3. Mangroves Monitoring ...... 20 2.4. Land Ownership ...... 20 2.5. Forest Reference Emission Level (FRL) ...... 21 2.6. Mangrove Ecosystem Valuations ...... 22 Chapter 3: Climate Sensitive Programming ...... 23 3.1. Climate Change Initiatives ...... 23 3.2. Climate Impact in the Coastal Region ...... 23 3.3. REDD+ Agenda in Sri Lanka ...... 25 3.3.1. REDD+ Progress ...... 25 3.3.2. National REDD+ Coordination ...... 25 Chapter 4: Mangrove Restoration ...... 28 4.1. Analytical Approach Adopted ...... 28 Chapter 5: Conclusion ...... 33

Page | v

List of Tables

Table 1: Estimated Mangrove Area (ha) ...... 4 Table 2: Morphometric features of the coastal lagoons ...... 5 Table 3: Extents of Mangrove Areas in Major Lagoons of Sri Lanka ...... 6 Table 4: Categorization of Mangrove Species based on their Preference towards Salinity ...... 7 Table 5: Mangroves Distribution ...... 9 Table 6: Distribution of Mangrove Species in Different Climate Locations ...... 11 Table 7: Classification of Mangroves in Sri Lanka ...... 13 Table 8: Observations on Mangrove Destruction ...... 14 Table 9: Deforestation of mangrove species in Puttalam lagoon ...... 15 Table 10: The current extent of forest land ...... 20 Table 11: The Proposed FRL for Sri Lanka ...... 21 Table 12: Time line of past, present and planned implementation ...... 25 Table 13: Polices and Measures for REDD+ ...... 26 Table 14: District-wise Distribution of Potential Restoration Areas ...... 32

List of Figures

Figure 1: Types of Mangrove Habitats ...... 2 Figure 2: Spatial Distribution of Mangrove Forests - 2015 ...... 3 Figure 3: District-wise Spatial Pattern of Mangroves...... 4 Figure 4: Lagoon Zones ...... 5 Figure 5: Lagoons with Mangrove Vegetation above 200 (ha) in 2010 and 2015 ...... 5 Figure 6: Saline Zones and Mangroves ...... 7 Figure 7: Species Abundance by District ...... 10 Figure 8: Percentage contribution of component litterfall at Kala Oya ...... 12 Figure 9: Percentage contribution of component litterfall at Erunamathivu ...... 12 Figure 10: SUDEESA Mangrove Conservation Programme ...... 16 Figure 11: Carbon Sequestration (t/ha) and Storage (tons/ha) by 11 Mangrove Species ...... 17 Figure 12: Carbon Sequestration and Equivalent CO2 (t/ha) at Different Lagoons ...... 18 Figure 13: Carbon sequestration (t/ha) in coastal lagoon mangrove areas ...... 19 Figure 14: Potential Inundation Areas due to Sea Level Rise...... 24 Figure 15: National REDD+ Coordination Framework ...... 26 Figure 16: Historical Mangrove Areas - 1987 ...... 29 Figure 17: Mangrove Cover in 2015...... 30 Figure 18: Potential New Areas for Mangroves ...... 31 Figure 19: Potential Mangrove Restoration in Lagoon Areas ...... 32

Page | vi

Abbreviations

AGB - Above Ground Bio mass BGB - Below Ground Biomass CBO - Community based Organizations CCCRMD - Coast Conservation & Coastal Resources Management Department CCD - Coast Conservation Department CCS - Climate Change Secretariat CSOs - Civil Society Organizations CZMP - Coastal Zone Management Plan DWLC - Department of Wildlife Conservation EN - Endangered FD - Forest Department FREL - Forest Reference Emission Levels FRL - Forest Reference Level GCF - Green Climate Fund GHG - Green House Gases GOSL - Government of Sri Lanka IP - Indigenous People IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature LC - Least Concerned, LRC - Land Reform Commission LUPPD - Land Use Policy Planning Department MAB - Man and Biosphere Programme MFF - Mangroves for the Future MMD & E - Ministry of Mahaweli Development & Environment NARA - National Aquatic Research & Development Agency NDCs - Nationally Determined Contributions NFMS - National Forest Monitoring System NFMSUG-2017 - National Forest Monitoring System User Guide 2017 NRIFAP - National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan NT - Near threatened RACB - Advisory and Coordination Board RPCs Regional Plantation Companies SEA - Strategic Environmental Assessment SIS - Safeguard information system SLSI Sri Lanka Standard Institute SUDEESA - Fisheries Federation of Sri Lanka TCP - Turtle Conservation Project TOC - Total Organic Carbon UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. UN-REDD+ - United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation VU - Vulnerable

Page | vii

Chapter 1: Mangroves in Sri Lanka

1.1. Background

Mangroves play a key role in coastal ecosystems. In the current context, mangroves are helpful in climate mitigation, adaptation and enhancing the resilience and quality of life in coastal communities. In that context, IUCN Sri Lanka, generated a wealth of information1 on Mangroves.

This information base along with information that are in the grasp of other conservation agencies working with mangroves can be used effectively in the REDD+ agenda as well as to strengthen Sri Lanka’s pledge to the Bonn Challenge in adding 200,000 ha of new green cover by 2030.

Carbon stored in mangroves, salt tidal marshes, and seagrass meadows within the soil, the living biomass above ground (leaves, branches, stems), below ground (roots), and the non- living biomass are identified as “Blue Carbon.” In blue carbon systems, the soil is saturated with water keeping it in an anaerobic state (low to no oxygen), and it continually accretes vertically at high rates resulting in continuous build-up of carbon over time2. Carbon in coastal ecosystems can remain trapped for very long periods, from centuries to millennia3.

The mangrove flora of the world is represented by about 65 species. Mangroves in Sri Lanka include 21 species, which accounts for approximately one third of the world’s number of mangrove species. Out of the 65,610 km2 total land area of Sri Lanka, 24% of the area encompasses coastal land, excluding inland water. The coastline of Sri Lanka is 1,338 km with an estimated brackish water area of about 158,016 ha.

The mangrove cover of Sri Lanka is mostly distributed in the coastal area around the lagoons, estuaries and in the riverine areas and there is significant diversity of the mangrove habitats with the changes in the climatic zones around the country. The mangroves, a part of the forest cover of Sri Lanka, accounts for about 12 000 ha, which is as little as 0.1 – 0.2% of the total land area4. However, the contribution of mangrove’s towards carbon sequestration is proportionately significant due to over ground and underground carbon stocks.

Mangroves, rich in biodiversity are classified according to their habitat, salinity, abundance and climatic zones. The mangrove biome is a collection of mangroves in the intertidal zone in distinct saline habitats with deposits of fine sediments, rich in carbon content protected from high-energy wave action.

1 An Appraisal of Mangrove Management in Micro-tidal Estuaries and Lagoons in Sri Lanka (https://goo.gl/uAfNf5) 2 Chmura, G.L., Anisfeld, S.C., Cahoon, D.R. & Lynch, J.C. (2003). Global carbon sequestration in tidal, saline wetland soils. Global biogeochemical cycles, 17, Article 11. 3 Duarte, C.M., Marbà, N., Gacia, E., Fourqurean, J.W., Beggins, J., Barrón, C. et al. (2010). Seagrass community metabolism: Assessing the carbon sink capacity of seagrass meadows. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 24 4 CCD. (1986): Master plan on Coastal erosion management, Coastal conversion department and Danish Hydraulic Institute, Colombo.1: 142.

Figure 1: Types of Mangrove Habitats

De Silva5 and Karunathilake6 classified mangroves in Sri Lanka into five groups (Figure 1); namely, Riverine Mangroves, Fringe Mangroves, Basin Mangroves, Scrub Mangroves (Dwarf Mangroves), and Over-Wash Mangroves depending on the geomorphological setting of the habitat and the composition of species.

The Riverine and Fringe Mangroves are the most common in Sri Lanka. The Riverine Mangroves are found in estuaries of major rivers along the South and Southwest coasts. Fringe Mangroves are found along shallow lagoons, especially in the South and East coasts. The floristic compositions of the two are similar to that of low saline and high saline mangrove forests7. Basin Mangrove forests lie in a depression and the surrounding soil are washed into the basin. This type is very dominant in the Jaffna Peninsula. Scrub Mangrove forests are degraded Mangrove forests, developed in areas of poor drainage facilities with very low organic content in the soil and this type is occasionally seen in the dry zone. Over Washed Mangrove forests are found on small islands, which become completely covered at each high tide such as the mangroves in small islands of the Northwestern region as highlighted by Karunathilake (2003).

5 De Silva, K.H.G.M. (1985): Studies on mangroves of Sri Lanka. In: The regional training course on life history of selected species of flora and fauna of the mangrove ecosystem, Bangkok: 6-9. Department, Colombo

6 Karunathilake, K. M. B. C. (2003): Status Of Mangroves in Sri Lanka, Journal of Coastal Development ISSN: 1410-5217 Volume 7, Number 1, October 2003: 5 – 9. 7 Amarasinghe, M.D. & S. Balasubramanium, (1992a): Structural properties of two types of mangrove stands on the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka. Hydrobiologia 247, 17-27 and Amarasinghe, M.D. & S. Balasubramanium, (1992b): Net primary productivity of two mangrove forest stands on the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka 247.

Page | 2

Figure 2: Spatial Distribution of Mangrove Forests - 2015

Page | 3

1.2. Extent of Mangroves

District level areas under mangroves have been estimated by the Forest Department (FD) and Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department—CC&CRMD (formerly known as the Coast Conservation Department: CCD), between the periods of 2010 to 2015 (Table 1). The present mangrove cover is approximately about 16,000 ha, with a marginal increase of about 500 ha from 2015 to 2016. The digitized map of Pinto8 in 1986 indicated the total extent of mangroves as 79,036 ha, denoting a significant reduction of the mangrove cover, since then.

Table 1: Estimated Mangrove Area (ha)

CCD 2010 (FD) 2014 2015 (FD) (1986) (CC&CRMD) Jaffna/Kilinochchi 2,276 2,858 2,427 2,858 Kilinochchi 770 1,682 507 2,212 Kilinochchi /Trinco 228 374 Trincomalee 2,043 2,160 1,707 2,243 Batticaloa 1,303 2,230 1,921 3,179 Ampara 100 459 301 145 Hambantota 576 1,156 156 1,042 Matara 7 80 45 19 Gampaha 313 Galle 238 356 495 523 Galle/Kalutara 263 130 423 Kalutara/ Colombo 12 4 Colombo 39 634 697 Puttalam 3,210 1,865 2,114 877 Mannar 1,534 1,502 1,421 Mulaitivu 428 TOTAL 12,189 15,505 11,305 16,017

4,000 Spatial distribution of mangroves ) 3,000 among districts indicates a 2,000 presence of over 1,000 ha of 1,000 mangroves in five districts 0 including three Northern Province

districts (Jaffna, Kilinochchi and Galle

Mangrove (ha ExtentMangrove Mannar), two Eastern Province

Matara

Ampara

Mannar

Puttalam

Kalutara/…

Kilinochci…

Colombo Baticcaloa

Kilinochchi districts (Trincomalee and

Trincomalee

Jaffna/Kilino… Hambantota

Galle/Kalutara Batticaloa and one Southern Figure 3: District-wise Spatial Pattern of Mangroves Province district (Hambantota).

8 Pinto, L (1986): Mangroves of Sri Lanka. Natural Resources, Energy & Science Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo, ISSN: 955-590-002-7.

Page | 4

1.3. Mangroves in Lagoon Environments

Lagoons provide ideal environments for mangroves to grow and expand. In Sri Lanka, the 82 lagoons are geographically grouped into eight (8) spatial areas for management purposes.

Table 2: Morphometric features of the coastal lagoons9

Coast Coastline Lagoon Lagoon Number (km) area perimeter of (km2) (km) lagoons North (A) 403 804 1,221 17 Northeast (B) 294 182 411 04 East (C) 89 44 174 14 Southeast (D) 105 29 149 16 South (E) 117 23 109 10 Southwest (F) 101 20 166 09 West (G) 98 46 151 03 Northwest (H) 131 372 410 09 Total 1,338 1,520 2,791 82

Figure 4: Lagoon Zones

Distribution of mangroves in key lagoons based on Forest Department estimates in 2010 and 2015 vary significantly among lagoons (Figure 3). The variation in the mangrove area in lagoons changed between the five-year period depending, possibly due to changes in land

use.

2,557

1,578 1,339

1,295 2,010

1,090

1,043

1,009

936

863

828

819

773

746

714

698

697

687

634

623

496

475

423

402

374

312

301

263

238

235

233

228

214

204

178 179

MANGROVE EXTENT (HA) EXTENT MANGROVE

149

148

146

145

118

… … … …

…

… …

… … … … …

… … … …

UPPER

Y A N O Y A

K O K K I L A I

P U T T L A M

K A L A O Y A

N E G O M B O

BENTHOTA

A R U V I A R Y

ULLAKKALIE

BATTICALOA

VALAICHENAI

M A D U G A N G A

MUNDAL LAKE

NANTHIKADAL

VIDATTALTIVU

CHUNDIKULAM

KODDIYAR BAY

PERIYAKARACH

THONDAIMANA

THAMBALAGAM

JAFFNA LAGOON CHILAW LAGOON NAYARU LAGOON Figure 5: Lagoons with Mangrove Vegetation above 200 (ha) in 2010 and 2015

9 Katupotha, K.N.J., Karunathilake K. M. B. C (2013): Status of mangroves in Sri Lanka, Journal of Coastal Development; ISSN: 1410-5217 Volume 7, Number 1, October 2003: 5 – 9.

Page | 5

The extent of mangrove patches in the lagoons reported in the research literature (Table 3) indicate that the largest mangrove extents occur in Trincomalee, Puttalam, Batticaloa, and Kala Oya lagoons, respectively.

Table 3: Extents of Mangrove Areas in Major Lagoons of Sri Lanka

Author Year Lagoon Mangrove extent (ha) Gunatilake, M. D. K. L 2017 Puttalam lagoon 2,197 Nigamuni S.S and Subasinghe S.M.C.U.P 2015 Puttalam lagoon 777 Kanakaratne et al, 1983 1983 Puttalam lagoon 1,200 Dayaratne, P et al (1995) 1995 Puttalam lagoon 431.57 Gunatilake, M. D. K. L . 2017 Kala Oya estuary 1,200 Nigamuni & Subasinghe 2015 Kala Oya estuary 316 Perera et al 2013 Kala Oya Estuary 1,837 Nigamuni S.S and Subasinghe S.M.C.U.P 2015 Negombo Lagoon 108 Anankalliya 181 Chilaw 568 Mundal lake 34 Priyadarshini SHR et al 2008 Kadolkale 10 Gajaba E & Ranawana, K B 2015 Panama lagoon in 83 Ampara Dahdouh-Guebas et al 2001 Pambala Chilaw 209.29 (1994) 196.53 (1998) Perera KARS and Amarasinghe, MD 2014 Trincomalee 2,595 Perera KARS and Amarasinghe, MD 2014 Ampara 816

Perera KARS and Amarasinghe, MD 2014 Batticaloa 2,071

Page | 6

1.4. Mangroves and Salinity

The mature and extensive mangrove forests have zones as they move away from the sea (Figure 6) based on the salinity. They can be classified into low saline zone, high saline zone and intermediate zone. In low saline zones, salinity is low (below 10 ppt) and extends towards more terrestrial side. In the high saline areas, species such as Avicennia marina occur. In high saline mangrove forests, salinity is more than 25 ppt, which prevails during most months of the year.

Figure 6: Saline Zones and Mangroves

Some authors classify these zones based on the most prominent mangrove species in each zone. For example, the Avicennia zone, Rhizosphere zone and Bruguiera zone are based on the preference of the mangrove types towards the soil salinity. Mangrove plant species have been classified into high, moderate and low salinity categories10 (Table 4). They are usually characterized by the presence of Rhizosphere mucronata, Avicennia marina and Acanthus ilicifolius (De Silva 1985).

Table 4: Categorization of Mangrove Species based on their Preference towards Salinity

High salinity species Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis, Aegiceras corniculatum, (>25 ppt) Luminitzera racemose, Rhizopora mucronate, and Pemphis acidula Moderate salinity species Rhizopora apiculate, Cerops tagal, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Bruguiera (15-25 ppt) cylindrica, Xylocarpus granatum and Acanthus ilicifolius Low salinity species Sonneratia caseolaris, Acrostichum aureum, Cerbera manghas, (<15 ppt) Exoecaria agallocha, Anona glabra, Heritiera littoralis, Nypa fruticans

10 Amarasinghe, MD and Vidanage, Shamen P (2007): Best Practices guidelines on restoration of Mangroves, The world conservation Union (IUCN) Sri Lanka Country Office. ISSN 978-955-8177-64-8.

Page | 7

Along a 3.5 km length of the Kala Oya estuary following salinity related observations have been noted11.

• Avicennia marina is abundant in high salinity areas near the estuary mouth and gradually declines along the salinity gradient. • L. racemose occurs in low dominance in estuarine mouths (high salinity areas), and increases at 2,000-2,500 m (intermediate zone) upstream, nevertheless showing a decrease in the areas of low salinity about 3,000-3,500 m upstream from an estuary mouth. • E. agallocha and Bruguiera cylindrica recorded low occurrences in 850-1,000 m areas with high salinity and become highly dominant in low salinity areas around 3,000-3,500 m upstream from an estuarine mouth.

A recent study12 done on the relationship of species diversity to salinity gradient across the Negombo Estuary where mangrove forests extend over a very narrow intertidal area on the edge of the Negombo Lagoon, covering approximately 350 ha indicated that Avicennia officinalis, Xylocarpus granatum, Sonneratia alba and Ceriops tagal are highly restricted to the high saline area around the lagoon mouth. Sonneratia alba is clustered at the outlet area of the lagoon, which prefers high saline water and soil while Sonneratia caseolaris was limited to the inlet area of the lagoon. Sonneratia caseolaris is a freshwater species, although both species belong to the genera Sonneratia.

11 Perera, KARS, Amarasinghe M. D, S and Somaratna S (2013): Vegetation Structure and Species Distribution of Mangroves along a Soil Salinity Gradient in a Micro Tidal Estuary on the North-western Coast of Sri Lanka, American Journal of Marine Science, 2013, Vol. 1, No. 1, 7-15 (Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/marine/1/1/2) © Science and Education Publishing DOI:10.12691/marine-1-1-2. 12 Nandani Weerasinghe and Ranjana Piyadasa (2016): Mangrove diversity across salinity gradient in Negombo estuary-Sri Lanka, Chapter January 2016, DOI: 10.1007/978-4-431-55741-8_17, NARA (1997): Sri Lanka Fisheries Yearbook.

Page | 8

1.5. Mangrove Species and Distribution

Mangrove species are commonly classified into two broad categories as “True Mangroves”, which are species restricted to mangrove habitats and “Mangrove Associates”, which are not confined to the intertidal areas and occur in terrestrial vegetation as well.

There are no endemic species among True Mangrove species or Mangrove Associates in Sri Lanka with 21 species listed as True Mangroves with the new addition of Ceriopsis decandra as a near threatened species with relevant categories13. The Excoecaria indica recorded earlier by the same author was not included in the True Mangrove list.

There is a variation in the true species number and categorization of mangroves in to groups based on their distribution and abundance by different authors. For example, Amarasinghe and Vidanage (2007) have classified 20 True Mangrove species into three categories; namely, Very Common Species (7), Common Species (10) and Rare Species (3). Scientists working with the Small Fisheries Federation of Sri Lanka (SUDEESA) have considered 22 species as True Mangrove species distributed in the coastal areas of 14 districts (Table 5 and Figure 7).

Table 5: Mangroves Distribution

13 Jayatissa L.P. (2012): Present Status of Mangroves in Sri Lanka. In: The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora. Weerakoon, D.K. & S. Wijesundara Eds., Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 197- 199 pp ISBN Number: : 978-955-0033-55-3.

Figure 7: Species Abundance by District

Page | 10

Amarasinghe & Perera (2017) indicated that the distribution of True Mangrove species of Sri Lanka depends on the climatic conditions and the soil salinity (Table 6).

Table 6: Distribution of Mangrove Species in Different Climate Locations

Mangrove Relative abundance Preferred species salinity

1 Avicennia Present in Upparu Lagoon, Viduthalathivu near Very high marina Mannar, northern sector of the Pambala South salinities Chilaw Lagoon

2 Excoecaria Present both in wet and dry zones aggalocha

3 Lumnitzera Present both in wet and dry zones. Most luxuriant racemosa growth is located in the Kala Oya Estuary and Chilaw Lagoon at Pambala

4 Bruguiera Notably in Bentota, Madu Ganga Estuary and Galle Low saline areas gymnorrhiza, (Magalla)

5 Ceriops tagal Abundant in the Rekawa Lagoon

Mangrove Relative abundance Preferred species salinity

6 Nypa fruticans Exclusive to the upstream areas of estuaries in the Salinities are wet zone less than 10 mg/L 7 Rhizophora Negombo Estuary, in Dandugam Oya, in western Less saline apiculata shores of the Batticaloa Lagoon (landward areas as low as shoreline of the lagoon) 5 mg/L.

8 Rhizophora Both in wet and dry zones. Uppar Lagoon on the mucronata East Coast, Viduthalathivu near Mannar and in Negambo Lagoon

9 Sonneratia Notably in Bentota, Madu Ganga Estuary and Galle Low saline caseolaris (Magalla)

10 Sonneratia alba Malwathu Oya Estuary

11 Lumnitzera Madu Ganga Estuary (Balapitiya) littorea

12 Scyphiphora Shores of Puttalam Lagoon and downstream areas High salinity hydrophyllaceae of Kala Oya Estuary

Page | 11

1.6. Mangrove Productivity

Several studies provide information on mangroves’ above ground primary productivity. In Kala Oya and Erunamathivu14 lagoons the studies on R mucronate and A marina species dominant zones provided contribution of component litterfall (Figure 8 and Figure 9). .

Figure 8: Percentage contribution of component litterfall at Kala Oya

Figure 9: Percentage contribution of component litterfall at Erunamathivu

14 Amarasinghe, M.D. & S. Balasubramanium, (1992a): Structural properties of two types of mangrove stands on the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka. Hydrobiologia 247, 17-27.

Page | 12

1.7. Threats to Mangroves

The major threats pressuring mangroves and their habitats are very much like those observed in other parts of South Asia and related to the (i) conversion to other land use (e.g. conversion to agriculture, shrimp farms, development, and human settlement), (ii) over-harvesting (e.g. grazing, browsing and lopping, and fishing), (iii) pollution, (iv) decline in freshwater availability, (v) flooding, (vi) reduction of silt deposition, (vii) coastal erosion, and (viii) disturbances from tropical cyclones and tsunami15. IUCN Red List (2012) indicates the vulnerabilities of different species and their typical distributions (Table 7).

Table 7: Classification of Mangroves in Sri Lanka

Mangrove species IUCN red list Family Distribution category

1 Avicennia marina LC Avicenniaceae Widely

2 Avicennia officinalis NT Avicenniaceae distributed and 3 Excoecaria aggalocha LC Euphorbiaceae high in abundance.

4 Lumnitzera racemosa very NT Combretaceae

common 5 Aegiceras corniculatum LC Myrsinaceae Widely distributed but 6 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, VU Rhizophoraceae low in abundance. 7 Bruguiera sexangula VU Rhizophoraceae 8 Ceriops tagal NT Rhizophoraceae 9 Heretiera littoralis NT Sterculiaceae 10 Nypa fruticans VU Arecaceae

11 Rhizophora apiculata NT Rhizophoraceae

12 Rhizophora mucronata LC Rhizophoraceae 13 Sonneratia caseolaris LC Sonneratiaceae

14 Xylocarpus granatum EN Meliaceae common 15 Bruguiera cylindrica EN Rhizophoraceae Less distributed

16 Sonneratia alba EN Sonneratiaceae and low in

17 Excoecaria indica VU Euphorbiaceae abundance rare 18 Lumnitzera littorea CR Combretaceae Very low in 19 Pemphis acidula NT Lythraceae distribution and 20 Scyphiphora VU Rubiaceae abundance

hydrophyllaceae

21 Ceriopsis decandra CR Rhizophoraceae 22 Rhizophora NT Rhizophoraceae

annamalayana veryrare

Logging of riverine water of irrigation channels have caused heavy growth of Mangrove Associates in the Southern region. Release of many effluents also have caused pollution in the mangrove areas leading to deforestation and degradation of mangrove forests. At present,

15 Chandra Giri, Jordan Long, Sawaid Abbas, R.Mani Murali, Faisal M. Qamer, Bruce Pengra, David Thau (2014): Distribution and dynamics of mangrove forests of South Asia, Journal of Environmental Management, Published by Elsevier Ltd

Page | 13

activities towards mangrove forest conservations have been launched by different organizations in the country, such as rural community, SUDEESA, government agencies, international organizations like IUCN and nongovernmental organizations. Stakeholder discussions conducted with SUDEESA and NARA indicated the percentage rate of deforestation in various districts as indicated in Table 8, based on the observations during their field visits.

Table 8: Observations on Mangrove Destruction District Percentage Rate of Major reasons for deforestation deforestation

SUDEESA NARA

1 Chilaw Limited Limited 2 Mundalama 02 5-10 Due to salt industry 3 Puttalam 10 5-10 Aquaculture activities, invasive species, cutting 4 Kalpitiya 10 2-5 mangroves for different purposes 5 Jaffna 02 20 Infrastructure development. E.g. road development activities 6 Mannar Limited 10-15 Cutting mangroves for fishing activities 7 Baticaloa 05 10 Mangroves are cut for fishing activities 8 Trincomalee 10- 32 10 Mangrove trees are cut to use as wood for Upparu , bakeries and people also cut and sell them as well Muttur 9 Pothuwil Limited Limited 10 Negambo 20 25-30 Huge infrastructure development activities such as hotels, road development activities etc. 11 Bolgoda 20 Destruction of mangrove forests for various development activities 12 Ampara 25-30 Using mangroves as fuel wood

There was an abrupt decline in the forest cover especially in Puttlam – Kalpitiya Lagoons with about 34% of mangrove forests converted to industrial shrimp farms16.

Puttalam Lagoon: Puttalam is considered as a lagoon with a significantly high distribution of mangroves, but presently under threat due to deforestation. Rapid expansion of the shrimp farm industry and expansion of salterns have impacted Seguwantivu, Thirikkapallama, Palavi, Mampuriya and Anawasala areas. About 55% of households around the Lagoon use mangrove plants as fire wood17. Kalpitiya Lagoon: Mangrove habitats of Kalpitiya and its islands are under threat mainly due to the rapidly expanding tourism industry and discharge of effluents containing fertilizers, nutrients, organic sediments, antibiotics, hormones etc. It has been noted that Avicennia marina in Kuringipitti area and some areas in the Kalpitiya peninsula are extremely stunted

16 Jayasinghe, J.M.P.K. & J.S. De Silva. (1992): Prawn farm development and present land use pattern in coastal areas of Sri Lanka. In: Proceedings of International Symposium on Ecology and Landscape Management in Sri Lanka. Erdelen, W., C. Pereu, N. Ishwaran & C. M. Maduma Bandara (eds), Margraf Scientific Books Weikersheim: 341- 350.

17 Dayaratne, P., Linden, O. and De Silva. M. W. R. (1995). The Puttalam and Mundel Lake, Sri Lanka: A study of coastal resources, their utilization, environmental issues and management options. Ambio, 24(7-8), 391-401.

Page | 14 due to pollution. Mangroves are also subjected to the heavy grazing by cattle and goats, especially during the dry season18. Negombo Lagoon: Negombo Lagoon suffers from inappropriate land use and unsustainable activities in the surrounding areas. The development of urban centers on both sides of the Negombo Lagoon, establishment of the Ekala Industrial City and the Katunayake Free Trade Zone may have direct and indirect impacts on the water quality of the Negombo Lagoon19 (Silva, 1996). Cutting of mangroves for brushwood (fishing) and cutting of twigs and branches also threaten the mangrove forests. Pambala-Chilaw Lagoon: The land-use patterns in Pambala are of great concern for the future of the coastal and marine ecosystems in the area. The large extent of intensive agriculture has already put mangroves under pressure, but the development of shrimp farms is an even greater threat.

Table 9: Deforestation of mangrove species in Puttalam lagoon20

Mongrove species Used by villages for different purposes

Cynometra iripa and Extracted as fuelwood by communities in the Puttalam Lagoon. Mangrove Scyphiphora ecosystems of the Western and Northwestern coasts have been cleared for hydrophyllacea construction of prawn farm ponds from Puttalam Lagoon to Chilaw Lake. Sonneratia alba and Used as fodder for goats in the western part of the Lagoon Thespesia populnea Bark of Rhizophora Collected for tannin extraction for preservation and colouring of nets and mucronata fishing equipment Twigs and branches Used for brush pile construction in a few areas of the Lagoon of Avicennia marina Cynometra iripa Used traditionally instead of Areca nut in the Seguwanthivu area seeds Acrostichum aureum Used as leafy vegetables and Suaeda maritima

REDD+ driver analysis21 identified a) Encroachments; b) Infrastructure development projects; c) Large scale of private agriculture ventures; and d) Localized drivers of deforestation scattered around the country as key factors contributing to the destruction of green cover that also include mangroves.

18 IUCN (2011). An Appraisal of Mangrove Management in Micro-tidal Estuaries and Lagoons in Sri Lanka. IUCN Sri Lanka Country Office, Colombo. viii + 116pp. ISBN: 978 - 955 - 0205 - 05 – 9. 19 Silva E.I.L. 1996, Negombo lagoon, Water quality of Sri Lanka, a review on twelve water bodies, Institute of fundamental studies. Hantana road, Kandy, Sri Lanka. pp44-63. 20 Ministry of Environment (2012) the National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora. Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. viii + 476pp. 21 Fernando, S., A. Senaratna, N. Pallewatta, E. Lokupitiya, L., Manawadu L., U. Imbulana, I. De Silva, and Ranwala, S. (2015): (Co-authors). Assessment of key policies and measures to address the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Sri Lanka. Final report of a consultancy awarded to the Colombo Science and Technology Cell, Faculty of Science, University of Colombo, by The United Nations Development Programme for the Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme.

Page | 15

1.8. Selected Mangrove Restoration Efforts

Small Fisheries Federation of Sri Lanka (SUDEESA) SUDEESA began its work on mangroves in 1994, in response to local fishermen’s appeal to address the increasingly negative impacts of the shrimp farming industry in Chilaw, Mundel and Puttalam lagoons. The University of Ruhuna and National Aquatic Research & Development Agency (NARA) collaborated in mangrove planting programmes over a period of 15 years and planted over 198,600 seedlings and propagules, in an area covering approximately 185 ha in Chilaw, Mundel and Puttalam lagoons and along the banks of the Dutch and Hamilton Canals. They propagated and planted 18 of the 21 ‘True’ Mangrove species in Sri Lanka. Figure 10 illustrates the number of different mangrove species that were recently produced in Pambala, Mundal and Kalpitiya and dispatched by SUDEESA into the mangrove sites located in the coastal areas of Sri Lanka from 2015-2016. A total of 516,104 plants were replanted during this period with the cooperation from army, navy and other civil organizations22 (SUDEESA 2017). The main plant species replanted by this programme consist of Rhizophora and Avicinnia.

200,000 180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 80,000

No. of palnts palnts No.of dispached 60,000 40,000 20,000

Ceriops tagal Ceriops

apiculata

Rhizoporaapiculata

Bruguieracylindrica

Soneratia caseolaris Soneratia

Bruguierasexangula

Rhizoporamucronata

Xyclocarpus granatum Xyclocarpus

Bruguierasexangula

Bruguiera sexangula & Bruguierasexangula

Luminetzera racemosa Luminetzera

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Bruguiera &Luminetzera racemosa &Luminetzera

Avicennia marina & Rhizopora & marina Avicennia The species dispatched Pambala Mundal Kalpitiya 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Pambala)

Figure 10: SUDEESA Mangrove Conservation Programme

22 SUDEESA (2017): Mangrove restoration programme in Sri Lanka, Vol 1, Puttalam District.

Page | 16

Chapter 2: Mangroves and Carbon Sequestration

2.1. Carbon Sequestration by Species and Location

Recent findings suggest that Asian Mangroves are among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics and the carbon content in the mangrove forests of Asia and the Pacific is estimated to be 1.023 Mg carbon per hectare, more than 50% of which is stored in organic-rich soils23. Research estimates of carbon sequestration in Sri Lanka in mangrove species included estimates of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) among plant components, net primary productivity, analysis of carbon components on Above Ground Biomass (AGB), Below Ground Biomass (BGB) and litter and distribution of carbon stocks. Carbon sequestration by 11 species of mangroves in five lagoons in Sri Lanka indicated that the highest amount of carbon sequestration is recorded for Sonneratia alba in Malwatu Oya, R. apiculate in the Batticaloa Lagoon and Lumnitzera racemose in the Kala Oya respectively (Figure 11).

152 A. marina (MALO) 42 341 Sonneratia alba (MALO) 93 292 R. apiculate (BATIC) 80 95 E. agallocha (BATIC) 26 155 Lumnitzera racemose (CHIL) 42 168 R. mucronate (KALA) 46 157 Excoecaria agallocha (KALA) 43 219 Lumnitzera racemose (KALA) 60 62

Ceriops tagal (REK) 17 Mangrove Mangrove species 110 Lumnitzera racemose (REK) 30 35 Lumnitzera racemose (NEG) 9 99 Rhizophora mucronate (NEG) 99 130 Avicennia officinalis (NEG) 35 134 Avicennia marina (NEG) 37 0 100 200 300 400 Carbon sequestration and carbon Dioxide absorption (t/ha) Equivalent CO2 absorption t/ha

Carbon sequestration (t/ha)

2 per. Mov. Avg. (Carbon sequestration (t/ha))

Figure 11: Carbon Sequestration (t/ha) and Storage (tons/ha) by 11 Mangrove Species

23 Donato, D., Kauffman, J., Mackenzie, R., Ainsworth, A. & Pfleeger, A. (2012): Whole-island carbon stocks in the tropical Pacific: Implications, for mangrove conservation and upland restoration. Journal of environmental management, 97, 89–96.

Page | 17

Carbon sequestration amounts vary by lagoon location and characteristics of dominant mangrove species in different lagoons (Figure 12)24.

KalaOya Malwathu Oya estuarine Baticaloa lagoon Negambo estuary

Lagoon Rekawa lagoon Pambala/Chilaw 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Malwath Pambala/ Rekawa Negamb Baticaloa u Oya KalaOya Chilaw lagoon o estuary lagoon estuarine Equvivalent Co2 t/ha) 154.89 172.39 268.20 387.38 492.62 542.83 Carbon sequestration (t/ha) 42.24 47.01 73.14 105.64 134.34 148.03

Carbon storage (t/ha)

Equvivalent Co2 t/ha) Carbon sequestration (t/ha) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Carbon sequestration (t/ha)) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Equvivalent Co2 t/ha))

Figure 12: Carbon Sequestration and Equivalent CO2 (t/ha) at Different Lagoons

2.2. Mangroves and Carbon Stocks

Partitioning of total organic carbon (TOC) within the plant components (stem, roots, leaves) have been studied. In the Brugeria gymnorrhiza the distribution of TOC between stem, leaf and root were 5.7 2.7, and 4,7 g/kg of plant material, respectively while that in Lumnitzera racemose the similar amounts were 8.3, 1.5 and 6.1 g of TOC per kg of plant biomass25.

Estimations of carbon sequestration at sampling locations around the coastal belt of the country26 indicate variable sequestration potential by mangroves (Figure 13).

24 Perera, KARS, Amarasinghe M. D, S and Sumanadasa, W.A. (2012): Contribution of plant species to carbon sequestration function of mangrove ecosystems in Sri Lanka, Dahdouh-Guebas, F. & B. Satyanarayana (Eds.). Proceedings of the International Conference ‘Meeting on Mangrove ecology, functioning and Management - MMM3’, Galle, Sri Lanka, 2-6 July 2012. VLIZ Special Publication 57, xxxix + 192 pp. 25 Perera and Amarasinghe, 2013, Carbon Partitioning and Allometric Relationships between Stem Diameter and Total Organic Carbon (TOC) in Plant Components of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk. and Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. in a Microtidal Basin Estuary in Sri Lanka, International Journal of Marine Science, Vol.3, No.9 72-78 (doi: 10.5376/ijms.2013.03.0009). 26 Dr Deepani Alawatugoda, Personal Communication

Page | 18

Figure 13: Carbon sequestration (t/ha) in coastal lagoon mangrove areas

Page | 19

2.3. Mangroves Monitoring

A National Forest Monitoring System (NFSM) was established during the UN-REDD preparatory phase (http://www.nfms.lk/). NFMS also includes a User Guide at http://slms4redd.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sri-lanka-guide.pdf. The extent of forest coverage in Sri Lanka is given in NFSM as 29.7% with mangroves contributing to about 0.24% (Table 11).

Table 10: The current extent of forest land

Forest types Percentage Extent million ha

Dense forest 21.88 1.95 Open & Sparse forest 6.54 0.43 Savannah 1.03 0.068 Mangroves 0.24 0.015 Total forest cover 29.7 29.69

NFSM, along with forestry information allow access to other related map layers such as land use, land cover, satellite imagery, soils, agro-ecological zones, protected areas, water, transport etc.

2.4. Land Ownership

Up to 1995, all mangrove forest areas were classed as ‘marginal lands’ and were under the purview of the Divisional and District Secretaries. Mangrove forests management in Sri Lanka began when selected mangrove forests were handed over to the Forest Department and subsequently designated as Conservation Forest Areas. Even today, ‘protected status’ only applies to mangrove forests designated as Conservation Forest Areas by the FD, and the mangroves found in the Wildlife Protected Areas under the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWLC). All other mangroves remain categorized as ‘marginal lands’ and come under the jurisdiction of the Divisional and District Secretaries.

The national level lead agency for the management of mangrove forests in Sri Lanka is the FD and there is no special unit, or a center established for mangrove conservation through FD. However, the mangrove forests also are included within the general forest cover of the country and the institutional arrangements used in the management of forests are applicable for the mangrove forests as well. Apart from that, there is a National Expert Committee on Mangrove Conservation and Sustainable Use, which contribute towards the conservation of mangrove forests as well as in conducting research relevant to mangrove conservation.

In the system comprised of 9 Provinces, 25 Districts and 331 Divisional Secretaries, FD has an organizational network consisting of 5 forestry regions, 23 forestry divisions, 82 forest ranges, 358 forest beats and 782 forest field assistant divisions in a hierarchical order. Mangrove forest conservation activities also fall within this system. The Forests are categorized as Conservation Forests (to which the mangroves are included), Reserved Forests and Other State Forests. Forestry operations related to sustainable forest

Page | 20 management are centrally regulated while general administration activities are decentralized to the forestry regions.

However, some fragmented areas of forests are still administered by the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department, the Land Reform Commission (LRC) and the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL), and in estates leased to Regional Plantation Companies (RPCs) and in Vihara and Dewala (temple) lands.

2.5. Forest Reference Emission Level (FRL)

Sri Lanka defines forests as lands with tree crown cover of more than 10% and an area of more than 0.5 ha with trees able to reach a minimum height of 5m at maturity in situ. Forest plantations are included within this specification while agricultural land, oil palm and rubber plantations are excluded. This definition is used for both GHG inventory and the Sri Lanka Second National Communication to UNFCCC. Sri Lanka’s FRL27, including that of mangroves consists of historical annual deforestation and reforestation estimates for the period of 2000- 2010, combined with IPCC default emission and removal factors. The total emissions from deforestation is estimated at 4,529 (‘000 tonnes of CO2 Eq.) whereas total removals from forest gain is -70 (‘000 tonnes of CO2 Eq.) – Table 11.

Table 11: The Proposed FRL for Sri Lanka

LOSS/GAIN Carbon Pools Unit (carbon CO2 Equivalent CO2 Equivalent tons in 1000 in 1000 /ha/annum) tons/annum tons/annum

LOSS Above ground carbon 872,778 3,200 4,529 Below ground carbon 345,535 1,267

Litter 16,985 62

Gain Enhancement in Above 14,566 -53 Ground Biomass -70

Enhancement in Below 4,326 -16 Ground Biomass

Enhancement in Litter 99 -0.36

27 FRL, Sri Lanka (2017): Sri Lanka Forest reference level (2017), A report submitted to the UNFCCC Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme.

Page | 21

However, according to the stakeholder discussions done with the FD, they indicated that the draft document on FRL/FREL of Sri Lanka is available for the period from 2010 to 2015 and the finalizing of the document is in progress. This will be published in January 2018.

2.6. Mangrove Ecosystem Valuations

Several researches have attempted to conduct mangrove ecosystem valuations. This area is not yet completed and following publications have been identified during the literature review. • Kallesøe, M. F., et al (2008) on ecosystem values and Nibedita et al (2014), on Ecosystem Service Valuations of Mangrove Ecosystems to inform Decision Making and Future Valuation Exercises, • Gunawardene and Rowan (2005), on Economic Valuation of a Mangrove Ecosystem Threatened by Shrimp Aquaculture in Sri Lanka, • A report on “Rehabilitating Coastal Ecosystems in a Post Tsunami Context: Restoration of Mangroves in Sri Lanka and Thailand”. • Luke et al (2012) on Ecosystem service values for mangroves in Southeast Asia: A meta-analysis and value transfer application. • Wijayaweera et al (2009) on Economic value of mangrove ecosystems in the Panama village, Ampara district, a case study, Proceedings of International Forestry and Environment Symposium, Sri Lanka.

Page | 22

Chapter 3: Climate Sensitive Programming

3.1. Climate Change Initiatives

The climate change agenda in Sri Lanka is progressing in line with the global UNFCCC led initiatives, including the Paris Agreement. The “Climate Change Secretariat” of the Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment (MMD&E) serves as the focal point for UNFCC, signed by Sri Lanka in 1992.

The key developments in the recent past include: • Submission of the Second National Communication to UNFCCC in 2012 • Development of National Hazard Profiles in 2012 including climate influenced hazards such as droughts, floods, landslides, cyclones, sea level rise and coastal erosion • Development of Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan • Engagement in UN-REDD led by Forest Department, Climate Change Secretariat and Department of Meteorology with Govt. Agencies, Researchers, Community Based Organizations working together to develop the National Investment Strategy in 2017 • Joining the Asia Protected Area Partnership by Forest Department and Dept. of Wildlife Conservation • Enhanced participation in Bonn Challenge including inter-Ministerial conferences and UNFCCC Bonn Challenge Meetings in 2017 • Initiation of the development of a land bank for restoration • Setting up of a multi-agency group (including IUCN) to develop an approach to restore and conserve degraded lands in response to the Bonn Challenge of expanding the green cover by 200,000 ha •

3.2. Climate Impact in the Coastal Region

Coastal area of Sri Lanka was severely affected by the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. The key identified hazards impacting the coastal zone are: 1. Coastal Erosion 2. Droughts 3. Floods 4. Sea Level Rise 5. Sea Surges 6. Cyclones 7. Tsunami 8. Salt Water Intrusion 9. Ground and Surface water pollution and 10. Plastic waste, ballast water and oil spills etc.

Page | 23

Climate change will influence most of the above hazards except for pollution potentials. The potential impact of sea level rise is estimated using the global estimates28 (Figure 14).

Figure 14: Potential Inundation Areas due to Sea Level Rise

28 Disaster Management Centre and UNDP. 2012. Hazard Profiles of Sri Lanka

Page | 24

3.3. REDD+ Agenda in Sri Lanka

3.3.1. REDD+ Progress

In 2009, Sri Lanka became a UN-REDD partner country. Since 2013 The Forest Department and participating UN Organizations are jointly implementing a full sized UN-REDD National Programme to support Sri Lanka in becoming ready for implementing REDD+. IUCN worked with UNEP to strengthen the communications of the UN-REDD process.

Sri Lanka is entering the second phase of REDD+ (Table 12). Govt. is working on the financing of the REDD+ process through multiple sources, including Govt. investments, with the support of international agencies.

Table 12: Time line of past, present and planned implementation

Three phases Planned implementation Time line

Phase 1- Readiness: Capacity building and developing 2013-2017 systems- develop National REDD+ strategy

Phase 2- Implement national National REDD+ strategy is now 2017 onwards strategy ready to implement.

Phase 3 - Full national Emission reduction are implementation (Results based measured, reported and verified. action)

3.3.2. National REDD+ Coordination

The National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan (NRIFAP) proposed a REDD+ Advisory and Coordination Board (RACB) and the REDD+ Technical Secretariat (TS) to facilitate implementation of the REDD+ agenda in the country. The RACB was established in 2016 during the UN-REDD phase and includes 13 Ministries, 20 State Agencies, 2 Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), 2 Indigenous People (IP) groups, 2 Private Sector representatives and 2 Academic representatives, with a total of 41 members. It is being Chaired by the Secretary to the Ministry of Mahaweli Development & Environment (MMD&E). The RACB is responsible for ensuring the efficient and transparent decision-making over the implementation of the NRIFAP and for the overall strategic coordination of all REDD+ and the Policies and Measures (PAMs) identified during the REDD+ preparatory phase. The coastal community and mangrove forest ecosystems are also included within this strategic plan.

Page | 25

Figure 15: National REDD+ Coordination Framework

3.3.3. Policies and Measures for REDD+

Policies and Measures (PAMs) to be considered and addressed during the REDD+ process (Table 14) cover 13 PAMs in three key areas. These PAMs also facilitate the Sri Lanka Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. Mangrove forests are included in PAMs.

Table 13: Polices and Measures for REDD+

PAM Description Goal

PAM 1 Improve forest law and 36% reduction in annual forest loss (currently 8,000 enforcement and ha) over 5 years, through increased enforcement and monitoring monitoring capacity

PAM 2 Scale-up of forest A total of approximately 160,000 ha of new forests to boundary survey, be placed under appropriate protection and demarcation and sustainable management regimes, over 5 years, declaration including protected areas, to expand the total forest

cover

PAM 3 Restore degraded forests A total of approximately 40,000 ha of degraded and wildlife ecosystems forests to be restored over 5 years, through assisted natural regeneration and reforestation (32,000 ha in the Dry Zone and 8,000 ha in the Wet Zone), plus 5000 ha of wildlife habitats

PAM 4 Strengthen sustainable To create enabling conditions for sustainable forest POLICY AREA1 forest management management to increase forest biomass and (natural forests) biodiversity, while enhancing collaborative management opportunities with local communities and meeting local demand for forest products

PAM 5 Strengthen sustainable A total of 2,500 ha of sustainably managed forest management of forest plantations established over 5 years, to enhance plantations forest carbon stocks and to reduce pressure on natural forests

Page | 26

PAM 6 Strengthen protection of To create enabling condition for forest restoration and watersheds enhancement to increase biomass and restore and maintain critical ecological functions, regulating the quality and volume of water and reducing natural disaster risks, improving soil conservation and reducing erosion

PAM 7 Support inclusion of A 5% reduction in annual forest loss (currently 8,000 Strategic Environmental ha) through better coordination and sectoral Assessment under Land alignment in land use planning Use Planning (LUP)

PAM 8 Strengthen Environmental To create an enabling condition for a more thorough Impact Assessment and stringent environmental and social appraisal process process in order to reduce conversion pressure, degradation of sensitive environment bio diversity loss

PAM 9 Improve land productivity A 5 % reduction in annual forest loss (currently 8,000 and rehabilitation ha) over 5 years, through increasing land productivity

practices to reduce conversion pressure POLICY POLICY AREA2 PAM 10 Improve the tree cover of To create an enabling condition for forest protection non-forested lands (home by increasing supply of timber and fuelwood in order gardens, urban centers, to reduce pressure on natural forests abandoned paddy lands, sand dunes, public lands and settlements)

PAM 11 Strengthen protection of To create an enabling condition to increase forested other non-state forested areas under protection

lands PAM 12 Strengthen local supply To create an enabling condition for forest protection chain for fuelwood by increasing supply of timber and fuelwood to demand reduce pressure on natural forests

PAM 13 Develop agroforestry To create an enabling condition for making the

models for addressing existing agro-forestry schemes financially more viable POLICY AREA3 forest degradation for the schemes’ participants in order to reduce pressure on natural forests

Page | 27

Chapter 4: Mangrove Restoration

Mangroves consist of trees and shrubs that grow where sea and land meet and are known for the richness in the ecosystem services they provide. Key ecosystem services provided by mangroves include home for fish, crabs, shrimps and mollusks and mangroves also act as a living shield for coastal regions, as demonstrated during the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. As mangrove forests disappear (due to fuel wood gathering, over-fishing, pollution etc.), as a result not only does the ecosystems suffer, globally, but livelihoods of the rural local communities who depend on mangrove ecosystem services suffer as well. On a positive note, the Government of Sri Lanka is taking action to enhance the tree cover by 200,000 ha, partly in response to the Bonn Challenge, but mostly understanding the importance of the green cover. Mangrove forests can contribute to this ‘enhancing’ initiative by at least about 5%. There are about 9,000 ha of mangroves that can be added scientifically towards this target of 200,000 ha, using the areas where there were mangroves, historically. The assumption is that it is rational to target the historical mangrove areas that are not presently under mangroves and adjacent similar ecosystems, in the initial attempts, as these areas are more conducive for the re-establishment of mangroves. This assumption is also based on the negative experience observed during the post-tsunami 2004 period, when mangroves were planted haphazardly in the coastal belt, without matching the species or the environmental conditions. Restoration of additional mangrove areas may bring multiple benefits, including: • Protecting coastal communities from natural hazards (sea level rise, cyclones, tsunamis etc); • Additional income through increased fishery; • Use of biomass in a controlled manner for heat and energy applications; • Cleaning the runoff and other addition to near coastal waters; • Enhancing overall biodiversity with multiple benefits including education and research; • Promoting ecotourism; • Climate mitigation and adaptation benefits.

4.1. Analytical Approach Adopted

The key steps considered in identifying the potential mangrove areas based on historical records involved: 1. Determining the mangrove growing areas using a historical record; 2. Identifying the current level of mangrove extent; and 3. Delineating the potential mangrove restoration, replanting areas.

Identification of historical mangrove areas were made possible by the work of Pinto (1987). The maps were refined at IUCN to generate Figure 16, that provided the baseline. This figure may be relatively lower if we go further into the history. Pinto (1987) was the oldest digital dataset we could access. Nevertheless, once the restoration efforts are underway and based on the resource availability additional areas or the “analog” forestry concept can be applied to further expand the potential mangrove restoration areas. The current level of mangrove extent was mapped using the Forest Department – 2015 land use cover for mangroves. The difference between the cover between 1987 and 2015 helped to identify the areas where mangroves could be easily restored, due to the suitability based on prior experience.

Page | 28

It is also possible that some of the historical areas may now be under other land uses, including infrastructure, settlements and economic development activities. Therefore, a ground verification for this analysis is required, prior to the next level of planning and implementation.

Figure 16: Historical Mangrove Areas - 1987

Page | 29

Figure 17: Mangrove Cover in 2015

Page | 30

Figure 18: Potential New Areas for Mangroves

Page | 31

It is natural that most of the mangrove restoration potential is around the lagoons and estuaries as they are the areas where sea meets the land. Therefore, the mangrove restoration strategy also combines the restoration of key lagoons, out of the 82 lagoons in the country. Potential restorable areas under each lagoon is computed (Figure 16)

2,101

960

799

654

468

461

442

434

397

347

342

283

269

255

213

203

145

143

131

113

…

… …

GALLE

M A N N A R

POTENTIAL EXTENT (HA) FOR EXPANSION (HA)EXTENTFOR POTENTIAL

PANICHAKENI

MUNDAL LAKE

KODDIYAR BAY

PUDUWA KATTU

KORAI COMPLEX

JAFFNA LAGOON

CHILAW LAGOON

KOMARI LAGOON

NAYARU LAGOON

HELAWE LAGOON

REKAWA LAGOON

PANAMA LAGOON

THONDAIMANARU

KOKKILAI LAGOON

YAN OYA ESTUARY

SINNA KARACHCHI

PUTTLAM LAGOON

PERIYAKARACHCHI

PERIYA KALAPUWA

KALA OYA ESTUARY

THAMBALAGAM BAY

ARUVI ARY ESTUARY

UPPER

ULLAKKALIE LAGOON

BATTICALOA LAGOON

VALAICHENAI LAGOON

NANTHIKADAL LAGOON

VIDATTALTIVU LAGOON CHUNDIKULAM LAGOON LAGOON

Figure 19: Potential Mangrove Restoration in Lagoon Areas

Table 14: District-wise Distribution of This analysis indicates that there is a potential Potential Restoration Areas to expand the existing mangrove forest in the

Extent (ha) country by another 9,500 ha, approximately. Jaffna/Kilinochchi 538 The areas identified are distributed among Kilinochchi 1,127 the key lagoons and approximate, district- Kilinochchi /Trincomalle 799 wise distribution indicate the highest potential Trincomalee 612 in Puttalam areas followed by Kilinochchi and Batticaloa 834 Mannar. Ampara 821 However, this information must be confirmed Hambantota 34 through ground verifications and further Puttalam 3,648 analysis, based on other development plans Mannar 1,078 and priorities. Total 9,496

Page | 32

Chapter 5: Conclusion

The mangrove restoration potential areas identified can be further refined with ground level work for detailed plans and activities. It is possible to add sustainability mechanisms such as coastal livelihoods and innovative use of mangrove ecosystems. Examples of coastal livelihoods and innovative use of mangrove ecosystems include ecotourism, fishing and other activities. It is also important to incorporate the potential multiple benefits related to mangroves in to the mangrove restoration planning process, such as:

1. Proposed infrastructure and settlement plans 2. Co-benefits of mangrove restoration using ecosystem and economic tools 3. Investigate and adopt programmes related to economic and medicinal value of mangroves 4. Value addition by mangroves for near shore fishing, a primary source of nutrition 5. Implications of mineral, oil and gas and shipping industry on mangroves 6. Incentives for coastal communities for protecting mangroves given the multiple benefits 7. Policies highlighting the sustainability and resilience benefits of mangroves 8. Public-private and public-private-community partnerships on livelihoods and benefit sharing 9. Awareness and education among stakeholders from communities to policy makers 10. Educational and research opportunities at local and international level 11. Monitoring and information sharing systems to support mangrove restoration 12. Promoting ecosystem modeling and mainstreaming the knowledge base of mangroves in the national budget.

These suggestions point towards the need to support an enabling environment for mangrove restoration and management, including multi-sector and multi-stakeholder approaches, combined with improved technology transfer and research.

Mangrove restoration in Sri Lanka can benefit from several regional models including: • India (Sundarbans): 16 million mangrove trees to protect local communities (https://youtu.be/uA6j_-aEz7Q) where a community mobilization and benefit sharing approach had been introduced, successfully • Indonesia: mangroves revitalizing coastal villages with fishery and new businesses involving planting of 5,000 ha with the involvement of 20,000 coastal community members (https://youtu.be/YzzwGS0BijY). Mangroves had been used as the central theme to integrate coastal development including 20% income increased by fishermen, new industries such as Batiks and Handicraft.

The future initiatives for mangrove restoration may capitalize on the Government’s desire and commitment to expand the green cover under its Vision 2025 and Blue-Green Era strategies. A systematic, scientifically developed Mangrove Restoration Master Plan (MRMP) could be developed with the existing knowledge base, as a medium to long-term effort.

This MRMP may benefit from a Programmatic Strategic Environmental Assessment (PSEA) on the subject so that the key stakeholder entities could work jointly while sharing information.

Page | 33

About Mangroves for the Future

Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is a unique partner-led initiative to promote investment in coastal ecosystem conservation for sustainable development. Co-chaired by IUCN and UNDP, MFF provides a platform for collaboration among the many different agencies, sectors and countries which are addressing challenges to coastal ecosystem and livelihood issues. The goal is to promote an integrated ocean-wide approach to coastal management and to building the resilience of ecosystem-dependent coastal communities.

MFF builds on a history of coastal management interventions before and after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. It initially focused on the countries that were worst affected by the tsunami -- India, Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Thailand. More recently it has expanded to include Bangladesh, Cambodia, Myanmar, Pakistan and Viet Nam.

Mangroves are the flagship of the initiative, but MFF is inclusive of all types of coastal ecosystems, such as coral reefs, estuaries, lagoons, sandy beaches, sea grasses and wetlands.

The MFF grants facility offers small, medium and large grants to support initiatives that provide practical, hands-on demonstrations of effective coastal management in action. Each country manages its own MFF programme through a National Coordinating Body which includes representation from government, NGOs and the private sector.

MFF addresses priorities for long-term sustainable coastal ecosystem management which include, among others: climate change adaptation and mitigation, disaster risk reduction, promotion of ecosystem health, development of sustainable livelihoods, and active engagement of the private sector in developing sustainable business practices. The emphasis is on generating knowledge, empowering local communities and advocating for policy solutions that will support best practice in integrated coastal management.

Moving forward, MFF will increasingly focus on building resilience of ecosystem- dependent coastal communities by promoting nature-based solutions and by showcasing the climate change adaptation and mitigation benefits that can be achieved with healthy mangrove forests and other types of coastal vegetation.

MFF is funded by Danida, Norad, and Sida.

Learn more at: www.mangrovesforthefuture.org