WILDLANKA Vol.4, No.3, pp. 079 - 105, 2016. Copyright 2016 Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka. MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS: A NEGLECTED provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION HABITAT IN SRI LANKA community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. K.N.J. KATUPOTHA and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide Department of Geography, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda 10250, Sri Lanka. and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like *[email protected], [email protected] ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species ABSTRACT - Mangroves are limited to the coastal ecosystem and are associated with lagoons reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water and estuaries due to high salinity, low oxygen levels, high light intensity, strong winds and Platupana particularly for construction of salt builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a periodic inundation by tidal water. Many lagoons, out of 82 lagoons in Sri Lanka, mangroves fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. play an important role on microscopic and mesoscopic fauna and also for coastal inhabitants lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as in the country. The micro relief of the mangrove habitats produces food and shelter, and (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is provides nursery grounds for the birds, fish, reptiles and other crustaceans. Further, they help been cleared for cultivation of paddies and marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. necessary to manage and conserve the to preserve the balance of nature. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to Different research groups viz., individual scientists and institutional researches provide differ- been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a ent figures on the extension of mangrove vegetation in Sri Lanka. However, there is no sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial conformity on total figure. In this study, we try to calculate the exact extent of mangrove areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness vegetation in 82 lagoons with their availability and identified threats. Mangroves in the windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. lagoons of Sri Lanka have been damaged by anthropogenic activities and have also been the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, degraded by (a) changes in freshwater run-off, salinity regime and tidal flow patterns; (b) southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT excessive siltation and discharge of toxic substances; and (c) flowing of polluted water into relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath lagoons, lakes, estuaries and tidal creeks. The depletion and degradation of mangroves have ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development directly and indirectly influence the livelihood of the people, economy of the country and beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management survival of the wildlife. Therefore, an increased public awareness is of utmost importance to coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, promote management and conservation of mangrove habitats for posterity in Sri Lanka. influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this KEY WORDS : Mangrove ecosystem, Lagoons, Tidal water, Overexploitation, Coastal inhabitants, tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. Degradation, Public awareness. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). 080 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3

provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird FIGURE 1: Distribution of mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka: (a) Jaffna Lagoon, Thondamanaru and Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as Chundikulam Lagoon complex, (b) Nayaru and Kokkilai Lagoon complex, (c) Trincomalle, water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and Uppaveli and Kodiyar complex, (d) Ullakali Lagoon, (e) Upparu Lagoon, (f) Kalmunai complex and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves Batticaloa complex, (g) Periya Lagoon, (h) Potuvil area, (i) Walawe Ganga estuary, (j) Nilwala have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of Ganga, Polwatta Ganga and Tudawe Ganga complex, (k) Gin Ganga estuary, (l) Madampe Lake and these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. Madu Ganga complex, (m) Bentota Ganga estuary, (n) Bolgoda Lake and Weras Ganga complex, (o) variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a Kelani Ganga estuary and Muthurajawela area, Pamunugama area and Negombo Lagoon complex, (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. (p) Chilaw Lake, Deduru Oya estuary and Mundal Lake areas, (q) Puttalam Lagoon, Portugal Bay mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) complex (eastern coast of Kalpitiya Peninsula and Kala Oya complex, and (r) Vankalai complex. the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 081

provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). 082 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 083 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are TABLE 1: Scientific studies conducted on coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka. 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; Number of studies BM HG NT PL PP BT FS SH SG MG SM AF the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. North coastal lagoons 3 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 9 0 1 and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). Northeast coastal 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- lagoons seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under East coastal lagoons 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka Southeast coastal 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 9 0 0 ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical lagoons adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species South coastal lagoons 2 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 2 in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt Southwest coastal 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in lagoons rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis West coastal lagoons 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 0 2 up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). Northwest costal 3 3 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 3 1 1 erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for lagoons (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to Total 14 14 5 6 5 2 9 8 3 31 1 6 been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial Source: Silva et al, 2013. Note: BM=bathymetry, HG=hydrography, NT=nutrient, PL=plankton, areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness BT=primary production, BT=benthos, FS=fish, SF=shellfish (SF), SG=seagrasses, windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. MG=mangroves, SM=salt marshes, AF=avifauna. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). 084 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are TABLE 2: Length of coastline, lagoon area, perimeter and number of lagoons on each coastal sector 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; Coastline Lagoon area Lagoon perimeter Number of the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have Coast 2 shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, (km) (km ) (km) lagoons pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and North 403 804 1221 17 shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide Northeast 294 182 411 04 and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under East 89 44 174 14 mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka Southeast 105 29 149 16 ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical South 117 23 109 10 adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, Southwest 101 20 166 09 range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species West 98 46 151 03 in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on Northwest 131 372 410 09 accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. ∑ 1,338 1,520 2,791 82 mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is Source: Silva et al, 2013. mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 085 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; FIGURE 2: Distribution of coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). 086 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). TABLE 3: Fringe mangrove species in the lagoons located in different coasts. erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish True mangrove species North NE East SE South SW West NW against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of Acanthus ilicifoliu x x x The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period (Acanthaceae) factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on Acrostichum aureum x x marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (Pteridaceae) (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats Acrostichum speciosum x x x damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, (Pteridaceae) they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Aegiceras corniculatum x x x x x Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several (Myrsinaceae (or Primulaceae) All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable Avicennia alba x for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal (Acanthaceae) coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They Avicennia marina x x x x x x commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental (Acanthaceae) crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from Avicennia x x x x x x disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy (Acanthaceae) filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from Bruguiera cylindrical x x (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These (Rhizophoraceae) tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza x x x x x x x The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards (Rhizophoraceae) mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly Bruguiera sexangula x x x x indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the (Rhizophoraceae) in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral Cerbera manghas x x x zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of (Apocynaceae) derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level Ceriops decandra x x (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial (Rhizophoraceae) varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to Ceriops tagal x x x x x domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, (Malpighiales) especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 087 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves True mangrove species North NE East SE South SW West NW and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the Dolichandrone spathacea x typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen (Bignoniaceae) that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and Excoecaria agallocha x x x x x x x shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide (Euphorbiaceae) and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) Heritiera littoralis x x x x x (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and (Sterculaceae) Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the Hibiscus littoralis x x x the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- (Malvaceae) coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water Lumnitzera littorea x x Platupana particularly for construction of salt builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a (Combretaceae) that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Lumnitzera racemosa x x x x x x x Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have (Combretaceae) well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for Morinda citrifolia x x x (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- (Rubiaceae) zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of Nypa fruticans x x x The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period (Arecaceae) factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on Pandanus tectorius x x x x x x x x marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (Pandanaceae) (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is Pemphis acidula x x especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species (Lythraceae) Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Rhizophora apiculata x x x x x x Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several (Rhizophoraceae) All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable Rhizophora mucronata x x x for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal (Rhizophoraceae) coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. Sonneratia alba x x pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west (Lythraceae) through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from Sonneratia caseolaris x x x x x x x x disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy (Lythraceae) filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from Sonneratia ovalis x (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These (Sonneratiaceae) tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and Xylocarpus granatum x x The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards (Meliaceae) mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly 29 Species 6 16 15 16 14 11 20 14 indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff Source: Field Observations and Silva et al, 2013. copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). 088 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 089 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species TABLE 4: Uses of mangrove species in Sri Lankan view CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of SPECIES USES shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Acanthus illicifolius Fruit pulp used as a blood purifier and dressing for boils and Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the snake bites; leaf preparation as reliable of rheumatism; leaf aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the juice as preserver; leaves can be used to feed the goats. good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, Acrosticbun aureun Litter for cattle and roof thatching; tender leaves as vegetables. ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on Aegiceras corniculatum Firewood; bark as poison; manure. considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. Avicinnia spp. Leaves use for agricultural manure; firewood. A. marina: the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist tender leaves as vegetable; support for bee colonies. Platupana particularly for construction of salt bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and A.officinalis: charcoal. Avicinnia branches are preferred for that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh brush piles; wood for home construction. mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The Bruguira spp. B. cylindrica: firewood and timber. B. gymnorhiza and B. thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine sexangula: timber, fishing stakes, firewood, charcoal, telegraph mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones poles, tannin; radiles as vegetables; eye medicine from fruits; and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- scent from pneumatophorres; condiment from bark; adhesive zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of from bark; fruit chewed as betel. The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae Cerbera manghas Rubbing with fruit to ease rheumatism; seed contains a farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as medicina oil; bark and sap contain a purgative; making masks. materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals Ceriops tagal Firewood, tannin. Bark decoction used to stop hemorrhage. frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- Adhesive and net protection from bark; batic and mat making. causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Clerondendrun inerme Firewood. Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal Derris scandens Weakfish poison. During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and Dolichandrous spatbacea Firewood. 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being Excoecaria agallocha Paper pulp; sap and wood purgative; sap yields fish poison; resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root match wood; boxes. sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Heritiera littoralis Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri Hibiscus tiliaceus Barks used for rope making. enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy Lumnitzera racemosa Files; poor firewood; decoction of leaves used for thrush, tool filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. handles. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species Morinda citrifolia Firewood. in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Nypa fructicans Leaves for thatch and mats; young leaves for cigaret wrapping, Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements sap for sugar, alcohol and vinegar. Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly Pandonus tectories Leaves are used for making mats. indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rhizophora spp. R. apiculata: tanin. R. mucronata: bark use for hematoma, Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried diarrhoea, dysentery, leprosy; root bark and fruit sap as wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). mosquito repellent; wine from fruit; honey from nectar; timber fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and for firewood and home construction Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for Scaevola sericea Use as a traditional medicine amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to Sonneratia spp. S. apelata, S. alba and S. caseolaris: poor timber and firewood. domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, Pneumatophores of Sonneratia are porous, and use as bottle especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). 090 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3

CONCLUSION provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species SPECIES USES community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of stoppers and fishing floats; leaves for cattle food; S. caseolaris: zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown fruit eaten and preparation for a beverage. Sap as skin cosmet- multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- ics; leaves can be fed to goats; produce good pulp. Mangroves have scientific, educational and aesthetic and commercial values. They provide shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the Xylocarpus spp. There are two species: X. granatum and X. molluccensis. They good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the use for timber, firewood, furniture; tannin; oil from seed for crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, illuminant and hair; bark used for medicine; pencils; roots and crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species natural carvings; dye for clothes. erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. Source: Hamilton and Snedaka, 1984; Pinto, 1984 and Field Observations. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 091 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species TABLE 5: Common birds of mangrove environments in Sri Lanka CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of SPECIES FAVOURED HABITATS zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown Acrodotheres tristis Mangroves and swampy environments multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the Amauronnis phoenicurus Swampy environments aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the A. fuscus fuscus Swampy environments good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, Ardea cinerea Brackish lagoons and river estuaries crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on A. purpurea manilensis Mangrove linked lagoons considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. Ardea alba Lagoon shores the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt Ardoeta graii Lagoon shores bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in Butorides striatu javanicus Water's edge of mangroves rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Caprimulgus asiaticus Mangroves and swampy environments Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and Ceryle rudis lencomelanura River estuaries marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. necessary to manage and conserve the coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- Ceryle badis Mangroves and swampy environments serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food Chalcophaps indicarobinsoni Mangroves and swampy environments protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as Copsychus saularis Mangroves and swampy environments sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir Crovus macrorhynchas Mangroves and swampy environments as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods Demigratta asha Tidal creeks, brackish lagoons, mangrove swamps result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, Eudynamys scolopacea Mangroves and swampy environments nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama Egaetta alba modesta Shore of lagoons their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from E. garzetta grazetta Lagoons tidal mud flats townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist Haliacetus leacogaster Sea beaches, mud flats significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Larus brunneicephalus Lagoons and estuaries Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, L. fuscus Coastal lagoons Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human Limosa lapponica lapoponica Lagoons and mud flats There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax Mangrove linked lagoons or estuaries INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands Oriolus xanthornus Mangroves and boggy swamps d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free Pelagopsis carpencis gurial Mangrove swamps, coastal lagoons woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper Peisffacula cupatria Mangroves and swampy environments grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, Phalaccrocorax niger Mangroves and boggy swamps in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results Pholacrocrax fascicollis Mangroves and boggy swamps in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- Pholacrocrax niger Boggy swamps and water bodies extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as Porzana pussilla pusilla Boggy swamps sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to Sterna albifrons sinensis Sea beaches, dry mud flats mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Stena bergi Sea beaches, dry mud flats Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other Tringa glareola Mangroves and boggy swamps (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots Source: Henry, 1978; Kotagama et al, 1986 and Field Observations. plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). 092 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3 TABLE 6: Common fishes entering lagoons, estuaries, tidal creeks which are associated with provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species mangrove habitats CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers SPECIES EXTENT Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have Eensisus mino Estuarine and tidal rivers shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Ambassis commersoni Esturaine, ascending rivers Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the A. urotaenia Esturaine, entering rivers aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the Arius caelatus do good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, A. dussumieri Brackish waters, entering rivers crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species A. jella Estuaries crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on A. platystomus do considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. A. subrotratus Estuaries and tidal rivers the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt A. venosus do bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in Arothron stellatus Coastal lagoons and estuaries rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa Bagrus thalassinus Estuaries and tidal rivers up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have Chaetodon suratensis Fresh and brackish waters may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is been cleared for cultivation of paddies and Cheilodipternus butis Coastal lagoons and estuaries marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. necessary to manage and conserve the coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- Coius chatareus Fersh and brackish waters of lagoons serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food Etroplus maculatus Coastal lagoons and estuaries protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn Gobius koelreuteri Estuarine, coming ashore onto mud flats variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These G. sadanundio Estuarine waters Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or Holocentrus surinamensis coastal waters, entering estuarine and rivers and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods Lutjanus diacanthus Coastal waters, entering the tidal waters result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, L. gymnocephalus Estuarine, entering fresh waters nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama Monodactylus argenteus Coastal waters and estuaries their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Mugli macrolepis do Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping M. parsia Entering estuaries appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist M. strongylocephalus Inhabitating river mouths and coastal lagoons significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- M. tade Entering estuaries and tidal creeks Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, M. waigiensis Entering estuaries and lagoons Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Muraena brummeri Inhabits coastal lagoons Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas Ophisurus cancrivorus Inhabiting river mouths and coastal c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- O. rutidodermatoides do settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands Osteogeneiosus sthenocephalus Estuaries and tidal creeks d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free Perioptalmus do woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper Pimelodus sona do grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. Plotosus cenius Entering rivers and brackish waters ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and Promincrops lanceolatus Estuaries and lagoons lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results Scatophagus cergus Coastal waters and estuaries in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- Silurus militaris Esturies and tidal creeks extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards S. maculatus do especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and Sinaera jabua Coastal waters, estuarine f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable Sphagebranchus longipinnis lagoons herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for Tetroden fluviatilis Ascending coastal rivers and lagoons from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other Therapon theraps Estuaries (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly Toxotes chatarcus Estuaries and tidal creeks eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). Source: Munro, 1955 and Field Observations. September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 093 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species TABLE 7: Abundant macroscopic mangrove fauna in Sri Lanka CONCLUSION community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of Family or Class Species Favored Habitats zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown CRABS multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. Mangroves have scientific, educational and and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- FAMILY shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the Potunidae Thalamita crentana Resemble the mud crab, but generally it good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, is not sold in the market. crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species Portunus pelagieus Sea crab can be identified by the beautiful crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on colour patterns on itscarapace. It is known considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. as Nepptunus pelegiens. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt Scylla serrata Deep burrows. Commercially expensive. bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in Ocypodidae Macrophthalmus depressus Very fine sand of mud flats adjoining the rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa mangroves Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have M. sulcatus do well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and Uca lactea Upper region with larger sand fractions. necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic Prefer simple mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food Uca lactea Upper region with larger sand fractions. protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn Prefer simple burrows. variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir U. dessumieri Upper regions of mangroves foreshores and as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of unshaded mangrove fringes. wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, Graspsidae Neosermatum malbaricum ‘T’ shaped burrows; active in the evening. mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove N. smithi Complex burrows. a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. Metapograpsus messor Boggy soils. Prefer water holes or between (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from mangrove adventions toots. townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist Messor spp. Messor is a species of crab that lives in mangroves significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- M. darwinensis do Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, M. bidens Wet and firm soils. Prefer shallow burrows. Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- MUD LOBSTERS Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by Thalassina anomala Burrows and hardly leaves the burrows. INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste Unique to mangrove environment. The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by Swimming macrurans Swim in the lagoon frequent especially for understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free feeding. woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, PRAWNS Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. in addition into salterns in Puttalam ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, CLASS of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results Penaedae Penaeus spp. P. indicus is common prawns of lagoons. in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- P. monodon and P. semisuleatus are rare. extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as Metapenseus bobsoni Less saline areas; commercially important. sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and Caridae: Various species of Caridians can be seen in f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable the waters around the mangroves. herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, MOLLUSCS covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are Cassidula musterina Occurs on the ground and occasionally on trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, the plants. brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). 094 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION Cerithidea cingulata Abundant on the mud flats adjoining the community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal mangroves shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown C. quadrata Shade of mangroves. multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Faunus ater Lagoon mud. Mangroves have scientific, educational and shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the Faunus ater Lagoon mud aesthetic and commercial values. They provide and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other Galoina coaxans Lagoon bed such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species Littorina scabra Found on the leaves of mangroves. crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on Meretrix casta Lagoon bed. considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. Nerita polita Attached to the mangrove roots. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water Platupana particularly for construction of salt Pleuroploca trapezium Lagoon bed. bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in Telescopium telescopium Lagoon bed. rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa OYSTERS Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and Saccostrea spp. Found on mangrove swamps marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones necessary to manage and conserve the and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- Crassostea spp. do serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food Source: Pinto, 1984; 1986 and Field Observations. protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 095 provides the base of the major mangrove recorded in Sri Lanka, the common species and growth of Rhizophora mucronata and mangroves and their diversity in Sri Lanka are 1992a). Although more freshwater runoff of RESULT AND DISCUSSION (b) Provide protection from storm surges and medicine (Table 4). There are many species CONCLUSION western coast of Sri Lanka. Hydrobio- culture in Sri Lanka. Environmental coasts of Sri Lanka. Radiocarbon 30 enhances surface accretion, surface of the Asian Symposium on Mangrove community food chain. The aerial roots provide being Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia Ceriops tagal seeding under different environ- fairly understood (Aruchelvam 1968; Jayas- Wet Zone rivers reduce the salinity content in There are twenty nine species of mangroves and high winds associated with tropical of mangrove fauna than flora both in numbers Mangrove ecosystems of the inter-tidal logia 247, 17-27. Management 36(4): 535-550. . (1): 125-128. elevation change, and tree survival in Environment, Research and Manage- shelter for many species of commercial fish and marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Acanthus mental conditions. This study reveals the distri- uriya 1991b; Amarasinghe 1997a, b; the estuaries than the Kala Oya estuary. Arud- identified as fringes and patches from the typhoons. This is important in a country and in diversity. There are eighteen species of zone in the tropical and sub-tropical areas have Amarasinghe, M.D. & S. Balasubramanium, Hamilton, S.L. & C.S. Snedaker, (1984): Hand- Katupotha, J., (1988b): Hiroshima University coastal areas susceptible to sea-level ment (Kuala Lumpur), 25-29 Aug. shellfish (Table 7), particularly in their juvenile ilicifolius, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia bution, zonation, taxonomy, physiology, Jayewardene et al. 1999; Jayatissa et al. 2002a, pragasam and Jayasinghe (1980) have shown lagoon ecosystems, which fall into seventeen that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons birds associated with mangrove habitats shown multiple uses to human beings and wildlife. (1992b): Net primary productivity of book for mangrove area management. Radiocarbon dates - 2, west and south rise. Oecologia 164: 545-553. 1980, 5-15. and most predators prone stages. The trees and caseolaris, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and ecology, productivity and uses of family b; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005; Jayakody et al. that in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary on the families (Table 3). The distribution, density and a year. in Table 5. Several species of birds, both indig- Mangroves have scientific, educational and two mangrove forest stands on the UNESCO (East-West Centre): 5-12. coasts of Sri Lanka. Radiocarbon 30 Munro, S.E., (1955): The marine fresh water Swan, B., (1982): The Coastal Geomorphology shrubs provide protection from storm surges Aegiceras corniculatum. Further, they reported Rhizophoraceae in Sri Lanka. Therefore, 2008; NECDEPP 2010c). west coast a clear pattern of distribution and identified threats in fringe mangroves vegitation (c) Provide the bulk of primary production enous and seasonal migrants who come in the aesthetic and commercial values. They provide northwestern coast of Sri Lanka 247, Hentry, G.M., (1978): A guide to the birds of (3): 314-326. fishes of Ceylon. Department of Exter- of Sri Lanka: An Introductory Survey. and high winds associated with tropical storms that the mangrove forests is estimated as only Coastal Zone Management Plan of CCD (1990) Above all studies coexist with other ecosys- seasonal change of the salinity is determined in lagoons of Sri Lanka. (Appendix 1). in lagoons and estuaries. winter from the Northern Hemisphere are the good nursery grounds for birds, fish and other Arulchelvam, K., (1968): Mangroves. The Ceylon. K.V.D. de Silva & Sons, Katupotha, J., (1988c): Evidence of high sea nal Affairs, Canberra. Armidale, N.S.W., pp 84-89. such as typhoons, cyclones or tsunamis. This 8700 ha. emphasizes the extent, nature and significance, tems with least human interference under mainly by rainfall and wind pattern. Accord- Knox and Miyabara (1984) and IIRR (1992) (d) Serve as protection against soil erosion. mangroves and associated environs (Henry, crustaceans. Variety of mangrove fauna like Ceylon Forester 8 (3 & 4 New Series): Kandy, Sri Lanka. level during the mid-Holocene on the NARA, (1997): Sri Lanka Fisheries Year Book. Tansley, A.G. & F.E. Fritsch, (1905): The flora ecosystem serves as protection against soil Studies have attempted to describe the uses, management issues, objectives and certain circumstances lagoons in Sri Lanka ingly, in the Moratuwa Panadura estuary and summarized the common uses (Table 4) and Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in 1978; de Silva & de Silva, 1986). The species crabs, lobsters, prawns and mollusks bring in a 59-92. IIRR, (1992): Basic Concepts in Environment, southwest cost of Sri Lanka. Boreas 17: NECDEPP, (2010c). Study 5. Seasonal varia- of the Ceylon littoral. New Pytologist. erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes interrelationship of mangrove communities in policies on mangroves. Amarasinghe and undergo natural evolution. Mathematical adjoining lake systems of the Bolgoda area multiple uses of the mangroves from the the ocean are the number one cause of and their living habits of the birds differ on considerable amount of foreign exchange. Over Bird, E. Coastal Geomorphology An Introduc- Agriculture and Natural Resources 209-213. tions in water quality in Batticaloa 4.(1): 27-55. in the ocean are the number one cause of coral terms of a relatively simple zonation with Balasubramanium (1992a & b) classified the models can be derived to predict physical, range between 1.0-2.0 ppt and 30.00 ppt. Indonesian and Philippine experiences. Accord- coral reef degradation. sub-habitats of the ecosystem. the last 4 decades, most of the mangrove species tion Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons Management: An information kit The Katupotha, J. (1995) Public awareness: Key to Lagoon, including the identification of Wada, H., (1984): Soils in the mangrove in Sri Lanka have been cleared and water reef degradation. Similarly, they serve as land particular species characterizing zones in a mangrove stands in Puttalam Lagoon and Ducth chemical and biological attributes in such cases. ingly, mangroves: (e) Serve as a land builder through soil Mangrove biotopes indicate that there exist Platupana particularly for construction of salt Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chich- workshop was held on September conservation of mangrove and coral reef most likely sources of pollutants ecosystem. MICE Seminar, (Tokyo), bodies, mainly lagoons reclaimed, and are a builder through soil accretion. Sediment from unidirectional sequence normal to the water's Bay (western coastal zone) broadly into two Apparently, a majority of scientific studies on accretion. Sediment from the land a fairly large number of snails, crabs, fishes and that at prawn farm sites, in and around, the fans. Also, mangrove fringes and patches in ester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, 14-19, 1992, at the IIRR (The Interna- ecosystems in Sri Lanka. Bulletin of the assessed and recommendations to 44-45. rapidly destroyed and degraded the resources. the land collects among the dense roots building edge, ecological characteristics as well as their groups: (a) estuarine, and (b) island/mainland coastal lagoons in Sri Lanka has been focused collects among the dense roots building molluscs, which feed directly on the fresh mangrove species cleared and ploughed lagoons to northwards from Periya Kalapuwa (2008); 286-293 pp. tional Institute of Rural Reconstruction) Sri Lanka Association of Geographers, improve the future water quality in the Such destruction is a threat to flora and fauna as up the land and trap coastal pollutants, which economic significance and human interference fringe. Structural diversity of six mangrove on fringe mangroves whereas least emphasis up the land and minimize the coast leaves or litter of mangroves (Tables 6). The thoroughly and allowed drying up. By this (East Coast) up to Jaffna Peninsula also have CCD, (1986): Sri Lanka's Coastal Habitats: Campus in Silang, Cavite, Philippines. vol. 1, No. 1, January-March 1995, lagoon. Colombo, Sri Lanka:Ministry well as the livelihood of the people. Thus, it is may otherwise severely damage adjacent on them. Tansely and Fritsch (1905) described stands of these two types was studied in terms has been laid on salt marsh vegetation (Table 1). erosion most common fish species in lagoons/estuarine mechanical activity the mangrove ecosystem been cleared for cultivation of paddies and Geographical Location and Extent. Sri Jayakody, J.M.A.L.; M.D. Amarasinghe, V. 15-28. of Nation Building and Estate Infra- necessary to manage and conserve the marine ecosystems. Beside these, mangroves the zonation, habitat and the characteristics of of floristic composition, density, basal area, Bathymetry and hydrography are known for (f) Traps and buffer adjacent estuarine areas mangrove ecosystems in both dry and wet zones and the natural buffer zone completely destroy. coconuts as well as urbanization and industriali- Lanka Coast Conservation Department, Pahalawattaarachchi and K.H.W.L. De Katupotha, J. (1995). Evolution and the structure Development. serve as a wildlife sanctuary, offer aesthetic, true mangrove and semi-mangrove species of mean, stand diameter, tree light, standing fourteen lagoons while fish fauna or fish against the large changes in up-streams are bring a considerable amount of foreign Beside these, pollutants such as fungistatic mangrove habitats as a natural heritage to Colombo. Silva, (2008). Vegetation structure and geological significance of Holocene Palihawadana, N.S., (1987): Survival and been formed of weathered bedrock which are ridges of headland-bay-beaches. Such forma- zation (Table 4). educational and scientific values. Sri Lanka. Even at the beginning of the 20th aboveground biomass and leaf-area index. productions of nine lagoons have been studied. input of nutrients and wastes. exchange to the country. Table 7 indicates that paints, pesticides (organic and inorganic), food protect the coast from erosion, and to obtain a CCD, (1990): Coastal Zone Management Plan. potential gross primary productivity of emerged shell beds on the southern growth of Rhizopora mucronata Lam. sometimes capped by lateritic soils, while other tions have developed as a result of a lowering of The discharge of toxic substances from Mangrove habitats with its variety of century, they reported the effect of human Furthermore, the same authors (1992b) exam- Only the Negombo Lagoon on the west coast, (g) Trap coastal pollutants, which may abundant macroscopic mangrove animals such remnants and faecal wastes add from prawn variety of products from aquatic and terrestrial Sri Lanka Coast Conservation Depart- mangroves at Kadolkele in Meega- coastal zone of Sri Lanka, Journal of and Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Rob. areas covered by terrestrial deposits as well as sealevels in the Late Holocene period factories and the waste products such as sub-habitats are a source of forest products such interference on the mangrove forests of Sri ined the net primary productivity of two Rekawa Lagoon the south coast and Chilaw and otherwise severely damage adjacent as crabs (Potunidae, Ocypodiae and Graspsidae farm environments in mangrove areas. These Over exploitation that has rapidly destroyed (a) Rapid siltation that is often aggravated components. For this purpose, public awareness ment, Colombo. muwa (Negombo) estuary, Sri Lanka. Coastal Research 11 (4): 1042-1061. Seeding under different environmental windblown sand. Head-land-bay beaches are (Katupotha, 1988a & 1988b). sawdust and coir dust from saw mills and coir as food and beverages, timber, firewood, tannin, Lanka. mangrove forest stands (estuarine and island Puttalam lagoons and Mundel Lake, located on marine ecosystems. families), mud lobsters, prawns, mollusks as materials add or remove infrequently or and degradated the mangrove ecosystems are a by coral mining and aquaculture is needed for the proper use of mangroves. Costa, H.H. and M.J.S. Wijeyaratne, (1994). Sri Lanka J.Aquat. Sci.13: 95-108. Katupotha, J. (2012). Anthropogenic Impacts conditions. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Sri the most significant feature along the western, Soil is one of the most important compo- factories to lagoons and estuaries are some of wax, honey etc., and provide suitable environ- The physiographic distribution and ecologi- fringing) in Dutch Bay. All these reports reveal the northwest coast have been subjected to a fair (h) Buffer adjacent flood plains from the well as oysters in Sri Lanka. All these animals frequently and during the seasonal floods result of a variety of practices and processes. practices, Utilization of mangrove species in brush Jayasuriya, P.M.A. (1991)b. Distribution and on Urban Coastal Lagoons in the West- Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka southern and eastern coasts that have a close nents in mangrove ecosystem (Wada, 1984). the major hazards faced by mangrove species, mental conditions for aquaculture and opportu- cal conditions of the mangroves have described that during the last two decades, only a limited number of studies including mangrove habitats damage caused by severe storms, and were common in mangrove areas and associ- causing damage and degrade the indigenous They can be summarized as follows: (b) Industrial pollutants and waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT park construction and their effects on species composition of the existing ern and North-western Coastal Zones of (unpublished). relationship with the regional geological struc- The oxidation-reduction rate of the soil is especially in Moratuwa Panadura estuary, nities for tourism. However, when compared to by Arulchelvam (1968) and Swan (1982). research had been conducted on the different leaving huge lacunae of science-based knowl- habitats, human impact and degradation. For these events are evidently related to origin, they reduce the maintenance cost of ated mud flats of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, fauna and flora associated with mangrove a) Rapid urban development Such degradation of the habitat has an Thanks are extended to Dr. Herath Negombo estuary fishery (Sri Lanka). mangrove vegetation around Chilaw Sri Lanka. 17th International Forestry Pinto, L., (1984): Some ecological aspects of a ture while straight coastlines with zeta-form closely related to relief. Mangrove species Lunawa lagoon, Bolgoda Lakes and Ratgama their role in countries such as Brazil, Australia, Pinto's (1984) study indicates the significance aspects pertaining to the mangroves. edge on the entire lagoon ecosystem of the this purpose, field observations, formal and formation and evolution of lagoons on Sri habours and navigation channels by Negombo Lagoon as well as other southwestern ecosystems. (establishment of Free Trade Zones and adverse impact on the national economy. It has Manthrithilake, Head, Sri Lanka Development Journal of Applied Ichthyology 10 lagoon. Vidyodaya J. Sci. 3(2); and Environment Symposium community of mangrove crabs occur- beaches are a significant feature of the west prefer the soil quality, which have been modi- Lake along the western and southwestern areas. Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Philippines, it of the mangrove environment for crab popula- The mangroves support the depending island (Silva et al, 2013). informal discussions with the inhabitants and Lanka (Silva et al, 2013). trapping silt. and southern lagoons. Besides, these faunal During the past forty year period (from townships), also resulted in the loss of invaluable habitat for Initiative International Water Management (2-3): 96–103. 103-113. (Abstract) – 2012, Pegasus Reef Hotel, ring within the islets of Negombo coast. These characteristics are clearly fied by tidal, and salinity of the water. Several All solid and liquid wastes are literally dumping appears that mangroves have not played as tion in the Negombo Lagoon on the western communities by providing finfish and officials were carried out within the period Mangroves in most of the lagoons are (i) Play an important role as nursery areas species toads and tree frogs, reptiles (water and 1970 to 2000) mangroves have removed for b) Establishment of anchorages and a variety of birds, fish and other wildlife Institute (IWMI) and Professor E.I.L. Silva, CZMP (1997): Revised Coastal Zone Manage- Jayatissa, L.P.; Dahdouh-Guebas and N. Wattala, Sri Lanka. Lagoon (Sri Lanka). Proc. The Asian influenced for the present configuration of the families such as (Rhizophoraceae) which grow into the mangrove habitats from the tourist significant a role in the national economy of Sri coast. Furthermore, Pinto (1986) provides a shellfish, fuel wood and building materials, between 1993 and 1998 infrequently. The highly productive, but extremely vulnerable for the larva and juvenile stages of many land snakes, python), lizards, crocodiles, mining of buried corals and shells for the landing of a large number of fishing species. Therefore, there is a need to create Water Resources Science and Technology ment Plan. Sri Lanka Coast Conserva- Koedam, (2002a). A review of the floral Katupotha, J. (2013) Anthropogenic Impacts on Symposium on mangrove environment, island, and the existence of mangrove vegeta- near the water assist in preventing soil being resorts and the industrial sites Kalpitiya Penin- Lanka. detailed account on the morphology of several dyes for coloration of fishing nets and fruit PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE reconnaissance phase of the study was useful to habitats confined to intertidal zones of coastal coastal fish and invertebrates including terrapin, jackal and jungle cat (carnivorous), production of lime in the southwestern and craft, including Multi-day boats: e.g. public awareness to protect the mangroves at (WRST) for their great help in completing this tion Department, Colombo. composition and distribution of Urban Coastal Lagoons in the Western Research & managment (Kuala tion in the country. washed by trapping soil between the proper root sula to Maha Lewaya (Hambantota). All these mangrove species, emphasizing their different juice, which have pragmatic values (Costa and Ecological conditions and multiple uses of highlight the nature of the environmental environments including specially lagoons. They commercial species especially for rats, wild-pigs etc. are common in mangrove southern coastal areas, mainly at Ambalangoda, Puttalam, Chilaw, Negombo, Baticaloa, the regional level as well as at the national level. Manuscript. Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; S. Hettiarachchi, D.L. mangroves in Sri Lanka, Botanical and North-western Coastal Zones of Sri Lumpur), 25-29 August 1980: 311-330. The tidal range of Sri Lanka is small, system and help in building up the shore. pollution poses a problem to human health PREVIOUS STUDIES characteristics and the behavior of the portunid Wijeyaratne 1994; Jayatissa et al. 2002a; Guna- mangroves in coastal lagoons at the National problems and the degradation of mangrove have special adaptations to harsh environmental crustaceans. They may be important in areas (de Silva and de Silva, 1986). Akurala, Hikkaduwa, Habaraduwa, Mihirip- Trincomale and Jaffna lagoons, There is an urgent need to complete an island- Seen, O. Batelaan, S. Sooriyarachchi, Journal of the Linnaean Lanka. Pinto, L., (1986): Mangroves of Sri Lanka. ranging from mean low water spring at -37 cm People have grown mangroves, especially west through the construction of bacteria and human There are no records of the exact extent of and ocypodid crabs, grapsid crabs, mud wardena and Rowan 2005). In addition, to their Level have been neglected. Causes of mangrove species. Both published and unpublished data conditions and mangrove habitats are consid- maintaining and controlling the normal The area under mangrove cover in Sri enna, Walpola, Madihe and Rekawa areas c) Land reclamation for road construction, wide studies in mangrove taxonomy, produc- L.P. Jayatissa and N. Koedam,(2005). Society(2002)138: 29-43. Katupotha, J. & K. Fujiwara, (1988): Holocene NARESA, Colombo. to mean high water spring at +40 cm in relation and northwest coasts, to protect their lands from disease pathogen such as typhoid viruses by INTRODUCTION mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. According to lobsters, prawns and molluscs. An ESCAP cultural values, recreation and tourism impor- destruction in Sri Lanka are overexploitation by have also been mentioned where relevant in the ered as biodiversity hotspots (Kumara et al. cycles of nitrogen and sulphur. Lanka was fairly large during the early resulted polluted stagnant water ponds. Clear- settlements and expansion of agriculture, tion, impact of pollutants, biology of REFERENCES Transitions in Ancient inland freshwater Jayatissa, L.P., M.C. Guero, S. Hettiarachchi sea level changes on the southwest and Silva, de, K.H.G.M. & S. Balasubramaniam, to the mean sea level (data based on Colombo erosion because they are a cheap, safe and easy filter-feeding bivalves. Discharge of waste The mangrove ecosystem is commonly applied to a number of flowering plants that are the CCD report (1986) about 12190 hectares of report formulated (1985) a Coastal Manage- tance, they also show an array of mitigation and traditional users than commercial users. study. 2010). (j) Serve as a wildlife sanctuary. nineteenth century. Decreasing trend in ance of mangrove species for reclamation lands d) Conversion of marginal mangrove lands mangroves and identification of socio- Alongi, D.M. (2002). Present state and future of resource management in Sri Lanka and N. Koedam (2002b). Changes in south coast of Sri Lanka. Palaeogeogr., (1984): Some ecological aspects of the datum, Tide Tables vol. 2, Pacific and Indian method of protecting lands. material affects mangroves indirectly by understood to be made up of a collection of members of several different families. mangrove swamps occur mainly around ment Environmental Plan for the western coast adaptations to climate change. Mangroves are Destructive action resulting from activities Coastal lowlands in the island extend from (k) Offer aesthetic, educational and scien- mangrove cover in the country has started over for human settlements and agriculture is visible into shrimp farm ponds in Gembaran- economic problems. This can be addressed by the world’s mangrove forests. Environ. affect biota and human populations in vegetation cover and socio-economic Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 68: mangroves on the west coast of Sri Oceans 1987). The level of the tides has an A dry climate prevails and the average causing siltation and thus restricting the free woody and shrub plant species. These plants Mangrove swamps provide excellent nesting lagoons, lakes and in the river estuaries as of Sri Lanka emphasizing on the role of also excellent environs for aesthetic enjoyment generally unrelated use of mangroves is STUDY AREA MSL to about +5.0m high elevation. These tific values the last 2-3 decades. Most of the tree species in Kalpitiya Penisula, between Puttalam didiya, Chilaw, Muthipanthiya and the Coast Conservation Department of Sri Conserv.29:331–349. and around coastal lagoons. Current transitions in a coastal lagoon 189-202. Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. obvious influence on the extension of tidal flats, annual rainfall is distinct with two dry seasons flow of water, which is necessary for the proper grow in shallow and muddy salt water or brack- and feeding grounds and constitute a reservoir fringes and patches. Revised CZMP (1997) mangroves. Furthermore, Silva and Balasubra- and creative productions such as films, commercial timber harvesting; conversion of The island of Sri Lanka has a 1,338 km long lowlands are narrow on the southwestern and The above mentioned uses indicate that the had been cleared for commercial timber Lagoon-Chilaw Lake and Negombo lagoon, Puttalam lagoons and Mundal Lake; and Lanka, the National Aquatic Resources Agency Amarasinghe, M.D. (1997a). Ecological Biology 15: 579-586. (Kalametiya, Sri Lanka), as observed by Knoz, A.G., and T. Miyabara, (1984): Coastal Sci.), v 17 & 18, 22-33. which have been formed by soft mud and clay. in the Dry Zone, while the Wet Zone receives growth of mangroves and existence of wildlife. ish waters, such as those along quiet shorelines, and a refuge for a variety of marine and brackish reports that this amount has reduced up to 8000. maniam (1984) deal with the types of tele-cinema, paintings, songs which have tacit mangrove areas for aquaculture, especially for coastline and identified 82 lagoons with a 2,791 southern coasts, but gradually widens towards mangrove can play an important role, but it harvesting (construction of human settlements Moratuwa and Panadura estuary, Bolgoda lakes, in addition into salterns in Puttalam of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority functions of mangrove and related EFL, (1994): Prawn Culture a boom or a bane. tele-detection and ground truthing can zone resources deve- lopment and Silva, de, K.H.G.M. & P.K. de Silva, (1986): 2 This in turn has influenced the extent of annual rainfall as high as 2,500 mm. The The introduction of substances directly and lagoons or in estuaries of anaerobic soils found fish, invertebrates, and birds (Hamilton and However, NARA (1997) indicates that in Sri mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka, their values. Today protection of mangrove world- prawn farms, agriculture, saltpans and urban km lagoon shoreline which skirts 1,520 km of the north from the Kelani Ganga Estuary (west) appears that in Sri Lanka they have been a and tourist resorts), conversion of mangrove Ratgama lake, islands of Madu Ganga (river), lagoon and Mundal Lake, lagoon areas of Sri Lanka, the National Science Foundation ecosystems and their contribution to Science Consultancy, Environmental be attributed to an upstream irrigation conservation Southeast Asia. UNESCO, An ecological study of the mangrove mangroves. But in high wave energy along the precipitation and the marine processes mainly indirectly into the coastal habitat by man results in the intertidal zone, and show their greatest Snedakar, 1984; Cox and Liaison, 1999, Bird Lanka, there are 158,016 ha of the brackish ecological zonation and the effect of man’s wide is based almost entirely on their purported development. brackish water mass (Table 2, Figure 1). The and Kubukkan Oya Estuary (east), and largely neglected and destroyed the resources. areas for aquaculture (e.g., fish, shrimp, Koggala, Polwatumodara, Mawella and in southeastern area, of Sri Lanka and other relevant Institutions, economic sustainability of Sri Lanka. Foundation Ltd. (EFL) August, 1994. scheme. Environment Development East-West Centre, pp 1- 7, 81-91. fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. exposed shoreline mangroves do not occur waves and tides, are strongly governed by the in such deleterious aspects as harm to meso- extent and diversity on tropical coasts, 2008). Mangroves are often referred to as water area and out of this 18489 ha covered by interference with them. This research, twenty importance to fisheries and a number of rare and The applications of insecticides and herbi- lagoon shoreline is more than twofold consisted of a series of small sized beach ridges For many years the inhabitants of the coastal prawns), agriculture and salt pans, and for Rekawa lagoons. Cutting of mangroves for e) Use as municipal solid waste disposal schools and Non-Governnmental Agencies Sri Lanka J. Aquat. Sci. 2: 1-20. ESCAP, (1985): Coastal environmental and Sustainability 4(2): 167-183. Kotagama S.W., Pinto Leonard and Samara- Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Sci.), v successfully, although they grow on inter-tidal monsoons. The differences of freshwater runoff copic and microscopic flora and fauna, hazards especially in Sri Lanka (Figure 1), and in some mangrove forest, coastal woodland, mangal and mangroves. Twenty-nine species of mangroves five years before, has emphasized that urgent endangered species (Alongi 2002). In Sri cides at agroecological zones have caused compared to its Indian Ocean intact coastline and barrier islands, buried corals, emerged coral zones have lived close to the mangroves and mining/mineral extraction (mining of buried wood in house construction, fishing crafts, as sites, who concern the protection of natural Amarasinghe, M.D. (1997b). Leaf litter decom- management plan for the west coast of Jayawardena, J.W.K.K.; M.D. Amararasinghe koon L. Jayampathi: Sri Lanka A Direc- 19 & 20, 37-47. flats and protected by sand dunes. Similar by annual precipitation, tidal flow patterns and to human health, hindrance to marine activities subtropical areas, where they rapidly form tidal forest. Like the tropical forests, mangroves have been identified in Sri Lanka, and some of conservation measures were required to save the Lanka, because of the inter-tidal swath is damage to mangrove habitats. These problems (Silva et al, 2013). Evidently, origins of coastal reef patches and beach-rock shoals. Most of derived many benefits from the aquatic as well corals). fuel for kilns were common in the Rekawa and f) Inflows of inorganic fertilizer, resources. Such activities help to protect position in the mangrove ecosystems of Sri Lanka: preliminary survey and and K.B. Ranawana (1999). Mangrove tory of Asian Wetlands (PDF format) A Silva, E.I.L., J. Katupotha, O. Amerasinghe, H. conditions have been reported from other humid the rate of surface salinity have caused the etc. Mangroves are particularly susceptible to mangrove swamps. play an important role in the economy of these have adapted themselves to regional mangrove ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Besides, in narrower than the other parts of the Indo-Malay and degradation which clearly threaten lagoons in Sri Lanka are related to these landforms indicate that the sea-level (a) Provide food and shelter for a large and provide shelter for many species of as the terrestrial components of the mangrove Mangrove ecosystems of the western and Mawella lagoons. Likewise, a considerable herbicides/weedicides/insecticide runoff mangrove species and to promote associated Dutch bay. Sri Lanka J. Aquat. Sci. 2: interim action plan. UN (Bangkok): vegetation structure and the abundance Directory of Asian Wetlands (PDF Manthrithilake et al. (2013). Lagoons areas of tropical countries. The mangrove spatial distribution of several mangrove species pollution. Since they thrive in estuarine areas Geomorphologically, a mangrove swamp tropical people for thousands of years. variations of edaphic and climatic conditions 1986, Silva and Silva have described the region, on account of the small tidal amplitude, mangrove ecosystems have not been taken into mid-Holocene and late Holocene fluctuations. changes had occurred during the post-glacial varied group of fishes and shellfish. The commercial fish and shellfish, particu- species. By this means they obtained food and northwestern coasts have been cleared for amount of mangrove vegetation removed for from inland agricultural areas wildlife. Island-wide quantitative mapping of 21-27. 55-68. of shrimps in Chilaw lagoon, Sri format), IUCN 1989-1995. of Sri Lanka: From the Origins to the fringes as well as patches, where developed and their faunal habitats. The surface salinities that are the ultimate link for agricultural, covers by trees or shrubs that have the common Mangroves provide food and shelter for a (Katupotha, 1995). Priyadarshani et al (2008) ecological characteristics of the mangrove mangrove show ribbon or patchy development consideration in the above mentioned studies. These fluctuations have been summarized by transgression (Katupotha, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) larly in their juvenile and most predators beverages, firewood, timber for construction of construction of hundreds of prawn farm ponds, construction of Hambantota habour and other (Negombo, Mundal and Puttalam areas; mangrove areas also help this purpose and it can Amarasinghe, M.D. & S. Balasubramanium, Gunawardena, M. and J.S. Rowan, (2005). Lanka.J. Aquat. Sci. 4: 69-81. Kumara, M.P.; L.P. Jayatissa, K.W. Krauss, Present IWMI 2013. along the sea coast, lagoon and estuaries have of the Kala Oya estuary vary from 0.00 ppt to domestic and industrial effluents, they are trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt or large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. mention that there are twenty three true fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. instead of occurring in extensive swampy This paper envisages revealing different uses, Katupotha (1995) who recognized five stages in Katupotha and Fujiwara, 1988). Low hills and provides the base of the major mangrove prone stages. houses, household items (mats and baskets) and especially from Puttalam lagoon to Chilaw rapid development activities. Similarly eastern lagoons and Jaffna Lagoon Com- be completed by using remote sensing (1992a): Structural properties of two Economic valuation of a mangrove Katupotha, J., (1988a): Hiroshima University D.H. Phillips and M. Huxham, (2010). Snedaker, C.S. (1984): The mangroves of Asia been protected by sand spits, beaches and beach 45.00 ppt (Amarasinghe and Balasubramanium, especially at risk (Konx and Miyabara 1984, brackish waters, and are a common name The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) the late Pleistocene and Holocene events. All ridges in southwestern and southern areas have community food chain. The aerial roots plex), techniques. types of mangrove stands on the north- mangrove species of trees and shrubs have been Palihawadana (1987) explains the survival forests (Swan 1982). Distribution patterns of the behavior of the fauna and flora of mangrove fishing boats, agricultural manure, animal feed Lake (Katupotha 2012). EFL (1994) reveals mangroves have removed from Koholankala to Katupotha 2012). ecosystem threatened byshrimp aqua- Radiocarbon dates - 1, West and south High density mangrove plantation and Ocenia: status and research. Proce. 096 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3 western coast of Sri Lanka. Hydrobio- culture in Sri Lanka. Environmental coasts of Sri Lanka. Radiocarbon 30 enhances surface accretion, surface of the Asian Symposium on Mangrove logia 247, 17-27. Management 36(4): 535-550. . (1): 125-128. elevation change, and tree survival in Environment, Research and Manage- Amarasinghe, M.D. & S. Balasubramanium, Hamilton, S.L. & C.S. Snedaker, (1984): Hand- Katupotha, J., (1988b): Hiroshima University coastal areas susceptible to sea-level ment (Kuala Lumpur), 25-29 Aug. (1992b): Net primary productivity of book for mangrove area management. Radiocarbon dates - 2, west and south rise. Oecologia 164: 545-553. 1980, 5-15. two mangrove forest stands on the UNESCO (East-West Centre): 5-12. coasts of Sri Lanka. Radiocarbon 30 Munro, S.E., (1955): The marine fresh water Swan, B., (1982): The Coastal Geomorphology northwestern coast of Sri Lanka 247, Hentry, G.M., (1978): A guide to the birds of (3): 314-326. fishes of Ceylon. Department of Exter- of Sri Lanka: An Introductory Survey. Arulchelvam, K., (1968): Mangroves. The Ceylon. K.V.D. de Silva & Sons, Katupotha, J., (1988c): Evidence of high sea nal Affairs, Canberra. Armidale, N.S.W., pp 84-89. Ceylon Forester 8 (3 & 4 New Series): Kandy, Sri Lanka. level during the mid-Holocene on the NARA, (1997): Sri Lanka Fisheries Year Book. Tansley, A.G. & F.E. Fritsch, (1905): The flora 59-92. IIRR, (1992): Basic Concepts in Environment, southwest cost of Sri Lanka. Boreas 17: NECDEPP, (2010c). Study 5. Seasonal varia- of the Ceylon littoral. New Pytologist. Bird, E. Coastal Geomorphology An Introduc- Agriculture and Natural Resources 209-213. tions in water quality in Batticaloa 4.(1): 27-55. tion Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons Management: An information kit The Katupotha, J. (1995) Public awareness: Key to Lagoon, including the identification of Wada, H., (1984): Soils in the mangrove Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chich- workshop was held on September conservation of mangrove and coral reef most likely sources of pollutants ecosystem. MICE Seminar, (Tokyo), ester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, 14-19, 1992, at the IIRR (The Interna- ecosystems in Sri Lanka. Bulletin of the assessed and recommendations to 44-45. (2008); 286-293 pp. tional Institute of Rural Reconstruction) Sri Lanka Association of Geographers, improve the future water quality in the CCD, (1986): Sri Lanka's Coastal Habitats: Campus in Silang, Cavite, Philippines. vol. 1, No. 1, January-March 1995, lagoon. Colombo, Sri Lanka:Ministry Geographical Location and Extent. Sri Jayakody, J.M.A.L.; M.D. Amarasinghe, V. 15-28. of Nation Building and Estate Infra- Lanka Coast Conservation Department, Pahalawattaarachchi and K.H.W.L. De Katupotha, J. (1995). Evolution and the structure Development. Colombo. Silva, (2008). Vegetation structure and geological significance of Holocene Palihawadana, N.S., (1987): Survival and CCD, (1990): Coastal Zone Management Plan. potential gross primary productivity of emerged shell beds on the southern growth of Rhizopora mucronata Lam. Sri Lanka Coast Conservation Depart- mangroves at Kadolkele in Meega- coastal zone of Sri Lanka, Journal of and Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Rob. ment, Colombo. muwa (Negombo) estuary, Sri Lanka. Coastal Research 11 (4): 1042-1061. Seeding under different environmental Costa, H.H. and M.J.S. Wijeyaratne, (1994). Sri Lanka J.Aquat. Sci.13: 95-108. Katupotha, J. (2012). Anthropogenic Impacts conditions. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Sri Utilization of mangrove species in brush Jayasuriya, P.M.A. (1991)b. Distribution and on Urban Coastal Lagoons in the West- Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka park construction and their effects on species composition of the existing ern and North-western Coastal Zones of (unpublished). Negombo estuary fishery (Sri Lanka). mangrove vegetation around Chilaw Sri Lanka. 17th International Forestry Pinto, L., (1984): Some ecological aspects of a Journal of Applied Ichthyology 10 lagoon. Vidyodaya J. Sci. 3(2); and Environment Symposium community of mangrove crabs occur- (2-3): 96–103. 103-113. (Abstract) – 2012, Pegasus Reef Hotel, ring within the islets of Negombo CZMP (1997): Revised Coastal Zone Manage- Jayatissa, L.P.; Dahdouh-Guebas and N. Wattala, Sri Lanka. Lagoon (Sri Lanka). Proc. The Asian ment Plan. Sri Lanka Coast Conserva- Koedam, (2002a). A review of the floral Katupotha, J. (2013) Anthropogenic Impacts on Symposium on mangrove environment, tion Department, Colombo. composition and distribution of Urban Coastal Lagoons in the Western Research & managment (Kuala Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; S. Hettiarachchi, D.L. mangroves in Sri Lanka, Botanical and North-western Coastal Zones of Sri Lumpur), 25-29 August 1980: 311-330. Seen, O. Batelaan, S. Sooriyarachchi, Journal of the Linnaean Lanka. Pinto, L., (1986): Mangroves of Sri Lanka. L.P. Jayatissa and N. Koedam,(2005). Society(2002)138: 29-43. Katupotha, J. & K. Fujiwara, (1988): Holocene NARESA, Colombo. REFERENCES Transitions in Ancient inland freshwater Jayatissa, L.P., M.C. Guero, S. Hettiarachchi sea level changes on the southwest and Silva, de, K.H.G.M. & S. Balasubramaniam, Alongi, D.M. (2002). Present state and future of resource management in Sri Lanka and N. Koedam (2002b). Changes in south coast of Sri Lanka. Palaeogeogr., (1984): Some ecological aspects of the the world’s mangrove forests. Environ. affect biota and human populations in vegetation cover and socio-economic Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 68: mangroves on the west coast of Sri Conserv.29:331–349. and around coastal lagoons. Current transitions in a coastal lagoon 189-202. Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Amarasinghe, M.D. (1997a). Ecological Biology 15: 579-586. (Kalametiya, Sri Lanka), as observed by Knoz, A.G., and T. Miyabara, (1984): Coastal Sci.), v 17 & 18, 22-33. functions of mangrove and related EFL, (1994): Prawn Culture a boom or a bane. tele-detection and ground truthing can zone resources deve- lopment and Silva, de, K.H.G.M. & P.K. de Silva, (1986): ecosystems and their contribution to Science Consultancy, Environmental be attributed to an upstream irrigation conservation Southeast Asia. UNESCO, An ecological study of the mangrove economic sustainability of Sri Lanka. Foundation Ltd. (EFL) August, 1994. scheme. Environment Development East-West Centre, pp 1- 7, 81-91. fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka J. Aquat. Sci. 2: 1-20. ESCAP, (1985): Coastal environmental and Sustainability 4(2): 167-183. Kotagama S.W., Pinto Leonard and Samara- Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Sci.), v Amarasinghe, M.D. (1997b). Leaf litter decom- management plan for the west coast of Jayawardena, J.W.K.K.; M.D. Amararasinghe koon L. Jayampathi: Sri Lanka A Direc- 19 & 20, 37-47. position in the mangrove ecosystems of Sri Lanka: preliminary survey and and K.B. Ranawana (1999). Mangrove tory of Asian Wetlands (PDF format) A Silva, E.I.L., J. Katupotha, O. Amerasinghe, H. Dutch bay. Sri Lanka J. Aquat. Sci. 2: interim action plan. UN (Bangkok): vegetation structure and the abundance Directory of Asian Wetlands (PDF Manthrithilake et al. (2013). Lagoons 21-27. 55-68. of shrimps in Chilaw lagoon, Sri format), IUCN 1989-1995. of Sri Lanka: From the Origins to the Amarasinghe, M.D. & S. Balasubramanium, Gunawardena, M. and J.S. Rowan, (2005). Lanka.J. Aquat. Sci. 4: 69-81. Kumara, M.P.; L.P. Jayatissa, K.W. Krauss, Present IWMI 2013. (1992a): Structural properties of two Economic valuation of a mangrove Katupotha, J., (1988a): Hiroshima University D.H. Phillips and M. Huxham, (2010). Snedaker, C.S. (1984): The mangroves of Asia types of mangrove stands on the north- ecosystem threatened byshrimp aqua- Radiocarbon dates - 1, West and south High density mangrove plantation and Ocenia: status and research. Proce. September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 097 western coast of Sri Lanka. Hydrobio- culture in Sri Lanka. Environmental coasts of Sri Lanka. Radiocarbon 30 enhances surface accretion, surface of the Asian Symposium on Mangrove logia 247, 17-27. Management 36(4): 535-550. . (1): 125-128. elevation change, and tree survival in Environment, Research and Manage- Amarasinghe, M.D. & S. Balasubramanium, Hamilton, S.L. & C.S. Snedaker, (1984): Hand- Katupotha, J., (1988b): Hiroshima University coastal areas susceptible to sea-level ment (Kuala Lumpur), 25-29 Aug. (1992b): Net primary productivity of book for mangrove area management. Radiocarbon dates - 2, west and south rise. Oecologia 164: 545-553. 1980, 5-15. two mangrove forest stands on the UNESCO (East-West Centre): 5-12. coasts of Sri Lanka. Radiocarbon 30 Munro, S.E., (1955): The marine fresh water Swan, B., (1982): The Coastal Geomorphology northwestern coast of Sri Lanka 247, Hentry, G.M., (1978): A guide to the birds of (3): 314-326. fishes of Ceylon. Department of Exter- of Sri Lanka: An Introductory Survey. Arulchelvam, K., (1968): Mangroves. The Ceylon. K.V.D. de Silva & Sons, Katupotha, J., (1988c): Evidence of high sea nal Affairs, Canberra. Armidale, N.S.W., pp 84-89. Ceylon Forester 8 (3 & 4 New Series): Kandy, Sri Lanka. level during the mid-Holocene on the NARA, (1997): Sri Lanka Fisheries Year Book. Tansley, A.G. & F.E. Fritsch, (1905): The flora 59-92. IIRR, (1992): Basic Concepts in Environment, southwest cost of Sri Lanka. Boreas 17: NECDEPP, (2010c). Study 5. Seasonal varia- of the Ceylon littoral. New Pytologist. Bird, E. Coastal Geomorphology An Introduc- Agriculture and Natural Resources 209-213. tions in water quality in Batticaloa 4.(1): 27-55. tion Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons Management: An information kit The Katupotha, J. (1995) Public awareness: Key to Lagoon, including the identification of Wada, H., (1984): Soils in the mangrove Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chich- workshop was held on September conservation of mangrove and coral reef most likely sources of pollutants ecosystem. MICE Seminar, (Tokyo), ester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, 14-19, 1992, at the IIRR (The Interna- ecosystems in Sri Lanka. Bulletin of the assessed and recommendations to 44-45. (2008); 286-293 pp. tional Institute of Rural Reconstruction) Sri Lanka Association of Geographers, improve the future water quality in the CCD, (1986): Sri Lanka's Coastal Habitats: Campus in Silang, Cavite, Philippines. vol. 1, No. 1, January-March 1995, lagoon. Colombo, Sri Lanka:Ministry Geographical Location and Extent. Sri Jayakody, J.M.A.L.; M.D. Amarasinghe, V. 15-28. of Nation Building and Estate Infra- Lanka Coast Conservation Department, Pahalawattaarachchi and K.H.W.L. De Katupotha, J. (1995). Evolution and the structure Development. Colombo. Silva, (2008). Vegetation structure and geological significance of Holocene Palihawadana, N.S., (1987): Survival and CCD, (1990): Coastal Zone Management Plan. potential gross primary productivity of emerged shell beds on the southern growth of Rhizopora mucronata Lam. Sri Lanka Coast Conservation Depart- mangroves at Kadolkele in Meega- coastal zone of Sri Lanka, Journal of and Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Rob. ment, Colombo. muwa (Negombo) estuary, Sri Lanka. Coastal Research 11 (4): 1042-1061. Seeding under different environmental Costa, H.H. and M.J.S. Wijeyaratne, (1994). Sri Lanka J.Aquat. Sci.13: 95-108. Katupotha, J. (2012). Anthropogenic Impacts conditions. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Sri Utilization of mangrove species in brush Jayasuriya, P.M.A. (1991)b. Distribution and on Urban Coastal Lagoons in the West- Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka park construction and their effects on species composition of the existing ern and North-western Coastal Zones of (unpublished). Negombo estuary fishery (Sri Lanka). mangrove vegetation around Chilaw Sri Lanka. 17th International Forestry Pinto, L., (1984): Some ecological aspects of a Journal of Applied Ichthyology 10 lagoon. Vidyodaya J. Sci. 3(2); and Environment Symposium community of mangrove crabs occur- (2-3): 96–103. 103-113. (Abstract) – 2012, Pegasus Reef Hotel, ring within the islets of Negombo CZMP (1997): Revised Coastal Zone Manage- Jayatissa, L.P.; Dahdouh-Guebas and N. Wattala, Sri Lanka. Lagoon (Sri Lanka). Proc. The Asian ment Plan. Sri Lanka Coast Conserva- Koedam, (2002a). A review of the floral Katupotha, J. (2013) Anthropogenic Impacts on Symposium on mangrove environment, tion Department, Colombo. composition and distribution of Urban Coastal Lagoons in the Western Research & managment (Kuala Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; S. Hettiarachchi, D.L. mangroves in Sri Lanka, Botanical and North-western Coastal Zones of Sri Lumpur), 25-29 August 1980: 311-330. Seen, O. Batelaan, S. Sooriyarachchi, Journal of the Linnaean Lanka. Pinto, L., (1986): Mangroves of Sri Lanka. L.P. Jayatissa and N. Koedam,(2005). Society(2002)138: 29-43. Katupotha, J. & K. Fujiwara, (1988): Holocene NARESA, Colombo. REFERENCES Transitions in Ancient inland freshwater Jayatissa, L.P., M.C. Guero, S. Hettiarachchi sea level changes on the southwest and Silva, de, K.H.G.M. & S. Balasubramaniam, Alongi, D.M. (2002). Present state and future of resource management in Sri Lanka and N. Koedam (2002b). Changes in south coast of Sri Lanka. Palaeogeogr., (1984): Some ecological aspects of the the world’s mangrove forests. Environ. affect biota and human populations in vegetation cover and socio-economic Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 68: mangroves on the west coast of Sri Conserv.29:331–349. and around coastal lagoons. Current transitions in a coastal lagoon 189-202. Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Amarasinghe, M.D. (1997a). Ecological Biology 15: 579-586. (Kalametiya, Sri Lanka), as observed by Knoz, A.G., and T. Miyabara, (1984): Coastal Sci.), v 17 & 18, 22-33. functions of mangrove and related EFL, (1994): Prawn Culture a boom or a bane. tele-detection and ground truthing can zone resources deve- lopment and Silva, de, K.H.G.M. & P.K. de Silva, (1986): ecosystems and their contribution to Science Consultancy, Environmental be attributed to an upstream irrigation conservation Southeast Asia. UNESCO, An ecological study of the mangrove economic sustainability of Sri Lanka. Foundation Ltd. (EFL) August, 1994. scheme. Environment Development East-West Centre, pp 1- 7, 81-91. fauna in the west coast of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka J. Aquat. Sci. 2: 1-20. ESCAP, (1985): Coastal environmental and Sustainability 4(2): 167-183. Kotagama S.W., Pinto Leonard and Samara- Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Sci.), v Amarasinghe, M.D. (1997b). Leaf litter decom- management plan for the west coast of Jayawardena, J.W.K.K.; M.D. Amararasinghe koon L. Jayampathi: Sri Lanka A Direc- 19 & 20, 37-47. position in the mangrove ecosystems of Sri Lanka: preliminary survey and and K.B. Ranawana (1999). Mangrove tory of Asian Wetlands (PDF format) A Silva, E.I.L., J. Katupotha, O. Amerasinghe, H. Dutch bay. Sri Lanka J. Aquat. Sci. 2: interim action plan. UN (Bangkok): vegetation structure and the abundance Directory of Asian Wetlands (PDF Manthrithilake et al. (2013). Lagoons 21-27. 55-68. of shrimps in Chilaw lagoon, Sri format), IUCN 1989-1995. of Sri Lanka: From the Origins to the Amarasinghe, M.D. & S. Balasubramanium, Gunawardena, M. and J.S. Rowan, (2005). Lanka.J. Aquat. Sci. 4: 69-81. Kumara, M.P.; L.P. Jayatissa, K.W. Krauss, Present IWMI 2013. (1992a): Structural properties of two Economic valuation of a mangrove Katupotha, J., (1988a): Hiroshima University D.H. Phillips and M. Huxham, (2010). Snedaker, C.S. (1984): The mangroves of Asia types of mangrove stands on the north- ecosystem threatened byshrimp aqua- Radiocarbon dates - 1, West and south High density mangrove plantation and Ocenia: status and research. Proce. 098 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3

Appendix 1. The distribution, density and identified threats of fringe mangrove vegetation in swamps. The clearing of mangroves for housing projects, cutting of Major mangrove swamps were found in Nanadikadal lagoon 2.1 Ullakkalie The lagoon has patches and fringing mangroves???? mangrove 3.11 Kunukala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. the protection of the area under the Department of Wild Life. Lagoon: Southwest Coast Presence and identified threats lagoons of Sri Lanka periphery and Chalai area which also confronted to clear??? swamps. Salt pans, rice paddies and stream sediment during the mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture of liquor are There are small patches and fringing mangrove vegetation in this 4.16 Koholankala-Maha 1.6 Nanthikadal during the civil war. Rhizophora mucronata appears as the domi- floods are the main threats. No mangroves are present in this lagoon complex. The principal Well developed mangrove islets, patches and fringes are found in additional threats. Lagoon: Northern Coast Presence and identified threats lagoon. These have been encroached for coconut cultivation and Lewaya nant sp. 3.12 Helawa threat is further development of salt production projects. Koggala Lagoon. Expansion of coconut cultivation and home A well developed mangrove stretch has been developed along The lagoon has well developed patches and fringing mangrove rice paddies. 6.1 Koggala gardens, Civil Aviation activities and tourism are the main threats to Lagoon: Northwest Coast Presence and identified threats Lagoon: Southern Coast Presence and identified threats the coastline to inland. It is about 8.0 km long and 320m – Conversion of the lagoon to salt pans and aquaculture ponds,and 2.2 Uppar-Panichankeni swamps and in some palaces this vegetation has been removed for Except for a few patches, there is no considerable development in the mangrove development of the lagoon. This lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Much of the southern 600m wide. Although tidal deposits have encouraged the some rice paddies are the threat to mangrove patches. security purposes. Salt pans, stream sediments and agricultural 5. Karagan This lagoon has been converted as Hambantota Habour. 3.13 Okanda this lagoon. Fringing mangroves exist along the lagoon edge and in tiny islets. part of the lagoon has been converted to shrimp farm ponds. 1.1 Vidattaltivu growth of mangroves, chena cultivation, terrestrial sediments practices and home gardens in the sand barrier have limited their 8.1 Gembarandiya Mangroves are present as very few patches and strips, but The upper part of the lagoon has small patches of mangroves. Road Expansion of coconut cultivation and home gardens are the major Construction of tourist hotels, extending coconut cultivation and and fishing activities are serious threats to them. A rare 1.7 Nayaru extent. No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 6.2 Ratgama Lake surrounding lands have been utilized for agriculture. 3.14 Girikula 5.2 Mahasittarakala construction activities and illegal gem mining are the major threats threats. home gardens are the major threats. mangrove species Pemphis acidula has been recorded in this Well developed mangrove swamps are located in the landward side Presence and identified threats to the mangroves. The lagoon has extensive sea grass beds and small areas of 2.3 Valaichenai Lagoon: Southeast Coast Chilaw lagoon and the associated channel system have extensive area. of this lagoon. Urban development on both sides of the lagoon, There is no considerable amount of mangrove distribution in this mangrove swamp and mudflats. The lagoon is surrounded by Only few patches and fringing pockets are available. There is no Considerable extents of mangrove swamps are located in this 6.3 Hikkaduwa Ganga lagoon. Edge of the lagoon has been used for coconut cultivation, mangrove vegetation. The clearing of mangroves for housing The lagoon has extensive mudflats, sea grass beds and some 1.8 Kokkilai aquaculture farms and inflow of flood material during the rainy 4.1 Bagura cultivated land and scrub, with some patches of open forest. Parts human interference due to protection by the Department of Wild lagoon. Rice paddies, other cultivated land, grassland, scrub and home gardens as well as to construct facilities for tourists. projects, cutting of mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture fringing mangroves particularly around the lagoon in the south- season are the main threat. 5.3 Lunama of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, and the adjacent patches of Life. coconut plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the 8.2 Chilaw of liquor in mangrove forest areas and converting mangrove east. Major species found was Avicennia marina while isolated mangroves are being cleared for cultivation. Some patches and fringing of mangrove remain in good condition. mangroves of the lagoon edge. Along the Telwatta Ganga Channel and the lagoon well developed swamps for shrimp farm ponds are the major threats. The lagoon There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. 1.2 Jaffna Complex plants of other mangroves such as Rhizophora mucronata could 2.4 Batticaloa But surrounding areas are mostly under rice paddies, coconut 4.2 Andrakala 6.4 Telwatte Ganga mangrove patches are located. The use of land for coconut cultiva- mouth at the Deduru Oya estuary is under considerable threat from be seen around islands. Mangroves have been cut down for Only very few mangrove patches are available. Salt pans and Well developed and considerable extents of mangrove swamps are tion and construction of houses are a major threat. 1.9 Jinnapura Karachchi cultivation and other crops. Housing schemes and urban develop- 4.3 Itikala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. the dumping of urban refuse. security reasons. The densely populated Jaffna lagoon area housing schemes surrounding them are the main threat. located in this lagoon. The area of open water in the lagoons has ment are the major threats. A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is contains palmyra palms, coconut plantations, and rice paddies. 4.4 Yakkala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. decreased during the past 3 – 4 decades, mainly because of siltation. Well developed extensive mangrove patches are located in the 1.10 Pulmudai No mangrove vegetation located along the edge and on the island. The use of mangrove areas There are numerous fishing villages and some salt pans around Lagoon: East Coast presence and identified threats An expansion of the mangroves has also occurred at Kalametiya, southern part of this lagoon. All lowlands surrounding the lagoon This lagoon has small fringing mangroves. There is no human 5.4 Kalametiya 6.4 Madampa Lake for coconut cultivation and homesteads is the major threat to the 8.3 Muthupanthiya the lagoon appear as threats. The lagoon has small areas of mangrove swamp (patches and and this has accelerated the process of siltation. Other threats have been utilized to make shrimp farm ponds. Patches and fringing mangroves exist towards the landward side. 4.5 Uda Gajaba Eliya interference due to protection by the Department of Wild Life. 1.11 Puduwa-kattu fringing). Fishing boats (Motor boats), nearby housing schemes include disturbance from fishing activities, excavation of mollusc expansion of mangrove vegetation. The lagoon is linked to Jaffna Lagoon by a short channel to the 3.1 Periya Klapuwa These have sedimentation from inland streams. Rice paddies, This lagoon has no extensive mangrove swamps. All surrounding and agricultural lands are the main threat. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, shells for use in lime kilns, reclamation of land for rice cultivation, A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is south. The lagoon has extensive mudflats and salt marshes. It is development of settlements at the seaside are major threats lands (100%) have been converted into shrimp farm ponds. The 4.6 Pahala Potana* and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- and pollution with pesticides entering the lagoons in agricultural located along the edge and in small islands. The expansion of surrounded by mangroves, particularly Avicennia. Brackish Very narrow fringing mangroves are located in this lagoon. boundary of the ponds can be considered as co-extensive with the Patches and fringing mangroves are present. Rice paddies, coconut ment of Wild Life. runoff from the Walawe Development Scheme to the north. coconut cultivation and house construction and land clearing for 1.2.1 Uppu Aru water lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region 1.12 Kuchchaveli Formation of salt pans during the dry season, terrestrial sediments 3.2 Korai Complex 6.5 Madu Ganga 8.4 Mundel former lagoon boundary, about 30 – 35 years ago. The lagoon and cultivation and housing schemes are the major threats. cinnamon cultivation have caused the reduction of mangroves in containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice and fresh water inflow during the rainy season are main threats to No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, 5.5 Kunukalliya No mangroves exist in this lagoon.It appears as an abandoned pond areas are surrounded by a region containing rice paddies, this lagoon. paddies and extensive vegetable gardens which pose a threat to these mangroves. This lagoon has well developed extensive mangrove swamps. and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- lagoon. coconut plantations and scrubland. The land is used for prawn 3.3 Thimbutu Expansion of coconut cultivation reduces the mangrove vegetation 4.7 Uda Potana ment of Wild Life. fishing and rice cultivation. mangroves. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 5.6 Tillawatawana No mangroves exist in this lagoon. Some fringes along the seaside and a few pockets of mangrove 1.13Periyakarachchi of the lagoon edges. 6.6 Kosgoda vegetations are located in this lagoon. Due to the scarcity of land for Mangrove swamps and sea grass beds are found in this lagoon. encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and 4.8 Gonalabbe There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Well developed mangrove fringes are located in this lagoon. There This lagoon has small fringing and patches of mangrove vegetation housing and cultivation, the lagoon edge lands have been utilized. Plantations of Palmyra palms and scrub forest are presnt in aquaculture activities. Few mangrove patches can see in this lagoon. Rice paddies on the 5.7 Kahandamodera 8.5 Thalawila Odai in the seaward side. Coconut cultivation and shrimp farm ponds A permanent brackish lagoon with some mangrove vegetation are no major threats to the mangroves in this lagoon. 1.2.2 Chundikulam surrounding areas. Parts of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, inland side and settlements on the sea side have caused the 4.9 Butawa This small lagoon has few patches of mangroves. Coconut cultiva- (sea side) are the main threats. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 3.4 Komari along its seaward edge. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this and the surrounding mangroves being cleared for this purpose mangrove vegetation to diminish. tion and home gardens have reached the lagoon edge and appear as 1.14Sinnakarachchi encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and lagoon. Inflow of fresh water during the flood periods, housing 6.7 Silliya Ganga This is a newly created lagoon (during the past 30 year period). No is the main threat. 4.10 Gode There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. a major threat. 8.6 Kandakuliya aquaculture activities. 3.5 Murugetena Only few scatted fringing mangroves are present. 5.8 Rekawa schemes and other settlements in the northern side of the lagoon, mangrove vegetation is present. The lagoon has extensive mudflats, seagrass beds and No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. and illegal tourist structures are the major threats. The fringing mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is gradually Some mangrove patches are located at the western side of the Fringing mangrove vegetation exists in this lagoon. Rice paddies 6.8 Ingirili Ganga The lagoon has extensive mangroves, sea grasses and some salt mangrove swamps, particularly dominated by Avicennia sp. 3.6 Putuvil-Ureni 4.11 Palatupana The salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for reduced due to the land scarcity in the area. lagoon. Most of the area has been cleared for agricultural and other agricultural practices and settlements are the main threats. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this marshes, The lagoon is surrounded by a region containing coconut The lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region, 1.15Uppuveli the reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. purposes. Landing of fishing craft and housing schemes along the lagoon. There is no seawater movement due to the low depth and it Lagoon: West Coast Presence and identified threats trees, open forests, grasslands and scrublands. The southern part of containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice Well developed mangrove swamps can be seen in the northwestern 5.9 Mawella lagoon channel appear as threat to mangroves. Some mangrove swamps are extant along the lagoon channel, and is located about 800m away from the sea. Housing schemes and the mangrove land is used for making shrimp farm ponds, salt paddies, arid scrubland and open forest. 3.7 Arugam and southeastern edges of the lagoon. Settlements in the northeast- 4.12 Kirinda South and North Bolgoda Lakes and the associated channel system 8.7 Puttalam salt pans and settlements are the major threat to the distribution. other land settlements, unplanned tourist activities and landing of production, and rice cultivation. 1.3 Thondamannaru Mangroves are present in fringing and estuarine (in stream river ern and southern parts and aquaculture projects are the major have mangrove vegetation to some extent. Land scarcity in the Extraction of timber has caused a marked reduction in seacraft are the major threats. 1.16 Tambalagam Lake mouths) areas. Urban development, security activities and threats. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. 7.1 Bolgoda Lake urban area and attraction as a sightseeing area is the major threats. Destruction of mangroves for firewood, beams and poles are the mangrove cover. Large areas of the wetland have been agricultural practices are the main threats to the mangrove Salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for the The lagoon system is under considerable threat from the dumping major threats. reclaimed for agriculture and parts of the lagoon are used for This lagoon has well developed fringing mangrove patches. Except 4.13 Bundala 5.10 Dondra Although very narrow fringing mangroves exist at the edge of the vegetation. reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. of urban refuse. aquaculture, and there is some pollution with pesticides used on 3.8 Panama boat landing in some places and a few settlements in the southern lagoon, this area has been encroached by settlers. Fringing mangroves are the salient feature in this lagoon. Expan- 8.8 Vankalai the adjacent agricultural land and proposed Salt Water Exclu- There are small patches of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. part, threats are minimized. Mangrove vegetation extends as fringes and swamps in this lagoon. This lagoon is located in a highly populated area and about 750m There is little development of mangroves in this lagoon. sion of Vankalai Town and construction of a road network are the 1.17 Illakantai 7.2 Lunawa Lagoon sion Scheme are threats to mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Rice paddies and extension of salt pans appear as threats. Threats are minimized due to the protection of the area under the main threats to the mangrove vegetation. 3.9 Panakala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 4.14 Embilikala inland from the sea. A considerable amount of fringing mangroves is The lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Mangrove forests are Department of Wild Life. 5.11 Garanduwa 1.4 Punkudutivu present along the lagoon edge. Housing schemes, homesteads and dominated by Rhizophora spp, Bruguiera spp, Avicenniamarina Fringing and patches of mangroves are present as the salient feature No mangrove vegetation. Lagoon: Northeast Coast Presence and identified threats Although few patches of mangroves exist, development of salt pans during 8.9 Periya Kalapuwa 3.10 Solambe Mangrove vegetation exists as fringes and swamps in this lagoon; a expansion of coconut cultivation are the major threats to the 7.4 Negombo lagoon and Lumnitzera racemosa. Rice paddies, grassland and coconut in this lagoon. Expansion of rice paddies and construction of a road the dry season has reduced the distribution of mangrove vegetation. (NW) 1.5 Kayts No mangrove vegetation. 4.15 Malala- Embilikala few places have been encroached but threats are minimized due to mangroves. plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the mangrove network are the main threats to mangrove vegetation. September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 099

swamps. The clearing of mangroves for housing projects, cutting of Major mangrove swamps were found in Nanadikadal lagoon 2.1 Ullakkalie The lagoon has patches and fringing mangroves???? mangrove 3.11 Kunukala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. the protection of the area under the Department of Wild Life. Lagoon: Southwest Coast Presence and identified threats periphery and Chalai area which also confronted to clear??? swamps. Salt pans, rice paddies and stream sediment during the mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture of liquor are There are small patches and fringing mangrove vegetation in this 4.16 Koholankala-Maha 1.6 Nanthikadal during the civil war. Rhizophora mucronata appears as the domi- floods are the main threats. No mangroves are present in this lagoon complex. The principal Well developed mangrove islets, patches and fringes are found in additional threats. Lagoon: Northern Coast Presence and identified threats lagoon. These have been encroached for coconut cultivation and Lewaya nant sp. 3.12 Helawa threat is further development of salt production projects. Koggala Lagoon. Expansion of coconut cultivation and home A well developed mangrove stretch has been developed along The lagoon has well developed patches and fringing mangrove rice paddies. 6.1 Koggala gardens, Civil Aviation activities and tourism are the main threats to Lagoon: Northwest Coast Presence and identified threats Lagoon: Southern Coast Presence and identified threats the coastline to inland. It is about 8.0 km long and 320m – Conversion of the lagoon to salt pans and aquaculture ponds,and 2.2 Uppar-Panichankeni swamps and in some palaces this vegetation has been removed for Except for a few patches, there is no considerable development in the mangrove development of the lagoon. This lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Much of the southern 600m wide. Although tidal deposits have encouraged the some rice paddies are the threat to mangrove patches. security purposes. Salt pans, stream sediments and agricultural 5. Karagan This lagoon has been converted as Hambantota Habour. 3.13 Okanda this lagoon. Fringing mangroves exist along the lagoon edge and in tiny islets. part of the lagoon has been converted to shrimp farm ponds. 1.1 Vidattaltivu growth of mangroves, chena cultivation, terrestrial sediments practices and home gardens in the sand barrier have limited their 8.1 Gembarandiya Mangroves are present as very few patches and strips, but The upper part of the lagoon has small patches of mangroves. Road Expansion of coconut cultivation and home gardens are the major Construction of tourist hotels, extending coconut cultivation and and fishing activities are serious threats to them. A rare 1.7 Nayaru extent. No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 6.2 Ratgama Lake surrounding lands have been utilized for agriculture. 3.14 Girikula 5.2 Mahasittarakala construction activities and illegal gem mining are the major threats threats. home gardens are the major threats. mangrove species Pemphis acidula has been recorded in this Well developed mangrove swamps are located in the landward side Presence and identified threats to the mangroves. The lagoon has extensive sea grass beds and small areas of 2.3 Valaichenai Lagoon: Southeast Coast Chilaw lagoon and the associated channel system have extensive area. of this lagoon. Urban development on both sides of the lagoon, There is no considerable amount of mangrove distribution in this mangrove swamp and mudflats. The lagoon is surrounded by Only few patches and fringing pockets are available. There is no Considerable extents of mangrove swamps are located in this 6.3 Hikkaduwa Ganga lagoon. Edge of the lagoon has been used for coconut cultivation, mangrove vegetation. The clearing of mangroves for housing The lagoon has extensive mudflats, sea grass beds and some 1.8 Kokkilai aquaculture farms and inflow of flood material during the rainy 4.1 Bagura cultivated land and scrub, with some patches of open forest. Parts human interference due to protection by the Department of Wild lagoon. Rice paddies, other cultivated land, grassland, scrub and home gardens as well as to construct facilities for tourists. projects, cutting of mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture fringing mangroves particularly around the lagoon in the south- season are the main threat. 5.3 Lunama of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, and the adjacent patches of Life. coconut plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the 8.2 Chilaw of liquor in mangrove forest areas and converting mangrove east. Major species found was Avicennia marina while isolated mangroves are being cleared for cultivation. Some patches and fringing of mangrove remain in good condition. mangroves of the lagoon edge. Along the Telwatta Ganga Channel and the lagoon well developed swamps for shrimp farm ponds are the major threats. The lagoon There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. 1.2 Jaffna Complex plants of other mangroves such as Rhizophora mucronata could 2.4 Batticaloa But surrounding areas are mostly under rice paddies, coconut 4.2 Andrakala 6.4 Telwatte Ganga mangrove patches are located. The use of land for coconut cultiva- mouth at the Deduru Oya estuary is under considerable threat from be seen around islands. Mangroves have been cut down for Only very few mangrove patches are available. Salt pans and Well developed and considerable extents of mangrove swamps are tion and construction of houses are a major threat. 1.9 Jinnapura Karachchi cultivation and other crops. Housing schemes and urban develop- 4.3 Itikala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. the dumping of urban refuse. security reasons. The densely populated Jaffna lagoon area housing schemes surrounding them are the main threat. located in this lagoon. The area of open water in the lagoons has ment are the major threats. A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is contains palmyra palms, coconut plantations, and rice paddies. 4.4 Yakkala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. decreased during the past 3 – 4 decades, mainly because of siltation. Well developed extensive mangrove patches are located in the 1.10 Pulmudai No mangrove vegetation located along the edge and on the island. The use of mangrove areas There are numerous fishing villages and some salt pans around Lagoon: East Coast presence and identified threats An expansion of the mangroves has also occurred at Kalametiya, southern part of this lagoon. All lowlands surrounding the lagoon This lagoon has small fringing mangroves. There is no human 5.4 Kalametiya 6.4 Madampa Lake for coconut cultivation and homesteads is the major threat to the 8.3 Muthupanthiya the lagoon appear as threats. The lagoon has small areas of mangrove swamp (patches and and this has accelerated the process of siltation. Other threats have been utilized to make shrimp farm ponds. Patches and fringing mangroves exist towards the landward side. 4.5 Uda Gajaba Eliya interference due to protection by the Department of Wild Life. 1.11 Puduwa-kattu fringing). Fishing boats (Motor boats), nearby housing schemes include disturbance from fishing activities, excavation of mollusc expansion of mangrove vegetation. The lagoon is linked to Jaffna Lagoon by a short channel to the 3.1 Periya Klapuwa These have sedimentation from inland streams. Rice paddies, This lagoon has no extensive mangrove swamps. All surrounding and agricultural lands are the main threat. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, shells for use in lime kilns, reclamation of land for rice cultivation, A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is south. The lagoon has extensive mudflats and salt marshes. It is development of settlements at the seaside are major threats lands (100%) have been converted into shrimp farm ponds. The 4.6 Pahala Potana* and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- and pollution with pesticides entering the lagoons in agricultural located along the edge and in small islands. The expansion of surrounded by mangroves, particularly Avicennia. Brackish Very narrow fringing mangroves are located in this lagoon. boundary of the ponds can be considered as co-extensive with the Patches and fringing mangroves are present. Rice paddies, coconut ment of Wild Life. runoff from the Walawe Development Scheme to the north. coconut cultivation and house construction and land clearing for 1.2.1 Uppu Aru water lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region 1.12 Kuchchaveli Formation of salt pans during the dry season, terrestrial sediments 3.2 Korai Complex 6.5 Madu Ganga 8.4 Mundel former lagoon boundary, about 30 – 35 years ago. The lagoon and cultivation and housing schemes are the major threats. cinnamon cultivation have caused the reduction of mangroves in containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice and fresh water inflow during the rainy season are main threats to No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, 5.5 Kunukalliya No mangroves exist in this lagoon.It appears as an abandoned pond areas are surrounded by a region containing rice paddies, this lagoon. paddies and extensive vegetable gardens which pose a threat to these mangroves. This lagoon has well developed extensive mangrove swamps. and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- lagoon. coconut plantations and scrubland. The land is used for prawn 3.3 Thimbutu Expansion of coconut cultivation reduces the mangrove vegetation 4.7 Uda Potana ment of Wild Life. fishing and rice cultivation. mangroves. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 5.6 Tillawatawana No mangroves exist in this lagoon. Some fringes along the seaside and a few pockets of mangrove 1.13Periyakarachchi of the lagoon edges. 6.6 Kosgoda vegetations are located in this lagoon. Due to the scarcity of land for Mangrove swamps and sea grass beds are found in this lagoon. encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and 4.8 Gonalabbe There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Well developed mangrove fringes are located in this lagoon. There This lagoon has small fringing and patches of mangrove vegetation housing and cultivation, the lagoon edge lands have been utilized. Plantations of Palmyra palms and scrub forest are presnt in aquaculture activities. Few mangrove patches can see in this lagoon. Rice paddies on the 5.7 Kahandamodera 8.5 Thalawila Odai in the seaward side. Coconut cultivation and shrimp farm ponds A permanent brackish lagoon with some mangrove vegetation are no major threats to the mangroves in this lagoon. 1.2.2 Chundikulam surrounding areas. Parts of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, inland side and settlements on the sea side have caused the 4.9 Butawa This small lagoon has few patches of mangroves. Coconut cultiva- (sea side) are the main threats. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 3.4 Komari along its seaward edge. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this and the surrounding mangroves being cleared for this purpose mangrove vegetation to diminish. tion and home gardens have reached the lagoon edge and appear as 1.14Sinnakarachchi encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and lagoon. Inflow of fresh water during the flood periods, housing 6.7 Silliya Ganga This is a newly created lagoon (during the past 30 year period). No is the main threat. 4.10 Gode There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. a major threat. 8.6 Kandakuliya aquaculture activities. 3.5 Murugetena Only few scatted fringing mangroves are present. 5.8 Rekawa schemes and other settlements in the northern side of the lagoon, mangrove vegetation is present. The lagoon has extensive mudflats, seagrass beds and No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. and illegal tourist structures are the major threats. The fringing mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is gradually Some mangrove patches are located at the western side of the Fringing mangrove vegetation exists in this lagoon. Rice paddies 6.8 Ingirili Ganga The lagoon has extensive mangroves, sea grasses and some salt mangrove swamps, particularly dominated by Avicennia sp. 3.6 Putuvil-Ureni 4.11 Palatupana The salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for reduced due to the land scarcity in the area. lagoon. Most of the area has been cleared for agricultural and other agricultural practices and settlements are the main threats. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this marshes, The lagoon is surrounded by a region containing coconut The lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region, 1.15Uppuveli the reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. purposes. Landing of fishing craft and housing schemes along the lagoon. There is no seawater movement due to the low depth and it Lagoon: West Coast Presence and identified threats trees, open forests, grasslands and scrublands. The southern part of containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice Well developed mangrove swamps can be seen in the northwestern 5.9 Mawella lagoon channel appear as threat to mangroves. Some mangrove swamps are extant along the lagoon channel, and is located about 800m away from the sea. Housing schemes and the mangrove land is used for making shrimp farm ponds, salt paddies, arid scrubland and open forest. 3.7 Arugam and southeastern edges of the lagoon. Settlements in the northeast- 4.12 Kirinda South and North Bolgoda Lakes and the associated channel system 8.7 Puttalam salt pans and settlements are the major threat to the distribution. other land settlements, unplanned tourist activities and landing of production, and rice cultivation. 1.3 Thondamannaru Mangroves are present in fringing and estuarine (in stream river ern and southern parts and aquaculture projects are the major have mangrove vegetation to some extent. Land scarcity in the Extraction of timber has caused a marked reduction in seacraft are the major threats. 1.16 Tambalagam Lake mouths) areas. Urban development, security activities and threats. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. 7.1 Bolgoda Lake urban area and attraction as a sightseeing area is the major threats. Destruction of mangroves for firewood, beams and poles are the mangrove cover. Large areas of the wetland have been agricultural practices are the main threats to the mangrove Salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for the The lagoon system is under considerable threat from the dumping major threats. reclaimed for agriculture and parts of the lagoon are used for This lagoon has well developed fringing mangrove patches. Except 4.13 Bundala 5.10 Dondra Although very narrow fringing mangroves exist at the edge of the vegetation. reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. of urban refuse. aquaculture, and there is some pollution with pesticides used on 3.8 Panama boat landing in some places and a few settlements in the southern lagoon, this area has been encroached by settlers. Fringing mangroves are the salient feature in this lagoon. Expan- 8.8 Vankalai the adjacent agricultural land and proposed Salt Water Exclu- There are small patches of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. part, threats are minimized. Mangrove vegetation extends as fringes and swamps in this lagoon. This lagoon is located in a highly populated area and about 750m There is little development of mangroves in this lagoon. sion of Vankalai Town and construction of a road network are the 1.17 Illakantai 7.2 Lunawa Lagoon sion Scheme are threats to mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Rice paddies and extension of salt pans appear as threats. Threats are minimized due to the protection of the area under the main threats to the mangrove vegetation. 3.9 Panakala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 4.14 Embilikala inland from the sea. A considerable amount of fringing mangroves is The lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Mangrove forests are Department of Wild Life. 5.11 Garanduwa 1.4 Punkudutivu present along the lagoon edge. Housing schemes, homesteads and dominated by Rhizophora spp, Bruguiera spp, Avicenniamarina Fringing and patches of mangroves are present as the salient feature No mangrove vegetation. Lagoon: Northeast Coast Presence and identified threats Although few patches of mangroves exist, development of salt pans during 8.9 Periya Kalapuwa 3.10 Solambe Mangrove vegetation exists as fringes and swamps in this lagoon; a expansion of coconut cultivation are the major threats to the 7.4 Negombo lagoon and Lumnitzera racemosa. Rice paddies, grassland and coconut in this lagoon. Expansion of rice paddies and construction of a road the dry season has reduced the distribution of mangrove vegetation. (NW) 1.5 Kayts No mangrove vegetation. 4.15 Malala- Embilikala few places have been encroached but threats are minimized due to mangroves. plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the mangrove network are the main threats to mangrove vegetation. 100 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3

swamps. The clearing of mangroves for housing projects, cutting of Major mangrove swamps were found in Nanadikadal lagoon 2.1 Ullakkalie The lagoon has patches and fringing mangroves???? mangrove 3.11 Kunukala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. the protection of the area under the Department of Wild Life. Lagoon: Southwest Coast Presence and identified threats periphery and Chalai area which also confronted to clear??? swamps. Salt pans, rice paddies and stream sediment during the mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture of liquor are There are small patches and fringing mangrove vegetation in this 4.16 Koholankala-Maha 1.6 Nanthikadal during the civil war. Rhizophora mucronata appears as the domi- floods are the main threats. No mangroves are present in this lagoon complex. The principal Well developed mangrove islets, patches and fringes are found in additional threats. Lagoon: Northern Coast Presence and identified threats lagoon. These have been encroached for coconut cultivation and Lewaya nant sp. 3.12 Helawa threat is further development of salt production projects. Koggala Lagoon. Expansion of coconut cultivation and home A well developed mangrove stretch has been developed along The lagoon has well developed patches and fringing mangrove rice paddies. 6.1 Koggala gardens, Civil Aviation activities and tourism are the main threats to Lagoon: Northwest Coast Presence and identified threats Lagoon: Southern Coast Presence and identified threats the coastline to inland. It is about 8.0 km long and 320m – Conversion of the lagoon to salt pans and aquaculture ponds,and 2.2 Uppar-Panichankeni swamps and in some palaces this vegetation has been removed for Except for a few patches, there is no considerable development in the mangrove development of the lagoon. This lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Much of the southern 600m wide. Although tidal deposits have encouraged the some rice paddies are the threat to mangrove patches. security purposes. Salt pans, stream sediments and agricultural 5. Karagan This lagoon has been converted as Hambantota Habour. 3.13 Okanda this lagoon. Fringing mangroves exist along the lagoon edge and in tiny islets. part of the lagoon has been converted to shrimp farm ponds. 1.1 Vidattaltivu growth of mangroves, chena cultivation, terrestrial sediments practices and home gardens in the sand barrier have limited their 8.1 Gembarandiya Mangroves are present as very few patches and strips, but The upper part of the lagoon has small patches of mangroves. Road Expansion of coconut cultivation and home gardens are the major Construction of tourist hotels, extending coconut cultivation and and fishing activities are serious threats to them. A rare 1.7 Nayaru extent. No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 6.2 Ratgama Lake surrounding lands have been utilized for agriculture. 3.14 Girikula 5.2 Mahasittarakala construction activities and illegal gem mining are the major threats threats. home gardens are the major threats. mangrove species Pemphis acidula has been recorded in this Well developed mangrove swamps are located in the landward side Presence and identified threats to the mangroves. The lagoon has extensive sea grass beds and small areas of 2.3 Valaichenai Lagoon: Southeast Coast Chilaw lagoon and the associated channel system have extensive area. of this lagoon. Urban development on both sides of the lagoon, There is no considerable amount of mangrove distribution in this mangrove swamp and mudflats. The lagoon is surrounded by Only few patches and fringing pockets are available. There is no Considerable extents of mangrove swamps are located in this 6.3 Hikkaduwa Ganga lagoon. Edge of the lagoon has been used for coconut cultivation, mangrove vegetation. The clearing of mangroves for housing The lagoon has extensive mudflats, sea grass beds and some 1.8 Kokkilai aquaculture farms and inflow of flood material during the rainy 4.1 Bagura cultivated land and scrub, with some patches of open forest. Parts human interference due to protection by the Department of Wild lagoon. Rice paddies, other cultivated land, grassland, scrub and home gardens as well as to construct facilities for tourists. projects, cutting of mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture fringing mangroves particularly around the lagoon in the south- season are the main threat. 5.3 Lunama of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, and the adjacent patches of Life. coconut plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the 8.2 Chilaw of liquor in mangrove forest areas and converting mangrove east. Major species found was Avicennia marina while isolated mangroves are being cleared for cultivation. Some patches and fringing of mangrove remain in good condition. mangroves of the lagoon edge. Along the Telwatta Ganga Channel and the lagoon well developed swamps for shrimp farm ponds are the major threats. The lagoon There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. 1.2 Jaffna Complex plants of other mangroves such as Rhizophora mucronata could 2.4 Batticaloa But surrounding areas are mostly under rice paddies, coconut 4.2 Andrakala 6.4 Telwatte Ganga mangrove patches are located. The use of land for coconut cultiva- mouth at the Deduru Oya estuary is under considerable threat from be seen around islands. Mangroves have been cut down for Only very few mangrove patches are available. Salt pans and Well developed and considerable extents of mangrove swamps are tion and construction of houses are a major threat. 1.9 Jinnapura Karachchi cultivation and other crops. Housing schemes and urban develop- 4.3 Itikala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. the dumping of urban refuse. security reasons. The densely populated Jaffna lagoon area housing schemes surrounding them are the main threat. located in this lagoon. The area of open water in the lagoons has ment are the major threats. A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is contains palmyra palms, coconut plantations, and rice paddies. 4.4 Yakkala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. decreased during the past 3 – 4 decades, mainly because of siltation. Well developed extensive mangrove patches are located in the 1.10 Pulmudai No mangrove vegetation located along the edge and on the island. The use of mangrove areas There are numerous fishing villages and some salt pans around Lagoon: East Coast presence and identified threats An expansion of the mangroves has also occurred at Kalametiya, southern part of this lagoon. All lowlands surrounding the lagoon This lagoon has small fringing mangroves. There is no human 5.4 Kalametiya 6.4 Madampa Lake for coconut cultivation and homesteads is the major threat to the 8.3 Muthupanthiya the lagoon appear as threats. The lagoon has small areas of mangrove swamp (patches and and this has accelerated the process of siltation. Other threats have been utilized to make shrimp farm ponds. Patches and fringing mangroves exist towards the landward side. 4.5 Uda Gajaba Eliya interference due to protection by the Department of Wild Life. 1.11 Puduwa-kattu fringing). Fishing boats (Motor boats), nearby housing schemes include disturbance from fishing activities, excavation of mollusc expansion of mangrove vegetation. The lagoon is linked to Jaffna Lagoon by a short channel to the 3.1 Periya Klapuwa These have sedimentation from inland streams. Rice paddies, This lagoon has no extensive mangrove swamps. All surrounding and agricultural lands are the main threat. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, shells for use in lime kilns, reclamation of land for rice cultivation, A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is south. The lagoon has extensive mudflats and salt marshes. It is development of settlements at the seaside are major threats lands (100%) have been converted into shrimp farm ponds. The 4.6 Pahala Potana* and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- and pollution with pesticides entering the lagoons in agricultural located along the edge and in small islands. The expansion of surrounded by mangroves, particularly Avicennia. Brackish Very narrow fringing mangroves are located in this lagoon. boundary of the ponds can be considered as co-extensive with the Patches and fringing mangroves are present. Rice paddies, coconut ment of Wild Life. runoff from the Walawe Development Scheme to the north. coconut cultivation and house construction and land clearing for 1.2.1 Uppu Aru water lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region 1.12 Kuchchaveli Formation of salt pans during the dry season, terrestrial sediments 3.2 Korai Complex 6.5 Madu Ganga 8.4 Mundel former lagoon boundary, about 30 – 35 years ago. The lagoon and cultivation and housing schemes are the major threats. cinnamon cultivation have caused the reduction of mangroves in containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice and fresh water inflow during the rainy season are main threats to No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, 5.5 Kunukalliya No mangroves exist in this lagoon.It appears as an abandoned pond areas are surrounded by a region containing rice paddies, this lagoon. paddies and extensive vegetable gardens which pose a threat to these mangroves. This lagoon has well developed extensive mangrove swamps. and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- lagoon. coconut plantations and scrubland. The land is used for prawn 3.3 Thimbutu Expansion of coconut cultivation reduces the mangrove vegetation 4.7 Uda Potana ment of Wild Life. fishing and rice cultivation. mangroves. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 5.6 Tillawatawana No mangroves exist in this lagoon. Some fringes along the seaside and a few pockets of mangrove 1.13Periyakarachchi of the lagoon edges. 6.6 Kosgoda vegetations are located in this lagoon. Due to the scarcity of land for Mangrove swamps and sea grass beds are found in this lagoon. encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and 4.8 Gonalabbe There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Well developed mangrove fringes are located in this lagoon. There This lagoon has small fringing and patches of mangrove vegetation housing and cultivation, the lagoon edge lands have been utilized. Plantations of Palmyra palms and scrub forest are presnt in aquaculture activities. Few mangrove patches can see in this lagoon. Rice paddies on the 5.7 Kahandamodera 8.5 Thalawila Odai in the seaward side. Coconut cultivation and shrimp farm ponds A permanent brackish lagoon with some mangrove vegetation are no major threats to the mangroves in this lagoon. 1.2.2 Chundikulam surrounding areas. Parts of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, inland side and settlements on the sea side have caused the 4.9 Butawa This small lagoon has few patches of mangroves. Coconut cultiva- (sea side) are the main threats. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 3.4 Komari along its seaward edge. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this and the surrounding mangroves being cleared for this purpose mangrove vegetation to diminish. tion and home gardens have reached the lagoon edge and appear as 1.14Sinnakarachchi encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and lagoon. Inflow of fresh water during the flood periods, housing 6.7 Silliya Ganga This is a newly created lagoon (during the past 30 year period). No is the main threat. 4.10 Gode There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. a major threat. 8.6 Kandakuliya aquaculture activities. 3.5 Murugetena Only few scatted fringing mangroves are present. 5.8 Rekawa schemes and other settlements in the northern side of the lagoon, mangrove vegetation is present. The lagoon has extensive mudflats, seagrass beds and No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. and illegal tourist structures are the major threats. The fringing mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is gradually Some mangrove patches are located at the western side of the Fringing mangrove vegetation exists in this lagoon. Rice paddies 6.8 Ingirili Ganga The lagoon has extensive mangroves, sea grasses and some salt mangrove swamps, particularly dominated by Avicennia sp. 3.6 Putuvil-Ureni 4.11 Palatupana The salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for reduced due to the land scarcity in the area. lagoon. Most of the area has been cleared for agricultural and other agricultural practices and settlements are the main threats. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this marshes, The lagoon is surrounded by a region containing coconut The lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region, 1.15Uppuveli the reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. purposes. Landing of fishing craft and housing schemes along the lagoon. There is no seawater movement due to the low depth and it Lagoon: West Coast Presence and identified threats trees, open forests, grasslands and scrublands. The southern part of containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice Well developed mangrove swamps can be seen in the northwestern 5.9 Mawella lagoon channel appear as threat to mangroves. Some mangrove swamps are extant along the lagoon channel, and is located about 800m away from the sea. Housing schemes and the mangrove land is used for making shrimp farm ponds, salt paddies, arid scrubland and open forest. 3.7 Arugam and southeastern edges of the lagoon. Settlements in the northeast- 4.12 Kirinda South and North Bolgoda Lakes and the associated channel system 8.7 Puttalam salt pans and settlements are the major threat to the distribution. other land settlements, unplanned tourist activities and landing of production, and rice cultivation. 1.3 Thondamannaru Mangroves are present in fringing and estuarine (in stream river ern and southern parts and aquaculture projects are the major have mangrove vegetation to some extent. Land scarcity in the Extraction of timber has caused a marked reduction in seacraft are the major threats. 1.16 Tambalagam Lake mouths) areas. Urban development, security activities and threats. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. 7.1 Bolgoda Lake urban area and attraction as a sightseeing area is the major threats. Destruction of mangroves for firewood, beams and poles are the mangrove cover. Large areas of the wetland have been agricultural practices are the main threats to the mangrove Salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for the The lagoon system is under considerable threat from the dumping major threats. reclaimed for agriculture and parts of the lagoon are used for This lagoon has well developed fringing mangrove patches. Except 4.13 Bundala 5.10 Dondra Although very narrow fringing mangroves exist at the edge of the vegetation. reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. of urban refuse. aquaculture, and there is some pollution with pesticides used on 3.8 Panama boat landing in some places and a few settlements in the southern lagoon, this area has been encroached by settlers. Fringing mangroves are the salient feature in this lagoon. Expan- 8.8 Vankalai the adjacent agricultural land and proposed Salt Water Exclu- There are small patches of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. part, threats are minimized. Mangrove vegetation extends as fringes and swamps in this lagoon. This lagoon is located in a highly populated area and about 750m There is little development of mangroves in this lagoon. sion of Vankalai Town and construction of a road network are the 1.17 Illakantai 7.2 Lunawa Lagoon sion Scheme are threats to mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Rice paddies and extension of salt pans appear as threats. Threats are minimized due to the protection of the area under the main threats to the mangrove vegetation. 3.9 Panakala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 4.14 Embilikala inland from the sea. A considerable amount of fringing mangroves is The lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Mangrove forests are Department of Wild Life. 5.11 Garanduwa 1.4 Punkudutivu present along the lagoon edge. Housing schemes, homesteads and dominated by Rhizophora spp, Bruguiera spp, Avicenniamarina Fringing and patches of mangroves are present as the salient feature No mangrove vegetation. Lagoon: Northeast Coast Presence and identified threats Although few patches of mangroves exist, development of salt pans during 8.9 Periya Kalapuwa 3.10 Solambe Mangrove vegetation exists as fringes and swamps in this lagoon; a expansion of coconut cultivation are the major threats to the 7.4 Negombo lagoon and Lumnitzera racemosa. Rice paddies, grassland and coconut in this lagoon. Expansion of rice paddies and construction of a road the dry season has reduced the distribution of mangrove vegetation. (NW) 1.5 Kayts No mangrove vegetation. 4.15 Malala- Embilikala few places have been encroached but threats are minimized due to mangroves. plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the mangrove network are the main threats to mangrove vegetation. September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 101

swamps. The clearing of mangroves for housing projects, cutting of Major mangrove swamps were found in Nanadikadal lagoon 2.1 Ullakkalie The lagoon has patches and fringing mangroves???? mangrove 3.11 Kunukala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. the protection of the area under the Department of Wild Life. Lagoon: Southwest Coast Presence and identified threats periphery and Chalai area which also confronted to clear??? swamps. Salt pans, rice paddies and stream sediment during the mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture of liquor are There are small patches and fringing mangrove vegetation in this 4.16 Koholankala-Maha 1.6 Nanthikadal during the civil war. Rhizophora mucronata appears as the domi- floods are the main threats. No mangroves are present in this lagoon complex. The principal Well developed mangrove islets, patches and fringes are found in additional threats. Lagoon: Northern Coast Presence and identified threats lagoon. These have been encroached for coconut cultivation and Lewaya nant sp. 3.12 Helawa threat is further development of salt production projects. Koggala Lagoon. Expansion of coconut cultivation and home A well developed mangrove stretch has been developed along The lagoon has well developed patches and fringing mangrove rice paddies. 6.1 Koggala gardens, Civil Aviation activities and tourism are the main threats to Lagoon: Northwest Coast Presence and identified threats Lagoon: Southern Coast Presence and identified threats the coastline to inland. It is about 8.0 km long and 320m – Conversion of the lagoon to salt pans and aquaculture ponds,and 2.2 Uppar-Panichankeni swamps and in some palaces this vegetation has been removed for Except for a few patches, there is no considerable development in the mangrove development of the lagoon. This lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Much of the southern 600m wide. Although tidal deposits have encouraged the some rice paddies are the threat to mangrove patches. security purposes. Salt pans, stream sediments and agricultural 5. Karagan This lagoon has been converted as Hambantota Habour. 3.13 Okanda this lagoon. Fringing mangroves exist along the lagoon edge and in tiny islets. part of the lagoon has been converted to shrimp farm ponds. 1.1 Vidattaltivu growth of mangroves, chena cultivation, terrestrial sediments practices and home gardens in the sand barrier have limited their 8.1 Gembarandiya Mangroves are present as very few patches and strips, but The upper part of the lagoon has small patches of mangroves. Road Expansion of coconut cultivation and home gardens are the major Construction of tourist hotels, extending coconut cultivation and and fishing activities are serious threats to them. A rare 1.7 Nayaru extent. No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 6.2 Ratgama Lake surrounding lands have been utilized for agriculture. 3.14 Girikula 5.2 Mahasittarakala construction activities and illegal gem mining are the major threats threats. home gardens are the major threats. mangrove species Pemphis acidula has been recorded in this Well developed mangrove swamps are located in the landward side Presence and identified threats to the mangroves. The lagoon has extensive sea grass beds and small areas of 2.3 Valaichenai Lagoon: Southeast Coast Chilaw lagoon and the associated channel system have extensive area. of this lagoon. Urban development on both sides of the lagoon, There is no considerable amount of mangrove distribution in this mangrove swamp and mudflats. The lagoon is surrounded by Only few patches and fringing pockets are available. There is no Considerable extents of mangrove swamps are located in this 6.3 Hikkaduwa Ganga lagoon. Edge of the lagoon has been used for coconut cultivation, mangrove vegetation. The clearing of mangroves for housing The lagoon has extensive mudflats, sea grass beds and some 1.8 Kokkilai aquaculture farms and inflow of flood material during the rainy 4.1 Bagura cultivated land and scrub, with some patches of open forest. Parts human interference due to protection by the Department of Wild lagoon. Rice paddies, other cultivated land, grassland, scrub and home gardens as well as to construct facilities for tourists. projects, cutting of mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture fringing mangroves particularly around the lagoon in the south- season are the main threat. 5.3 Lunama of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, and the adjacent patches of Life. coconut plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the 8.2 Chilaw of liquor in mangrove forest areas and converting mangrove east. Major species found was Avicennia marina while isolated mangroves are being cleared for cultivation. Some patches and fringing of mangrove remain in good condition. mangroves of the lagoon edge. Along the Telwatta Ganga Channel and the lagoon well developed swamps for shrimp farm ponds are the major threats. The lagoon There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. 1.2 Jaffna Complex plants of other mangroves such as Rhizophora mucronata could 2.4 Batticaloa But surrounding areas are mostly under rice paddies, coconut 4.2 Andrakala 6.4 Telwatte Ganga mangrove patches are located. The use of land for coconut cultiva- mouth at the Deduru Oya estuary is under considerable threat from be seen around islands. Mangroves have been cut down for Only very few mangrove patches are available. Salt pans and Well developed and considerable extents of mangrove swamps are tion and construction of houses are a major threat. 1.9 Jinnapura Karachchi cultivation and other crops. Housing schemes and urban develop- 4.3 Itikala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. the dumping of urban refuse. security reasons. The densely populated Jaffna lagoon area housing schemes surrounding them are the main threat. located in this lagoon. The area of open water in the lagoons has ment are the major threats. A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is contains palmyra palms, coconut plantations, and rice paddies. 4.4 Yakkala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. decreased during the past 3 – 4 decades, mainly because of siltation. Well developed extensive mangrove patches are located in the 1.10 Pulmudai No mangrove vegetation located along the edge and on the island. The use of mangrove areas There are numerous fishing villages and some salt pans around Lagoon: East Coast presence and identified threats An expansion of the mangroves has also occurred at Kalametiya, southern part of this lagoon. All lowlands surrounding the lagoon This lagoon has small fringing mangroves. There is no human 5.4 Kalametiya 6.4 Madampa Lake for coconut cultivation and homesteads is the major threat to the 8.3 Muthupanthiya the lagoon appear as threats. The lagoon has small areas of mangrove swamp (patches and and this has accelerated the process of siltation. Other threats have been utilized to make shrimp farm ponds. Patches and fringing mangroves exist towards the landward side. 4.5 Uda Gajaba Eliya interference due to protection by the Department of Wild Life. 1.11 Puduwa-kattu fringing). Fishing boats (Motor boats), nearby housing schemes include disturbance from fishing activities, excavation of mollusc expansion of mangrove vegetation. The lagoon is linked to Jaffna Lagoon by a short channel to the 3.1 Periya Klapuwa These have sedimentation from inland streams. Rice paddies, This lagoon has no extensive mangrove swamps. All surrounding and agricultural lands are the main threat. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, shells for use in lime kilns, reclamation of land for rice cultivation, A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is south. The lagoon has extensive mudflats and salt marshes. It is development of settlements at the seaside are major threats lands (100%) have been converted into shrimp farm ponds. The 4.6 Pahala Potana* and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- and pollution with pesticides entering the lagoons in agricultural located along the edge and in small islands. The expansion of surrounded by mangroves, particularly Avicennia. Brackish Very narrow fringing mangroves are located in this lagoon. boundary of the ponds can be considered as co-extensive with the Patches and fringing mangroves are present. Rice paddies, coconut ment of Wild Life. runoff from the Walawe Development Scheme to the north. coconut cultivation and house construction and land clearing for 1.2.1 Uppu Aru water lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region 1.12 Kuchchaveli Formation of salt pans during the dry season, terrestrial sediments 3.2 Korai Complex 6.5 Madu Ganga 8.4 Mundel former lagoon boundary, about 30 – 35 years ago. The lagoon and cultivation and housing schemes are the major threats. cinnamon cultivation have caused the reduction of mangroves in containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice and fresh water inflow during the rainy season are main threats to No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, 5.5 Kunukalliya No mangroves exist in this lagoon.It appears as an abandoned pond areas are surrounded by a region containing rice paddies, this lagoon. paddies and extensive vegetable gardens which pose a threat to these mangroves. This lagoon has well developed extensive mangrove swamps. and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- lagoon. coconut plantations and scrubland. The land is used for prawn 3.3 Thimbutu Expansion of coconut cultivation reduces the mangrove vegetation 4.7 Uda Potana ment of Wild Life. fishing and rice cultivation. mangroves. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 5.6 Tillawatawana No mangroves exist in this lagoon. Some fringes along the seaside and a few pockets of mangrove 1.13Periyakarachchi of the lagoon edges. 6.6 Kosgoda vegetations are located in this lagoon. Due to the scarcity of land for Mangrove swamps and sea grass beds are found in this lagoon. encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and 4.8 Gonalabbe There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Well developed mangrove fringes are located in this lagoon. There This lagoon has small fringing and patches of mangrove vegetation housing and cultivation, the lagoon edge lands have been utilized. Plantations of Palmyra palms and scrub forest are presnt in aquaculture activities. Few mangrove patches can see in this lagoon. Rice paddies on the 5.7 Kahandamodera 8.5 Thalawila Odai in the seaward side. Coconut cultivation and shrimp farm ponds A permanent brackish lagoon with some mangrove vegetation are no major threats to the mangroves in this lagoon. 1.2.2 Chundikulam surrounding areas. Parts of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, inland side and settlements on the sea side have caused the 4.9 Butawa This small lagoon has few patches of mangroves. Coconut cultiva- (sea side) are the main threats. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 3.4 Komari along its seaward edge. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this and the surrounding mangroves being cleared for this purpose mangrove vegetation to diminish. tion and home gardens have reached the lagoon edge and appear as 1.14Sinnakarachchi encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and lagoon. Inflow of fresh water during the flood periods, housing 6.7 Silliya Ganga This is a newly created lagoon (during the past 30 year period). No is the main threat. 4.10 Gode There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. a major threat. 8.6 Kandakuliya aquaculture activities. 3.5 Murugetena Only few scatted fringing mangroves are present. 5.8 Rekawa schemes and other settlements in the northern side of the lagoon, mangrove vegetation is present. The lagoon has extensive mudflats, seagrass beds and No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. and illegal tourist structures are the major threats. The fringing mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is gradually Some mangrove patches are located at the western side of the Fringing mangrove vegetation exists in this lagoon. Rice paddies 6.8 Ingirili Ganga The lagoon has extensive mangroves, sea grasses and some salt mangrove swamps, particularly dominated by Avicennia sp. 3.6 Putuvil-Ureni 4.11 Palatupana The salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for reduced due to the land scarcity in the area. lagoon. Most of the area has been cleared for agricultural and other agricultural practices and settlements are the main threats. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this marshes, The lagoon is surrounded by a region containing coconut The lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region, 1.15Uppuveli the reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. purposes. Landing of fishing craft and housing schemes along the lagoon. There is no seawater movement due to the low depth and it Lagoon: West Coast Presence and identified threats trees, open forests, grasslands and scrublands. The southern part of containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice Well developed mangrove swamps can be seen in the northwestern 5.9 Mawella lagoon channel appear as threat to mangroves. Some mangrove swamps are extant along the lagoon channel, and is located about 800m away from the sea. Housing schemes and the mangrove land is used for making shrimp farm ponds, salt paddies, arid scrubland and open forest. 3.7 Arugam and southeastern edges of the lagoon. Settlements in the northeast- 4.12 Kirinda South and North Bolgoda Lakes and the associated channel system 8.7 Puttalam salt pans and settlements are the major threat to the distribution. other land settlements, unplanned tourist activities and landing of production, and rice cultivation. 1.3 Thondamannaru Mangroves are present in fringing and estuarine (in stream river ern and southern parts and aquaculture projects are the major have mangrove vegetation to some extent. Land scarcity in the Extraction of timber has caused a marked reduction in seacraft are the major threats. 1.16 Tambalagam Lake mouths) areas. Urban development, security activities and threats. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. 7.1 Bolgoda Lake urban area and attraction as a sightseeing area is the major threats. Destruction of mangroves for firewood, beams and poles are the mangrove cover. Large areas of the wetland have been agricultural practices are the main threats to the mangrove Salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for the The lagoon system is under considerable threat from the dumping major threats. reclaimed for agriculture and parts of the lagoon are used for This lagoon has well developed fringing mangrove patches. Except 4.13 Bundala 5.10 Dondra Although very narrow fringing mangroves exist at the edge of the vegetation. reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. of urban refuse. aquaculture, and there is some pollution with pesticides used on 3.8 Panama boat landing in some places and a few settlements in the southern lagoon, this area has been encroached by settlers. Fringing mangroves are the salient feature in this lagoon. Expan- 8.8 Vankalai the adjacent agricultural land and proposed Salt Water Exclu- There are small patches of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. part, threats are minimized. Mangrove vegetation extends as fringes and swamps in this lagoon. This lagoon is located in a highly populated area and about 750m There is little development of mangroves in this lagoon. sion of Vankalai Town and construction of a road network are the 1.17 Illakantai 7.2 Lunawa Lagoon sion Scheme are threats to mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Rice paddies and extension of salt pans appear as threats. Threats are minimized due to the protection of the area under the main threats to the mangrove vegetation. 3.9 Panakala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 4.14 Embilikala inland from the sea. A considerable amount of fringing mangroves is The lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Mangrove forests are Department of Wild Life. 5.11 Garanduwa 1.4 Punkudutivu present along the lagoon edge. Housing schemes, homesteads and dominated by Rhizophora spp, Bruguiera spp, Avicenniamarina Fringing and patches of mangroves are present as the salient feature No mangrove vegetation. Lagoon: Northeast Coast Presence and identified threats Although few patches of mangroves exist, development of salt pans during 8.9 Periya Kalapuwa 3.10 Solambe Mangrove vegetation exists as fringes and swamps in this lagoon; a expansion of coconut cultivation are the major threats to the 7.4 Negombo lagoon and Lumnitzera racemosa. Rice paddies, grassland and coconut in this lagoon. Expansion of rice paddies and construction of a road the dry season has reduced the distribution of mangrove vegetation. (NW) 1.5 Kayts No mangrove vegetation. 4.15 Malala- Embilikala few places have been encroached but threats are minimized due to mangroves. plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the mangrove network are the main threats to mangrove vegetation. 102 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3

swamps. The clearing of mangroves for housing projects, cutting of Major mangrove swamps were found in Nanadikadal lagoon 2.1 Ullakkalie The lagoon has patches and fringing mangroves???? mangrove 3.11 Kunukala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. the protection of the area under the Department of Wild Life. Lagoon: Southwest Coast Presence and identified threats periphery and Chalai area which also confronted to clear??? swamps. Salt pans, rice paddies and stream sediment during the mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture of liquor are There are small patches and fringing mangrove vegetation in this 4.16 Koholankala-Maha 1.6 Nanthikadal during the civil war. Rhizophora mucronata appears as the domi- floods are the main threats. No mangroves are present in this lagoon complex. The principal Well developed mangrove islets, patches and fringes are found in additional threats. Lagoon: Northern Coast Presence and identified threats lagoon. These have been encroached for coconut cultivation and Lewaya nant sp. 3.12 Helawa threat is further development of salt production projects. Koggala Lagoon. Expansion of coconut cultivation and home A well developed mangrove stretch has been developed along The lagoon has well developed patches and fringing mangrove rice paddies. 6.1 Koggala gardens, Civil Aviation activities and tourism are the main threats to Lagoon: Northwest Coast Presence and identified threats Lagoon: Southern Coast Presence and identified threats the coastline to inland. It is about 8.0 km long and 320m – Conversion of the lagoon to salt pans and aquaculture ponds,and 2.2 Uppar-Panichankeni swamps and in some palaces this vegetation has been removed for Except for a few patches, there is no considerable development in the mangrove development of the lagoon. This lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Much of the southern 600m wide. Although tidal deposits have encouraged the some rice paddies are the threat to mangrove patches. security purposes. Salt pans, stream sediments and agricultural 5. Karagan This lagoon has been converted as Hambantota Habour. 3.13 Okanda this lagoon. Fringing mangroves exist along the lagoon edge and in tiny islets. part of the lagoon has been converted to shrimp farm ponds. 1.1 Vidattaltivu growth of mangroves, chena cultivation, terrestrial sediments practices and home gardens in the sand barrier have limited their 8.1 Gembarandiya Mangroves are present as very few patches and strips, but The upper part of the lagoon has small patches of mangroves. Road Expansion of coconut cultivation and home gardens are the major Construction of tourist hotels, extending coconut cultivation and and fishing activities are serious threats to them. A rare 1.7 Nayaru extent. No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 6.2 Ratgama Lake surrounding lands have been utilized for agriculture. 3.14 Girikula 5.2 Mahasittarakala construction activities and illegal gem mining are the major threats threats. home gardens are the major threats. mangrove species Pemphis acidula has been recorded in this Well developed mangrove swamps are located in the landward side Presence and identified threats to the mangroves. The lagoon has extensive sea grass beds and small areas of 2.3 Valaichenai Lagoon: Southeast Coast Chilaw lagoon and the associated channel system have extensive area. of this lagoon. Urban development on both sides of the lagoon, There is no considerable amount of mangrove distribution in this mangrove swamp and mudflats. The lagoon is surrounded by Only few patches and fringing pockets are available. There is no Considerable extents of mangrove swamps are located in this 6.3 Hikkaduwa Ganga lagoon. Edge of the lagoon has been used for coconut cultivation, mangrove vegetation. The clearing of mangroves for housing The lagoon has extensive mudflats, sea grass beds and some 1.8 Kokkilai aquaculture farms and inflow of flood material during the rainy 4.1 Bagura cultivated land and scrub, with some patches of open forest. Parts human interference due to protection by the Department of Wild lagoon. Rice paddies, other cultivated land, grassland, scrub and home gardens as well as to construct facilities for tourists. projects, cutting of mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture fringing mangroves particularly around the lagoon in the south- season are the main threat. 5.3 Lunama of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, and the adjacent patches of Life. coconut plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the 8.2 Chilaw of liquor in mangrove forest areas and converting mangrove east. Major species found was Avicennia marina while isolated mangroves are being cleared for cultivation. Some patches and fringing of mangrove remain in good condition. mangroves of the lagoon edge. Along the Telwatta Ganga Channel and the lagoon well developed swamps for shrimp farm ponds are the major threats. The lagoon There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. 1.2 Jaffna Complex plants of other mangroves such as Rhizophora mucronata could 2.4 Batticaloa But surrounding areas are mostly under rice paddies, coconut 4.2 Andrakala 6.4 Telwatte Ganga mangrove patches are located. The use of land for coconut cultiva- mouth at the Deduru Oya estuary is under considerable threat from be seen around islands. Mangroves have been cut down for Only very few mangrove patches are available. Salt pans and Well developed and considerable extents of mangrove swamps are tion and construction of houses are a major threat. 1.9 Jinnapura Karachchi cultivation and other crops. Housing schemes and urban develop- 4.3 Itikala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. the dumping of urban refuse. security reasons. The densely populated Jaffna lagoon area housing schemes surrounding them are the main threat. located in this lagoon. The area of open water in the lagoons has ment are the major threats. A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is contains palmyra palms, coconut plantations, and rice paddies. 4.4 Yakkala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. decreased during the past 3 – 4 decades, mainly because of siltation. Well developed extensive mangrove patches are located in the 1.10 Pulmudai No mangrove vegetation located along the edge and on the island. The use of mangrove areas There are numerous fishing villages and some salt pans around Lagoon: East Coast presence and identified threats An expansion of the mangroves has also occurred at Kalametiya, southern part of this lagoon. All lowlands surrounding the lagoon This lagoon has small fringing mangroves. There is no human 5.4 Kalametiya 6.4 Madampa Lake for coconut cultivation and homesteads is the major threat to the 8.3 Muthupanthiya the lagoon appear as threats. The lagoon has small areas of mangrove swamp (patches and and this has accelerated the process of siltation. Other threats have been utilized to make shrimp farm ponds. Patches and fringing mangroves exist towards the landward side. 4.5 Uda Gajaba Eliya interference due to protection by the Department of Wild Life. 1.11 Puduwa-kattu fringing). Fishing boats (Motor boats), nearby housing schemes include disturbance from fishing activities, excavation of mollusc expansion of mangrove vegetation. The lagoon is linked to Jaffna Lagoon by a short channel to the 3.1 Periya Klapuwa These have sedimentation from inland streams. Rice paddies, This lagoon has no extensive mangrove swamps. All surrounding and agricultural lands are the main threat. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, shells for use in lime kilns, reclamation of land for rice cultivation, A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is south. The lagoon has extensive mudflats and salt marshes. It is development of settlements at the seaside are major threats lands (100%) have been converted into shrimp farm ponds. The 4.6 Pahala Potana* and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- and pollution with pesticides entering the lagoons in agricultural located along the edge and in small islands. The expansion of surrounded by mangroves, particularly Avicennia. Brackish Very narrow fringing mangroves are located in this lagoon. boundary of the ponds can be considered as co-extensive with the Patches and fringing mangroves are present. Rice paddies, coconut ment of Wild Life. runoff from the Walawe Development Scheme to the north. coconut cultivation and house construction and land clearing for 1.2.1 Uppu Aru water lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region 1.12 Kuchchaveli Formation of salt pans during the dry season, terrestrial sediments 3.2 Korai Complex 6.5 Madu Ganga 8.4 Mundel former lagoon boundary, about 30 – 35 years ago. The lagoon and cultivation and housing schemes are the major threats. cinnamon cultivation have caused the reduction of mangroves in containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice and fresh water inflow during the rainy season are main threats to No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, 5.5 Kunukalliya No mangroves exist in this lagoon.It appears as an abandoned pond areas are surrounded by a region containing rice paddies, this lagoon. paddies and extensive vegetable gardens which pose a threat to these mangroves. This lagoon has well developed extensive mangrove swamps. and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- lagoon. coconut plantations and scrubland. The land is used for prawn 3.3 Thimbutu Expansion of coconut cultivation reduces the mangrove vegetation 4.7 Uda Potana ment of Wild Life. fishing and rice cultivation. mangroves. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 5.6 Tillawatawana No mangroves exist in this lagoon. Some fringes along the seaside and a few pockets of mangrove 1.13Periyakarachchi of the lagoon edges. 6.6 Kosgoda vegetations are located in this lagoon. Due to the scarcity of land for Mangrove swamps and sea grass beds are found in this lagoon. encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and 4.8 Gonalabbe There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Well developed mangrove fringes are located in this lagoon. There This lagoon has small fringing and patches of mangrove vegetation housing and cultivation, the lagoon edge lands have been utilized. Plantations of Palmyra palms and scrub forest are presnt in aquaculture activities. Few mangrove patches can see in this lagoon. Rice paddies on the 5.7 Kahandamodera 8.5 Thalawila Odai in the seaward side. Coconut cultivation and shrimp farm ponds A permanent brackish lagoon with some mangrove vegetation are no major threats to the mangroves in this lagoon. 1.2.2 Chundikulam surrounding areas. Parts of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, inland side and settlements on the sea side have caused the 4.9 Butawa This small lagoon has few patches of mangroves. Coconut cultiva- (sea side) are the main threats. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 3.4 Komari along its seaward edge. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this and the surrounding mangroves being cleared for this purpose mangrove vegetation to diminish. tion and home gardens have reached the lagoon edge and appear as 1.14Sinnakarachchi encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and lagoon. Inflow of fresh water during the flood periods, housing 6.7 Silliya Ganga This is a newly created lagoon (during the past 30 year period). No is the main threat. 4.10 Gode There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. a major threat. 8.6 Kandakuliya aquaculture activities. 3.5 Murugetena Only few scatted fringing mangroves are present. 5.8 Rekawa schemes and other settlements in the northern side of the lagoon, mangrove vegetation is present. The lagoon has extensive mudflats, seagrass beds and No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. and illegal tourist structures are the major threats. The fringing mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is gradually Some mangrove patches are located at the western side of the Fringing mangrove vegetation exists in this lagoon. Rice paddies 6.8 Ingirili Ganga The lagoon has extensive mangroves, sea grasses and some salt mangrove swamps, particularly dominated by Avicennia sp. 3.6 Putuvil-Ureni 4.11 Palatupana The salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for reduced due to the land scarcity in the area. lagoon. Most of the area has been cleared for agricultural and other agricultural practices and settlements are the main threats. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this marshes, The lagoon is surrounded by a region containing coconut The lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region, 1.15Uppuveli the reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. purposes. Landing of fishing craft and housing schemes along the lagoon. There is no seawater movement due to the low depth and it Lagoon: West Coast Presence and identified threats trees, open forests, grasslands and scrublands. The southern part of containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice Well developed mangrove swamps can be seen in the northwestern 5.9 Mawella lagoon channel appear as threat to mangroves. Some mangrove swamps are extant along the lagoon channel, and is located about 800m away from the sea. Housing schemes and the mangrove land is used for making shrimp farm ponds, salt paddies, arid scrubland and open forest. 3.7 Arugam and southeastern edges of the lagoon. Settlements in the northeast- 4.12 Kirinda South and North Bolgoda Lakes and the associated channel system 8.7 Puttalam salt pans and settlements are the major threat to the distribution. other land settlements, unplanned tourist activities and landing of production, and rice cultivation. 1.3 Thondamannaru Mangroves are present in fringing and estuarine (in stream river ern and southern parts and aquaculture projects are the major have mangrove vegetation to some extent. Land scarcity in the Extraction of timber has caused a marked reduction in seacraft are the major threats. 1.16 Tambalagam Lake mouths) areas. Urban development, security activities and threats. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. 7.1 Bolgoda Lake urban area and attraction as a sightseeing area is the major threats. Destruction of mangroves for firewood, beams and poles are the mangrove cover. Large areas of the wetland have been agricultural practices are the main threats to the mangrove Salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for the The lagoon system is under considerable threat from the dumping major threats. reclaimed for agriculture and parts of the lagoon are used for This lagoon has well developed fringing mangrove patches. Except 4.13 Bundala 5.10 Dondra Although very narrow fringing mangroves exist at the edge of the vegetation. reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. of urban refuse. aquaculture, and there is some pollution with pesticides used on 3.8 Panama boat landing in some places and a few settlements in the southern lagoon, this area has been encroached by settlers. Fringing mangroves are the salient feature in this lagoon. Expan- 8.8 Vankalai the adjacent agricultural land and proposed Salt Water Exclu- There are small patches of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. part, threats are minimized. Mangrove vegetation extends as fringes and swamps in this lagoon. This lagoon is located in a highly populated area and about 750m There is little development of mangroves in this lagoon. sion of Vankalai Town and construction of a road network are the 1.17 Illakantai 7.2 Lunawa Lagoon sion Scheme are threats to mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Rice paddies and extension of salt pans appear as threats. Threats are minimized due to the protection of the area under the main threats to the mangrove vegetation. 3.9 Panakala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 4.14 Embilikala inland from the sea. A considerable amount of fringing mangroves is The lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Mangrove forests are Department of Wild Life. 5.11 Garanduwa 1.4 Punkudutivu present along the lagoon edge. Housing schemes, homesteads and dominated by Rhizophora spp, Bruguiera spp, Avicenniamarina Fringing and patches of mangroves are present as the salient feature No mangrove vegetation. Lagoon: Northeast Coast Presence and identified threats Although few patches of mangroves exist, development of salt pans during 8.9 Periya Kalapuwa 3.10 Solambe Mangrove vegetation exists as fringes and swamps in this lagoon; a expansion of coconut cultivation are the major threats to the 7.4 Negombo lagoon and Lumnitzera racemosa. Rice paddies, grassland and coconut in this lagoon. Expansion of rice paddies and construction of a road the dry season has reduced the distribution of mangrove vegetation. (NW) 1.5 Kayts No mangrove vegetation. 4.15 Malala- Embilikala few places have been encroached but threats are minimized due to mangroves. plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the mangrove network are the main threats to mangrove vegetation. September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 103

swamps. The clearing of mangroves for housing projects, cutting of Major mangrove swamps were found in Nanadikadal lagoon 2.1 Ullakkalie The lagoon has patches and fringing mangroves???? mangrove 3.11 Kunukala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. the protection of the area under the Department of Wild Life. Lagoon: Southwest Coast Presence and identified threats periphery and Chalai area which also confronted to clear??? swamps. Salt pans, rice paddies and stream sediment during the mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture of liquor are There are small patches and fringing mangrove vegetation in this 4.16 Koholankala-Maha 1.6 Nanthikadal during the civil war. Rhizophora mucronata appears as the domi- floods are the main threats. No mangroves are present in this lagoon complex. The principal Well developed mangrove islets, patches and fringes are found in additional threats. Lagoon: Northern Coast Presence and identified threats lagoon. These have been encroached for coconut cultivation and Lewaya nant sp. 3.12 Helawa threat is further development of salt production projects. Koggala Lagoon. Expansion of coconut cultivation and home A well developed mangrove stretch has been developed along The lagoon has well developed patches and fringing mangrove rice paddies. 6.1 Koggala gardens, Civil Aviation activities and tourism are the main threats to Lagoon: Northwest Coast Presence and identified threats Lagoon: Southern Coast Presence and identified threats the coastline to inland. It is about 8.0 km long and 320m – Conversion of the lagoon to salt pans and aquaculture ponds,and 2.2 Uppar-Panichankeni swamps and in some palaces this vegetation has been removed for Except for a few patches, there is no considerable development in the mangrove development of the lagoon. This lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Much of the southern 600m wide. Although tidal deposits have encouraged the some rice paddies are the threat to mangrove patches. security purposes. Salt pans, stream sediments and agricultural 5. Karagan This lagoon has been converted as Hambantota Habour. 3.13 Okanda this lagoon. Fringing mangroves exist along the lagoon edge and in tiny islets. part of the lagoon has been converted to shrimp farm ponds. 1.1 Vidattaltivu growth of mangroves, chena cultivation, terrestrial sediments practices and home gardens in the sand barrier have limited their 8.1 Gembarandiya Mangroves are present as very few patches and strips, but The upper part of the lagoon has small patches of mangroves. Road Expansion of coconut cultivation and home gardens are the major Construction of tourist hotels, extending coconut cultivation and and fishing activities are serious threats to them. A rare 1.7 Nayaru extent. No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 6.2 Ratgama Lake surrounding lands have been utilized for agriculture. 3.14 Girikula 5.2 Mahasittarakala construction activities and illegal gem mining are the major threats threats. home gardens are the major threats. mangrove species Pemphis acidula has been recorded in this Well developed mangrove swamps are located in the landward side Presence and identified threats to the mangroves. The lagoon has extensive sea grass beds and small areas of 2.3 Valaichenai Lagoon: Southeast Coast Chilaw lagoon and the associated channel system have extensive area. of this lagoon. Urban development on both sides of the lagoon, There is no considerable amount of mangrove distribution in this mangrove swamp and mudflats. The lagoon is surrounded by Only few patches and fringing pockets are available. There is no Considerable extents of mangrove swamps are located in this 6.3 Hikkaduwa Ganga lagoon. Edge of the lagoon has been used for coconut cultivation, mangrove vegetation. The clearing of mangroves for housing The lagoon has extensive mudflats, sea grass beds and some 1.8 Kokkilai aquaculture farms and inflow of flood material during the rainy 4.1 Bagura cultivated land and scrub, with some patches of open forest. Parts human interference due to protection by the Department of Wild lagoon. Rice paddies, other cultivated land, grassland, scrub and home gardens as well as to construct facilities for tourists. projects, cutting of mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture fringing mangroves particularly around the lagoon in the south- season are the main threat. 5.3 Lunama of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, and the adjacent patches of Life. coconut plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the 8.2 Chilaw of liquor in mangrove forest areas and converting mangrove east. Major species found was Avicennia marina while isolated mangroves are being cleared for cultivation. Some patches and fringing of mangrove remain in good condition. mangroves of the lagoon edge. Along the Telwatta Ganga Channel and the lagoon well developed swamps for shrimp farm ponds are the major threats. The lagoon There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. 1.2 Jaffna Complex plants of other mangroves such as Rhizophora mucronata could 2.4 Batticaloa But surrounding areas are mostly under rice paddies, coconut 4.2 Andrakala 6.4 Telwatte Ganga mangrove patches are located. The use of land for coconut cultiva- mouth at the Deduru Oya estuary is under considerable threat from be seen around islands. Mangroves have been cut down for Only very few mangrove patches are available. Salt pans and Well developed and considerable extents of mangrove swamps are tion and construction of houses are a major threat. 1.9 Jinnapura Karachchi cultivation and other crops. Housing schemes and urban develop- 4.3 Itikala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. the dumping of urban refuse. security reasons. The densely populated Jaffna lagoon area housing schemes surrounding them are the main threat. located in this lagoon. The area of open water in the lagoons has ment are the major threats. A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is contains palmyra palms, coconut plantations, and rice paddies. 4.4 Yakkala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. decreased during the past 3 – 4 decades, mainly because of siltation. Well developed extensive mangrove patches are located in the 1.10 Pulmudai No mangrove vegetation located along the edge and on the island. The use of mangrove areas There are numerous fishing villages and some salt pans around Lagoon: East Coast presence and identified threats An expansion of the mangroves has also occurred at Kalametiya, southern part of this lagoon. All lowlands surrounding the lagoon This lagoon has small fringing mangroves. There is no human 5.4 Kalametiya 6.4 Madampa Lake for coconut cultivation and homesteads is the major threat to the 8.3 Muthupanthiya the lagoon appear as threats. The lagoon has small areas of mangrove swamp (patches and and this has accelerated the process of siltation. Other threats have been utilized to make shrimp farm ponds. Patches and fringing mangroves exist towards the landward side. 4.5 Uda Gajaba Eliya interference due to protection by the Department of Wild Life. 1.11 Puduwa-kattu fringing). Fishing boats (Motor boats), nearby housing schemes include disturbance from fishing activities, excavation of mollusc expansion of mangrove vegetation. The lagoon is linked to Jaffna Lagoon by a short channel to the 3.1 Periya Klapuwa These have sedimentation from inland streams. Rice paddies, This lagoon has no extensive mangrove swamps. All surrounding and agricultural lands are the main threat. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, shells for use in lime kilns, reclamation of land for rice cultivation, A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is south. The lagoon has extensive mudflats and salt marshes. It is development of settlements at the seaside are major threats lands (100%) have been converted into shrimp farm ponds. The 4.6 Pahala Potana* and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- and pollution with pesticides entering the lagoons in agricultural located along the edge and in small islands. The expansion of surrounded by mangroves, particularly Avicennia. Brackish Very narrow fringing mangroves are located in this lagoon. boundary of the ponds can be considered as co-extensive with the Patches and fringing mangroves are present. Rice paddies, coconut ment of Wild Life. runoff from the Walawe Development Scheme to the north. coconut cultivation and house construction and land clearing for 1.2.1 Uppu Aru water lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region 1.12 Kuchchaveli Formation of salt pans during the dry season, terrestrial sediments 3.2 Korai Complex 6.5 Madu Ganga 8.4 Mundel former lagoon boundary, about 30 – 35 years ago. The lagoon and cultivation and housing schemes are the major threats. cinnamon cultivation have caused the reduction of mangroves in containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice and fresh water inflow during the rainy season are main threats to No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, 5.5 Kunukalliya No mangroves exist in this lagoon.It appears as an abandoned pond areas are surrounded by a region containing rice paddies, this lagoon. paddies and extensive vegetable gardens which pose a threat to these mangroves. This lagoon has well developed extensive mangrove swamps. and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- lagoon. coconut plantations and scrubland. The land is used for prawn 3.3 Thimbutu Expansion of coconut cultivation reduces the mangrove vegetation 4.7 Uda Potana ment of Wild Life. fishing and rice cultivation. mangroves. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 5.6 Tillawatawana No mangroves exist in this lagoon. Some fringes along the seaside and a few pockets of mangrove 1.13Periyakarachchi of the lagoon edges. 6.6 Kosgoda vegetations are located in this lagoon. Due to the scarcity of land for Mangrove swamps and sea grass beds are found in this lagoon. encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and 4.8 Gonalabbe There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Well developed mangrove fringes are located in this lagoon. There This lagoon has small fringing and patches of mangrove vegetation housing and cultivation, the lagoon edge lands have been utilized. Plantations of Palmyra palms and scrub forest are presnt in aquaculture activities. Few mangrove patches can see in this lagoon. Rice paddies on the 5.7 Kahandamodera 8.5 Thalawila Odai in the seaward side. Coconut cultivation and shrimp farm ponds A permanent brackish lagoon with some mangrove vegetation are no major threats to the mangroves in this lagoon. 1.2.2 Chundikulam surrounding areas. Parts of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, inland side and settlements on the sea side have caused the 4.9 Butawa This small lagoon has few patches of mangroves. Coconut cultiva- (sea side) are the main threats. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 3.4 Komari along its seaward edge. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this and the surrounding mangroves being cleared for this purpose mangrove vegetation to diminish. tion and home gardens have reached the lagoon edge and appear as 1.14Sinnakarachchi encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and lagoon. Inflow of fresh water during the flood periods, housing 6.7 Silliya Ganga This is a newly created lagoon (during the past 30 year period). No is the main threat. 4.10 Gode There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. a major threat. 8.6 Kandakuliya aquaculture activities. 3.5 Murugetena Only few scatted fringing mangroves are present. 5.8 Rekawa schemes and other settlements in the northern side of the lagoon, mangrove vegetation is present. The lagoon has extensive mudflats, seagrass beds and No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. and illegal tourist structures are the major threats. The fringing mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is gradually Some mangrove patches are located at the western side of the Fringing mangrove vegetation exists in this lagoon. Rice paddies 6.8 Ingirili Ganga The lagoon has extensive mangroves, sea grasses and some salt mangrove swamps, particularly dominated by Avicennia sp. 3.6 Putuvil-Ureni 4.11 Palatupana The salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for reduced due to the land scarcity in the area. lagoon. Most of the area has been cleared for agricultural and other agricultural practices and settlements are the main threats. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this marshes, The lagoon is surrounded by a region containing coconut The lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region, 1.15Uppuveli the reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. purposes. Landing of fishing craft and housing schemes along the lagoon. There is no seawater movement due to the low depth and it Lagoon: West Coast Presence and identified threats trees, open forests, grasslands and scrublands. The southern part of containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice Well developed mangrove swamps can be seen in the northwestern 5.9 Mawella lagoon channel appear as threat to mangroves. Some mangrove swamps are extant along the lagoon channel, and is located about 800m away from the sea. Housing schemes and the mangrove land is used for making shrimp farm ponds, salt paddies, arid scrubland and open forest. 3.7 Arugam and southeastern edges of the lagoon. Settlements in the northeast- 4.12 Kirinda South and North Bolgoda Lakes and the associated channel system 8.7 Puttalam salt pans and settlements are the major threat to the distribution. other land settlements, unplanned tourist activities and landing of production, and rice cultivation. 1.3 Thondamannaru Mangroves are present in fringing and estuarine (in stream river ern and southern parts and aquaculture projects are the major have mangrove vegetation to some extent. Land scarcity in the Extraction of timber has caused a marked reduction in seacraft are the major threats. 1.16 Tambalagam Lake mouths) areas. Urban development, security activities and threats. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. 7.1 Bolgoda Lake urban area and attraction as a sightseeing area is the major threats. Destruction of mangroves for firewood, beams and poles are the mangrove cover. Large areas of the wetland have been agricultural practices are the main threats to the mangrove Salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for the The lagoon system is under considerable threat from the dumping major threats. reclaimed for agriculture and parts of the lagoon are used for This lagoon has well developed fringing mangrove patches. Except 4.13 Bundala 5.10 Dondra Although very narrow fringing mangroves exist at the edge of the vegetation. reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. of urban refuse. aquaculture, and there is some pollution with pesticides used on 3.8 Panama boat landing in some places and a few settlements in the southern lagoon, this area has been encroached by settlers. Fringing mangroves are the salient feature in this lagoon. Expan- 8.8 Vankalai the adjacent agricultural land and proposed Salt Water Exclu- There are small patches of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. part, threats are minimized. Mangrove vegetation extends as fringes and swamps in this lagoon. This lagoon is located in a highly populated area and about 750m There is little development of mangroves in this lagoon. sion of Vankalai Town and construction of a road network are the 1.17 Illakantai 7.2 Lunawa Lagoon sion Scheme are threats to mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Rice paddies and extension of salt pans appear as threats. Threats are minimized due to the protection of the area under the main threats to the mangrove vegetation. 3.9 Panakala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 4.14 Embilikala inland from the sea. A considerable amount of fringing mangroves is The lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Mangrove forests are Department of Wild Life. 5.11 Garanduwa 1.4 Punkudutivu present along the lagoon edge. Housing schemes, homesteads and dominated by Rhizophora spp, Bruguiera spp, Avicenniamarina Fringing and patches of mangroves are present as the salient feature No mangrove vegetation. Lagoon: Northeast Coast Presence and identified threats Although few patches of mangroves exist, development of salt pans during 8.9 Periya Kalapuwa 3.10 Solambe Mangrove vegetation exists as fringes and swamps in this lagoon; a expansion of coconut cultivation are the major threats to the 7.4 Negombo lagoon and Lumnitzera racemosa. Rice paddies, grassland and coconut in this lagoon. Expansion of rice paddies and construction of a road the dry season has reduced the distribution of mangrove vegetation. (NW) 1.5 Kayts No mangrove vegetation. 4.15 Malala- Embilikala few places have been encroached but threats are minimized due to mangroves. plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the mangrove network are the main threats to mangrove vegetation. 104 WILDLANKA [Vol. 4, No. 3

swamps. The clearing of mangroves for housing projects, cutting of Major mangrove swamps were found in Nanadikadal lagoon 2.1 Ullakkalie The lagoon has patches and fringing mangroves???? mangrove 3.11 Kunukala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. the protection of the area under the Department of Wild Life. Lagoon: Southwest Coast Presence and identified threats periphery and Chalai area which also confronted to clear??? swamps. Salt pans, rice paddies and stream sediment during the mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture of liquor are There are small patches and fringing mangrove vegetation in this 4.16 Koholankala-Maha 1.6 Nanthikadal during the civil war. Rhizophora mucronata appears as the domi- floods are the main threats. No mangroves are present in this lagoon complex. The principal Well developed mangrove islets, patches and fringes are found in additional threats. Lagoon: Northern Coast Presence and identified threats lagoon. These have been encroached for coconut cultivation and Lewaya nant sp. 3.12 Helawa threat is further development of salt production projects. Koggala Lagoon. Expansion of coconut cultivation and home A well developed mangrove stretch has been developed along The lagoon has well developed patches and fringing mangrove rice paddies. 6.1 Koggala gardens, Civil Aviation activities and tourism are the main threats to Lagoon: Northwest Coast Presence and identified threats Lagoon: Southern Coast Presence and identified threats the coastline to inland. It is about 8.0 km long and 320m – Conversion of the lagoon to salt pans and aquaculture ponds,and 2.2 Uppar-Panichankeni swamps and in some palaces this vegetation has been removed for Except for a few patches, there is no considerable development in the mangrove development of the lagoon. This lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Much of the southern 600m wide. Although tidal deposits have encouraged the some rice paddies are the threat to mangrove patches. security purposes. Salt pans, stream sediments and agricultural 5. Karagan This lagoon has been converted as Hambantota Habour. 3.13 Okanda this lagoon. Fringing mangroves exist along the lagoon edge and in tiny islets. part of the lagoon has been converted to shrimp farm ponds. 1.1 Vidattaltivu growth of mangroves, chena cultivation, terrestrial sediments practices and home gardens in the sand barrier have limited their 8.1 Gembarandiya Mangroves are present as very few patches and strips, but The upper part of the lagoon has small patches of mangroves. Road Expansion of coconut cultivation and home gardens are the major Construction of tourist hotels, extending coconut cultivation and and fishing activities are serious threats to them. A rare 1.7 Nayaru extent. No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 6.2 Ratgama Lake surrounding lands have been utilized for agriculture. 3.14 Girikula 5.2 Mahasittarakala construction activities and illegal gem mining are the major threats threats. home gardens are the major threats. mangrove species Pemphis acidula has been recorded in this Well developed mangrove swamps are located in the landward side Presence and identified threats to the mangroves. The lagoon has extensive sea grass beds and small areas of 2.3 Valaichenai Lagoon: Southeast Coast Chilaw lagoon and the associated channel system have extensive area. of this lagoon. Urban development on both sides of the lagoon, There is no considerable amount of mangrove distribution in this mangrove swamp and mudflats. The lagoon is surrounded by Only few patches and fringing pockets are available. There is no Considerable extents of mangrove swamps are located in this 6.3 Hikkaduwa Ganga lagoon. Edge of the lagoon has been used for coconut cultivation, mangrove vegetation. The clearing of mangroves for housing The lagoon has extensive mudflats, sea grass beds and some 1.8 Kokkilai aquaculture farms and inflow of flood material during the rainy 4.1 Bagura cultivated land and scrub, with some patches of open forest. Parts human interference due to protection by the Department of Wild lagoon. Rice paddies, other cultivated land, grassland, scrub and home gardens as well as to construct facilities for tourists. projects, cutting of mangroves for firewood, and illicit manufacture fringing mangroves particularly around the lagoon in the south- season are the main threat. 5.3 Lunama of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, and the adjacent patches of Life. coconut plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the 8.2 Chilaw of liquor in mangrove forest areas and converting mangrove east. Major species found was Avicennia marina while isolated mangroves are being cleared for cultivation. Some patches and fringing of mangrove remain in good condition. mangroves of the lagoon edge. Along the Telwatta Ganga Channel and the lagoon well developed swamps for shrimp farm ponds are the major threats. The lagoon There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. 1.2 Jaffna Complex plants of other mangroves such as Rhizophora mucronata could 2.4 Batticaloa But surrounding areas are mostly under rice paddies, coconut 4.2 Andrakala 6.4 Telwatte Ganga mangrove patches are located. The use of land for coconut cultiva- mouth at the Deduru Oya estuary is under considerable threat from be seen around islands. Mangroves have been cut down for Only very few mangrove patches are available. Salt pans and Well developed and considerable extents of mangrove swamps are tion and construction of houses are a major threat. 1.9 Jinnapura Karachchi cultivation and other crops. Housing schemes and urban develop- 4.3 Itikala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. the dumping of urban refuse. security reasons. The densely populated Jaffna lagoon area housing schemes surrounding them are the main threat. located in this lagoon. The area of open water in the lagoons has ment are the major threats. A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is contains palmyra palms, coconut plantations, and rice paddies. 4.4 Yakkala There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. decreased during the past 3 – 4 decades, mainly because of siltation. Well developed extensive mangrove patches are located in the 1.10 Pulmudai No mangrove vegetation located along the edge and on the island. The use of mangrove areas There are numerous fishing villages and some salt pans around Lagoon: East Coast presence and identified threats An expansion of the mangroves has also occurred at Kalametiya, southern part of this lagoon. All lowlands surrounding the lagoon This lagoon has small fringing mangroves. There is no human 5.4 Kalametiya 6.4 Madampa Lake for coconut cultivation and homesteads is the major threat to the 8.3 Muthupanthiya the lagoon appear as threats. The lagoon has small areas of mangrove swamp (patches and and this has accelerated the process of siltation. Other threats have been utilized to make shrimp farm ponds. Patches and fringing mangroves exist towards the landward side. 4.5 Uda Gajaba Eliya interference due to protection by the Department of Wild Life. 1.11 Puduwa-kattu fringing). Fishing boats (Motor boats), nearby housing schemes include disturbance from fishing activities, excavation of mollusc expansion of mangrove vegetation. The lagoon is linked to Jaffna Lagoon by a short channel to the 3.1 Periya Klapuwa These have sedimentation from inland streams. Rice paddies, This lagoon has no extensive mangrove swamps. All surrounding and agricultural lands are the main threat. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, shells for use in lime kilns, reclamation of land for rice cultivation, A considerable extent of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is south. The lagoon has extensive mudflats and salt marshes. It is development of settlements at the seaside are major threats lands (100%) have been converted into shrimp farm ponds. The 4.6 Pahala Potana* and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- and pollution with pesticides entering the lagoons in agricultural located along the edge and in small islands. The expansion of surrounded by mangroves, particularly Avicennia. Brackish Very narrow fringing mangroves are located in this lagoon. boundary of the ponds can be considered as co-extensive with the Patches and fringing mangroves are present. Rice paddies, coconut ment of Wild Life. runoff from the Walawe Development Scheme to the north. coconut cultivation and house construction and land clearing for 1.2.1 Uppu Aru water lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region 1.12 Kuchchaveli Formation of salt pans during the dry season, terrestrial sediments 3.2 Korai Complex 6.5 Madu Ganga 8.4 Mundel former lagoon boundary, about 30 – 35 years ago. The lagoon and cultivation and housing schemes are the major threats. cinnamon cultivation have caused the reduction of mangroves in containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice and fresh water inflow during the rainy season are main threats to No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon, 5.5 Kunukalliya No mangroves exist in this lagoon.It appears as an abandoned pond areas are surrounded by a region containing rice paddies, this lagoon. paddies and extensive vegetable gardens which pose a threat to these mangroves. This lagoon has well developed extensive mangrove swamps. and there is no human interference due to protection by the Depart- lagoon. coconut plantations and scrubland. The land is used for prawn 3.3 Thimbutu Expansion of coconut cultivation reduces the mangrove vegetation 4.7 Uda Potana ment of Wild Life. fishing and rice cultivation. mangroves. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 5.6 Tillawatawana No mangroves exist in this lagoon. Some fringes along the seaside and a few pockets of mangrove 1.13Periyakarachchi of the lagoon edges. 6.6 Kosgoda vegetations are located in this lagoon. Due to the scarcity of land for Mangrove swamps and sea grass beds are found in this lagoon. encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and 4.8 Gonalabbe There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Well developed mangrove fringes are located in this lagoon. There This lagoon has small fringing and patches of mangrove vegetation housing and cultivation, the lagoon edge lands have been utilized. Plantations of Palmyra palms and scrub forest are presnt in aquaculture activities. Few mangrove patches can see in this lagoon. Rice paddies on the 5.7 Kahandamodera 8.5 Thalawila Odai in the seaward side. Coconut cultivation and shrimp farm ponds A permanent brackish lagoon with some mangrove vegetation are no major threats to the mangroves in this lagoon. 1.2.2 Chundikulam surrounding areas. Parts of the lagoon are used for aquaculture, inland side and settlements on the sea side have caused the 4.9 Butawa This small lagoon has few patches of mangroves. Coconut cultiva- (sea side) are the main threats. No mangroves in this lagoon, and former areas have been 3.4 Komari along its seaward edge. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this and the surrounding mangroves being cleared for this purpose mangrove vegetation to diminish. tion and home gardens have reached the lagoon edge and appear as 1.14Sinnakarachchi encroached by rice paddies, coconut palms, other cultivations and lagoon. Inflow of fresh water during the flood periods, housing 6.7 Silliya Ganga This is a newly created lagoon (during the past 30 year period). No is the main threat. 4.10 Gode There is no mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. a major threat. 8.6 Kandakuliya aquaculture activities. 3.5 Murugetena Only few scatted fringing mangroves are present. 5.8 Rekawa schemes and other settlements in the northern side of the lagoon, mangrove vegetation is present. The lagoon has extensive mudflats, seagrass beds and No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. and illegal tourist structures are the major threats. The fringing mangrove vegetation in this lagoon is gradually Some mangrove patches are located at the western side of the Fringing mangrove vegetation exists in this lagoon. Rice paddies 6.8 Ingirili Ganga The lagoon has extensive mangroves, sea grasses and some salt mangrove swamps, particularly dominated by Avicennia sp. 3.6 Putuvil-Ureni 4.11 Palatupana The salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for reduced due to the land scarcity in the area. lagoon. Most of the area has been cleared for agricultural and other agricultural practices and settlements are the main threats. Very limited mangrove patches and fringes can be seen in this marshes, The lagoon is surrounded by a region containing coconut The lagoon is surrounded by a densely populated region, 1.15Uppuveli the reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. purposes. Landing of fishing craft and housing schemes along the lagoon. There is no seawater movement due to the low depth and it Lagoon: West Coast Presence and identified threats trees, open forests, grasslands and scrublands. The southern part of containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, grassland, rice Well developed mangrove swamps can be seen in the northwestern 5.9 Mawella lagoon channel appear as threat to mangroves. Some mangrove swamps are extant along the lagoon channel, and is located about 800m away from the sea. Housing schemes and the mangrove land is used for making shrimp farm ponds, salt paddies, arid scrubland and open forest. 3.7 Arugam and southeastern edges of the lagoon. Settlements in the northeast- 4.12 Kirinda South and North Bolgoda Lakes and the associated channel system 8.7 Puttalam salt pans and settlements are the major threat to the distribution. other land settlements, unplanned tourist activities and landing of production, and rice cultivation. 1.3 Thondamannaru Mangroves are present in fringing and estuarine (in stream river ern and southern parts and aquaculture projects are the major have mangrove vegetation to some extent. Land scarcity in the Extraction of timber has caused a marked reduction in seacraft are the major threats. 1.16 Tambalagam Lake mouths) areas. Urban development, security activities and threats. No considerable distribution of mangroves exists in this lagoon. 7.1 Bolgoda Lake urban area and attraction as a sightseeing area is the major threats. Destruction of mangroves for firewood, beams and poles are the mangrove cover. Large areas of the wetland have been agricultural practices are the main threats to the mangrove Salt industry and chena cultivation have been responsible for the The lagoon system is under considerable threat from the dumping major threats. reclaimed for agriculture and parts of the lagoon are used for This lagoon has well developed fringing mangrove patches. Except 4.13 Bundala 5.10 Dondra Although very narrow fringing mangroves exist at the edge of the vegetation. reduction of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. of urban refuse. aquaculture, and there is some pollution with pesticides used on 3.8 Panama boat landing in some places and a few settlements in the southern lagoon, this area has been encroached by settlers. Fringing mangroves are the salient feature in this lagoon. Expan- 8.8 Vankalai the adjacent agricultural land and proposed Salt Water Exclu- There are small patches of mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. part, threats are minimized. Mangrove vegetation extends as fringes and swamps in this lagoon. This lagoon is located in a highly populated area and about 750m There is little development of mangroves in this lagoon. sion of Vankalai Town and construction of a road network are the 1.17 Illakantai 7.2 Lunawa Lagoon sion Scheme are threats to mangrove vegetation in this lagoon. Rice paddies and extension of salt pans appear as threats. Threats are minimized due to the protection of the area under the main threats to the mangrove vegetation. 3.9 Panakala No considerable mangroves exist in this lagoon. 4.14 Embilikala inland from the sea. A considerable amount of fringing mangroves is The lagoon has extensive mangrove swamps. Mangrove forests are Department of Wild Life. 5.11 Garanduwa 1.4 Punkudutivu present along the lagoon edge. Housing schemes, homesteads and dominated by Rhizophora spp, Bruguiera spp, Avicenniamarina Fringing and patches of mangroves are present as the salient feature No mangrove vegetation. Lagoon: Northeast Coast Presence and identified threats Although few patches of mangroves exist, development of salt pans during 8.9 Periya Kalapuwa 3.10 Solambe Mangrove vegetation exists as fringes and swamps in this lagoon; a expansion of coconut cultivation are the major threats to the 7.4 Negombo lagoon and Lumnitzera racemosa. Rice paddies, grassland and coconut in this lagoon. Expansion of rice paddies and construction of a road the dry season has reduced the distribution of mangrove vegetation. (NW) 1.5 Kayts No mangrove vegetation. 4.15 Malala- Embilikala few places have been encroached but threats are minimized due to mangroves. plantations in surrounding areas have encroached on the mangrove network are the main threats to mangrove vegetation. September, 2016] MANGROVES IN LAGOON ECOSYSTEMS 105

Source: (1). IUCN: 2011. Biodiversity and Socioeconomic Information of Selected Areas of Sri Lankan Side of the Gulf of Mannar, January 2011. (2). Kotagama S.W., Pinto Leonard and Samara- koon L. Jayampathi: Sri Lanka". Wetlands International. http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Portals/15/ SriLanka.pdf. (3). National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency: 2010. Prelimi- nary report on Coastal and Marine Ecosystems, Fisheries and Aquaculture (Phase 1), Crow Island, Mattakkuliya, Colombo 15, December 2010, (4) Silva, E.I.L., J. Katupotha, O. Amerasinghe, H. Manthrithilake et al. Lagoons of Sri Lanka: From the Origins to the Present IWMI 2013; and (5) Field Observations.

Received Date : 05 August 2016 Accepted Date : 25 August 2016