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In Russia and in Sápmi Russian Sámi Representation in Russian and Pan-Sámi Politics, 1992 - 2014

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In Russia and in Sápmi Russian Sámi Representation in Russian and Pan-Sámi Politics, 1992 - 2014 Faculty of Humanities, Social Science and Education Fighting to be Heard – in Russia and in Sápmi Russian Sámi representation in Russian and pan-Sámi politics, 1992 - 2014 Mikkel Berg-Nordlie A dissertation for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor – February 2017 1 Preface This thesis began with the research project Russia in pan-Sámi politics (Russampol, 2009–2012) on the inclusion of the Russian Sámi into border-transcending Sámi politics, and the effects of this on Russian Sámi political life. Russampol was a joint project between my employer NIBR and the institute NUPI, and financed by the Norwegian Research Council’s (NFR) Program for Sámi Studies. The project took me back to the roots of my fascination for Russia. I made the decision to learn Russian after a visit to the Kola Peninsula organized by the Norwegian Sámi youth NGO Davvi Nuorra in 2003. I missed being able to communicate directly with the people I met, not least those who were part of my own border-transcending people. My interest was also piqued by the cultural, social, and political differences between the Russian part of Sápmi – the Sámi homeland – and the Nordic part of it. This eventually led to a Bachelor in Russian Studies at the University of Tromsø (UiT), and a Russia-oriented Master in Peace and Conflict Studies at the University of Oslo. Ïn Oslo, my attention gradually slipped away towards the south: Moscow with its decisive political showdowns, and the Caucasus with its complex ethnic conflicts. The NFR Program for Sámi Studies gave me a way to return to the origin of my academic interest in Russia, and to study the politics of my own people. In 2012, I entered a PhD program in History at UiT, now UiT Arctic University of Norway. One of the two Russampol articles became part of the thesis, while three more articles and the present document (the thesis’ introductory/summary section) were written by utilizing means from diverse sources. Special mention should go to two NIBR projects financed by NFR: Network governance in Russia (Netgovru, 2013–2016) provided time to develop the thesis’ theoretical basis, and Russian Sámi politics in the context of pan-Sámi internationalization 1989–2014 (Pansamru, 2014), provided time and means to finish this thesis.1 A UiT grant financed the thesis’ last major field work in Russia, and NIBR allowed me to work on the thesis without funding on several occasions. The thesis articles were published in 2011 (Article I, “AI”), 2013 (AII), and 2015 (AIII & AIV). The title of this thesis is inspired by an open letter from a Sámi activist and academic which stated that due to the extreme minority position of the Sámi in their home province, “their voice in the common ‘choir’ of Murmansk Region’s inhabitants is difficult to hear” (Kal’te 1995). This thesis examines the continuing struggle of the Russian Sámi to arrange for ways that they can be heard despite their small numbers - not just within the Russian “choir” but also within the 1 Netgovru was financed by NFR’s Program for the Study of Russia and the High North/Arctic, Pansamru by the NFR Program for Sámi Studies 2 border-transcending Sámi people, in which they also constitute a minority. The “fight” brought up in the title refers not just to the group’s struggle for empowerment in its relations with Russian state-based actors and the Nordic Sámi, but also conflicts within the group over how and by whom they should be represented in Russia and in Sápmi. I wish to thank my supervisors at UiT, Hallvard Tjelmeland and Jens Petter Nielsen, for good advice and much support along the way. The same goes for Jørn Holm-Hansen, my local supervisor at NIBR. I also wish to thank my father Bård A. Berg, who, with his own insights and experience as an historian, has provided valuable guidance and support. Thanks are also due to Teemu Ryymin for critical reading, and Susan Høivik for language editing, of the introductory/summary section at earlier stages of its production. During work with the thesis, I have received literature tips, constructive criticism and inspiration from many other researchers. In these cases, the principle of “no one named, no one forgotten” applies. Special mention must however go to my institution’s excellent university librarian Dag Juvkam, who gave invaluable assistance in obtaining the necessary literature rapidly. Dag passed away in September 2016. Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my wife Ingunn for giving me the time necessary to write it. Since work with the PhD began, our family has grown from two to four. With the completion of this thesis, I look forward to spending more time with Ingunn, Samuel Jovnna, and Lydia Márja. Mikkel Berg-Nordlie, Bjølsen, Oslo, February 19, 2017 3 Table of Contents Preface..................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 6 1.1. The Sámi and Sámi Politics ................................................................................................................................... 6 1.2. The Russian Sámi and Russian Sámi Politics.................................................................................................... 8 1.3. The Russian Sámi and Pan-Sámi Politics......................................................................................................... 11 1.4. Research Questions ............................................................................................................................................... 13 1.5. The Structure of the Thesis ................................................................................................................................ 14 2. Historiography: Academic Narratives about Russian Sámi Politics .................................................................. 15 2.1. History-Writing and the Portrayal of Nations ................................................................................................ 15 2.2. Academic Literature Touching on Russian Sámi Politics ............................................................................ 18 2.3. Tendencies and Lacunae ...................................................................................................................................... 24 3. Theory Discussion ......................................................................................................................................................... 25 3.1. Discourses, Actors, and Structures ................................................................................................................... 25 3.1.1. Defining Discourse ....................................................................................................................................... 25 3.1.2. Actors and Structures ................................................................................................................................... 28 3.1.3. Strategically Rational Behavior ................................................................................................................... 29 3.1.4. Non-Rational Behavior ................................................................................................................................ 30 3.1.5. How to Explain Actors’ Behavior ............................................................................................................. 31 3.1.6. What can we Assume about Actors’ Desires? ........................................................................................ 32 3.2. Network Governance ........................................................................................................................................... 33 3.2.1. Defining Network Governance ................................................................................................................. 34 3.2.2. Theories and Models, Focus and Blindness in Research..................................................................... 36 3.2.3. State Power and Network Governance ................................................................................................... 39 3.2.4. Network Governance in Russia ................................................................................................................. 42 3.2.5. Formal and Informal Networking ............................................................................................................. 44 4. Methodology and Ethics .............................................................................................................................................. 45 4.1. General Methodological Challenges ................................................................................................................. 45 4.1.1. General Methodology of the Thesis Articles.......................................................................................... 45 4.1.2. Interviews: “Anti-Immersion,” Consent, and Interviewee Identification ....................................... 47 4.1.3. Informal Networks in Contemporary History ....................................................................................... 50 4.2. Research on Indigenous Peoples: Ethical Considerations .......................................................................... 51 4.2.1. Relevance of the
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