ANTHROPOLOGY MAINS TEST SERIES

TEST NO: 7

MODEL ANSWERS Model Test 7 answers

1)a)Pseudo-tribalism:-Pseudo-tribalism is act of false claim to be tribe. People who do not belong to tribal groups are claiming the status of reservation. So, they started migration to those areas where they are included in STs. Example- Lambadas. First stage of Pseudo-tribalism is bands which are converted into tribes are losing their tribal identity by becoming centralized kingdom. They also try to convert into tribals by marrying tribals. Some of the tribes are converting into non-tribes by Bhagat Movements, Sanskritization. Case Study:- A community may be Scheduled Tribe in one State and it may be Scheduled Caste in another State and same may be backward class or forward class in another State. For example, Lambadas or Banjaras or Sugalis are Scheduled Tribes in Andhra Pradesh, but they are classified as Scheduled Castes in Karnataka and Union Territory of Delhi and Backward Class in neighbouring Maharashtra. Korcha community which is synonymous of Yerukula tribe is in the list of Scheduled Castes in Karnataka State and in Andhra Pradesh, they are Scheduled Tribes. Similarly, ‘Goudu’ is Scheduled Tribe within the Agency tracts of Andhra Pradesh but they are not recognized as Scheduled Tribes in adjoining State of Orissa even though they are predominantly found in tribal areas of Odisha. This kind of anomalies leads to emigration of identical communities from a state where they are not Scheduled Tribe to a State where the same group is scheduled in order to utilize the benefits under the attire of Scheduled Tribes. Identical nomenclature of certain communities, sometimes based on identical traditional occupations within the state also is leading to much confusion and facilitating these non-tribal caste groups to claim Scheduled Tribe social status.

1)b)Ethnicity and Race:-

Ethnicity:-Ethnicity is a state of belonging to a social group that has a common nation or cultural tradition. This is by definition a fluid concept.

Ethnic groups can be broadly or narrowly construed. For example: Indians can be considered as one ethnic group but there are actually dozens of cultural traditions and sub- groups like Gujarati, Bengali, etc. that are also the bonafide ethnic groups.

Yet, another example, people in U.K, they may be British, Scottish, Irish and Welsh.

Race:- Race is a group of people with common physical features while there are hundreds if not thousands of ethnic groups the number of races is far fewer.

Ethnicity Race 1. Ethnicity or ethnic group is a 1. The term Race refers to the concept of population whose members identify dividing population into groups on the with each other on the basis of common basis of various sets of physical nationality or shared culture characteristics which usually results from genetic ancestry. 2. It connotates shared cultural traits and 2.It presumes shared biological or genetic shared group history. Some ethnic traits whether actual or asserted. In the groups also share linguistic/ regional early 19th century racial differences were traits while others share a common ascribed to color, intelligence, etc. but group history but not a common there is no evidence validating these language or religion. claims. 3. Ethnicity is defined in terms of shared 3.Racial categorized shared geneology due to geneology whether actual or presumed. geographical isolation. In the modern world Typically, if people believe that they this geographical isolation has been broken descend from a particular group and down and racial groups have mixed. wants to be associated with that group and then they are in fact members of that group. 4. Ethnic groups distinguish themselves 4.Races assumed to be distinguished by skin differently from one time period to the color, facial type etc. However, the scientific other. They typically seek to define basis of racial distinctions is very weak. themselves but are also defined by Scientific study shows that racial genetic stereotypes of dominant groups. differences are weak except in skin color. 5. In 19th century there was development 5.In the 19th century, the concept of of political ideology of ethnic nationalism was often used to justify the nationalism creating nations based on dominance of one race over another within a presumed or shared ethnic origins for specific nation. example: Germany, Italy and Sweden. 6. In last decades of 20th century in USA 6.In last decades of 20th century, the legal and many other nations the legal system as well as official ideology emphasized system as well as official ideology racial equality. Prohibited ethnic discrimination. 7. Often brutal conflicts have existed 7.Racial prejudice remains a continuing throughout the history and across the problem throughout the world. However, there world but most ethnic groups in fact get are fewer race based conflicts in 20th century along with peacefully with one another than in the past. in most nations most of the times. 8. Examples of Ethnic conflicts: Conflicts 8. Conflicts between Whites, Africans in between Tamilians and Sinhalese in Sri America during civil rights movements. Lanka.

Traditional definition of race and ethnicity is related to both biological and social factors respectively. Race refers to person’s physical characteristics like skin color, hair, eye color, etc.

Ethnicity, however, refers to cultural factors like nationality, ancestry, language, regional culture, etc.

1)c)Role of Governor in administration of tribal areas:-

(A)Role of Governor in Tribal Administration in Fifth Schedule Area:-

(i) The Governor is authorized to direct that any particular Act of Parliament or of the State Legislature shall not apply to a Scheduled Area or shall apply, only subject to exceptions or modifications. The Governor is also authorized to make regulations to prohibit or restrict the transfer of land by, or among members of the Scheduled Tribes.

(ii)The Governor may make regulations for the peace and good government of any area in a State which is for the time being a Scheduled Area.

(iii)The Governors of the State in which there are “Scheduled Areas” have to submit reports to the President regarding the administration of such Areas. These reports must be submitted by the Governor annually or whenever required by the President. (B)Role of Governor in Tribal Administration in Sixth Schedule Areas:- (i)The Governor’s of the four states of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura are empowered to declare some tribal dominated districts/ areas of these states as autonomous districts and autonomous regions by order. No separate legislation is needed for this. The governor also has power to include any other area, exclude any area, increase, decrease, diminish these areas, unite two districts or regions and alter the names and boundaries of these autonomous districts and regions.

(ii) The governor can appoint a commission to examine and report on any matter relating to the administration of the autonomous districts or regions. He may dissolve a district or Regional Council on the recommendation of the Commission.

1)d) V Schedule and VI Schedule:-

V SCHEDULE (Article 244 (1): The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution defines Scheduled Areas as such areas as the President may y order declare as Scheduled Areas after consultation with the governor of the state. Vth Schedule deals with the administration and control of Scheduled Areas as well as of Scheduled Tribes in States other than Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. At present, Scheduled Areas under Fifth Schedule of Indian Constitution have been declared in the 10 States of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan and Telangana. Tribal habitations in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir have not been brought under the Fifth or Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution.

Criteria for declaring Scheduled Area under V Schedule of Indian Constitution: The four main criteria’s for declaring any area as a “Scheduled Area” under the Fifth Schedule are:

(i)Preponderance of tribal population,

(ii)Compactness and reasonable size of the area,

(iii)A viable administrative entity such as a district, block or Taluk, and

(iv)Economic backwardness of the area as compared to the neighbouring areas.

The main features of the administration of Scheduled Areas as provided in V Schedule of Indian Constitution are as follows:

(i)The Executive power of the Union shall extend to giving directions to the respective States regarding the administration of the Scheduled Areas.

(ii)The Governors of the State in which there are “Scheduled Areas” have to submit reports to the President regarding the administration of such Areas. These reports must be submitted by the Governor annually or whenever required by the President.

(iii) Tribes Advisory Councils are to be constituted to give advice on such matters as welfare and advancement of the Scheduled Tribes. (iv)The Constitution provides for the appointment of a Commission to report on the administration of the Scheduled Areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in the States.

(v)The President may appoint such Commission at any time, but the appointment of such Commission at the end of 10 years from the commencement of the Constitution was obligatory.

(vi)These provisions of the Constitution relating to the administration of the Scheduled Areas and Tribes may be altered by Parliament or by ordinary legislation.

VI SCHEDULE: The tribal areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are separately dealt with and provisions for their administration are to be found in the Sixth Schedule to the Indian Constitution. These areas are called tribal areas which are technically different from the Scheduled Areas of the Vth Schedule.

Salient provisions of administration of tribal areas under VI Schedule of Indian Constitution are as follows:

(i) If there are different tribes in an autonomous district, the governor can divide the district into several autonomous regions.

(ii)Each autonomous district has a district council consisting of 30 members, of whom four are nominated by the governor and the remaining 26 are elected on the basis of adult franchise. The elected members hold office for a term of five years (unless the council is dissolved earlier) and nominated members hold office during the pleasure of the governor. Each autonomous region also has a separate regional council.

(iii)The district and regional councils administer the areas under their jurisdiction. They can make laws on certain specified matters like land, forests, canal water, shifting cultivation, village administration and inheritance of property, marriage and divorce, social customs and so on. But all such laws require the assent of the governor.

(iv)The district and regional councils within their territorial jurisdictions can constitute village councils or courts for trial of suits and cases between the tribes. They hear appeals from them. The jurisdiction of high court over these suits and cases is specified by the governor.

(v)The district council can establish, construct or manage primary schools, dispensaries, markets, ferries, fisheries, roads and so on in the district. It can also make regulations for the control of money lending and trading by non- tribal’s. But, such regulations require the assent of the governor.

(vi)The district and regional councils are empowered to assess and collect land revenue and to impose certain specified taxes. (vii)The acts of Parliament or the state legislature do not apply to autonomous districts and autonomous regions or apply with specified modifications and exceptions. 1)e)Socio-economic conditions of Central India tribes:-

Central India consists of the states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand. Out of the total tribal population in the country, 72.25 per cent lives in Central India. The tribal population of Central India can be distinguished from one to another on the basis of their size of population, like, the Gonds of MP, the Bhils of MP and Chhattisgarh , the Santhals of Jharkhand , the Oraons of Jharkhand , the Mundas of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Baigas of MP. (i)Bhil Tribe:- The Bhil of MP, Chhattisgarh generally live in villages. Previously they were hunter and gatherers. Then they have converted to slash and burn techniques until this were declared illegal. Today the Bhil grow maize, millet, wheat, chickpeas, beans, tobacco, peanuts and vegetables. Goats, pigs and chickens are kept. Cattle are kept for their milk. Many Bhil are landless and work as farm laborers for others. They have a tradition of making cloth, pottery or metal tools. They survive in extreme poverty. Health:-

1. Deficiency of essential components in diet leading to malnutrition, protein calorie malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies (vit A, iron and iodine) are common. Goitre of various grades is also endemic in some of the tribal areas. 2. Water borne and communicable diseases: Gastrointestinal disorders, particularly dysentery and parasitic infections are very common, leading to marked morbidity and malnutrition. Malaria and tuberculosis still remain a problem in many tribal areas, while the spectrum of viral and venereal diseases have not been studied in-depth. 3. High prevalence of genetic disorders mostly involving red blood cells: Genetically transmitted disorders like sickle cell anaemia, glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and different forms of thalassaemia are also common. All these defects lead to the early destruction of red blood cells and add to the overall anaemia. 4. Excess consumption of alcohol: The brewing of alcohol from Mohua flower and fruits has been practiced traditionally. However, the switch over to commercially available liquor is likely to be a major threat. 5. Superstitions particularly related to health problems. They believe that most of the diseases are caused by supernatural powers.

Education:- The Bhils' access to education is limited. Despite the availability of state-supported schools and government-sponsored programs for the Scheduled Tribes, literacy levels and educational achievement among the Bhils are low, literacy rates being 6.6% (for women it is less than 1%)

(ii)Baiga Tribe:- The Baiga are a tribe with around 200,000 members that live in Madhya Pradesh. Also known as the Bhuiya, Bhumaia, Bhumiaraja, Bhumij, Bhumija and Bhumijan, they are a Munda or Kolarian tribe and have traditionally been slash-and-burn agriculturalists and hunters. Baiga means “sorcerer, medicine man.” Other tribes in their area consider them priests with special knowledge about the soil. The biggest concentration of this oldest aboriginal tribe is in the ‘Baigachak’ area of Dindori tehsil (now Dindori district) of Mandla district. The area is about 50 km. from dindori, surrounded by thick forest patches, rivulets and hillocks. Baigas economy mainly depends on agricultural pursuits and collection of minor forest produce. The other employment opportunities are unskilled labour and work in forest. They also love to work in the baris (land attached to the house) and grow maize, mustard, vegetables, roots and bulbs. Maize, Kodo, Kutki and Ramtila are the main crops grown by the Baigas. Maize and millets form the major foodstuffs consumed by the Baigas. These are consumed in the form of ‘Pej’, often supplemented by vegetables. They like to smoke ganja and drink alcohol made from the mahua tree. Village life:- The Baiga prefer to build their villages on top of steep hills, with limited access, surrounded by a 30-meter -wide no man’s land and magic wall intended to keep away wild animals and disease. They keep cattle and pigs and grow sweet potatoes, corn and tobacco. Their houses are made of wood and bamboo and have a veranda. Health:- The consumption of Calcium, Thiamin, Riboflavin and Niacin are lower. Worm Infestation, Sickle cell anaemia, goiter are the diseases found amongst the Baigas. Education:-The literacy levels amongst the Baigas are low. Due to poverty level, big family, lack of facilities in schools, marriage under age, lack of Teachers, lack of transportation, etc. Many educational schemes have been introduced by Government to increase level of education and development for Baiga Tribes and other similar tribes, to include them and make them the advantages of education Religion:- The religion of the Baigas is primarily animism. Their principal deity is Bura Deo. The deity is believed to reside in the Saal Saj Tree which is worshipped by the Baigas in the month of May (jeth) during which goats, coconuts, fowls, and liquor of the new mahua crop is offered to the deity. For the village land and boundaries another deity, Thakur Deo is worshipped who is appeased with a white goat. (iii)Santhals:- Santhals of Jharkhand speak Santhali, which belongs to the Austro- Asiatic language family. Santhals have their script called Olchiki, which was developed by Dr Raghunath Murmu in 1925. Accoring to the census their population is around 49,000. They are generally bilingual. Apart from Santhali they also speak Bengali, Oriya and Hindi. Santhals have long head and flat nose. Their complexion varies from dark brown to black in colour. Santhals usually have curly hair. Economic Status: The livelihood of the Santhals revolves around the forests they live in. They fulfill their basic needs from the trees and plants of the forests. Apart from this they are also engaged in the hunting, fishing and cultivation for their livelihood. Santhals posses the unique skills in making the musical equipments, mats and baskets out of the plants. This talent is safely passed on from one generation to the other. Many Santhal are employed in the coal mines near the city of Asansol, West Bengal, or in the steel factories in Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, while others work during part of the year as paid agricultural labourers. Even though they are settled cultivators, their cultivation practices have not improved over time and there is no noticeable impact of modern agricultural technology. The Santhal are engaged in fishing too and migrate in off season to West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh and even to Assam. Religion:- Santhals have no temples of their own. They even do not worship any idols. Santhals follow the Sarna religion. The God and Goddess of Santhal are Marangburu, Jaheraera, and Manjhi. Santhals pay respect to the ghosts and spirits like Kal Sing, Lakchera, Beudarang etc. They have village priests known as the Naiki and shaman Ujha. Animal sacrifices to the Gods are the common practice common practice among the Santhals to appease the Gods and Goddess.

Groups of villages are linked together in a larger territorial unit termed a pargana, which also has a hereditary headman. The Santhal have 12 clans, each divided into a number of subdivisions also based on descent, which is patrilineal. Traditionally, members of the same clan do not marry each other. Village life-style:- Their traditional village council consists of the Headman (Majhi Haalam), the Assistant Headman (Jog-Majhi), the Priest (Naike), and the Messenger (Godett). It also includes one adult male member from each household. Education:- More than 1/4th of the total population are illiterate i.e. 25.47%.This pitiable condition is due to various factors, like; the remoteness, poverty, poor health condition. “the students come from families of low socio-economic background find it very difficult to continue their education at very early stage and it has been estimated that sixty-five percent (65%) of the causes of wastage are due to economic reasons. This is because at the age of 9 or 10, the child becomes an economic asset, because he/ she can work at home or earn something outside. Health:- The common diseases found among the Santhal are- malaria, diarrhea, dysentery, viral fever, skin diseases, cold fever, cough etc., for treatment of the same majority of the people seek the help of the traditional medicine man the Kabiraj or Vaid. Besides the magical healing, the Santhal also practices the herbal preparation according to the advice of the medicine man. They use many types of root. Some also take allopathic medicines. (iv)Munda Tribe:- Munda tribe mainly inhabit in the region of Jharkhand, although they are well spread in the states of West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Bihar. Munda generally means headman of the village. Mundas form a significant element in the state population and are quite well represented (Scheduled Tribes make up 26.3% of Jharkhand's population and Mundas account for 14.8% of the ST population).

Language and Physical Characteristics: Mundas speak Mundari language, which belongs to the family of Austro- Asiatic. The complexion of Mundas is blackish. They have short curly hair. With the passage of time some of the Mundas resembles same features as that of the Bengali's. Religion:-Christianity is the main religion followed among the Mundas. Apart from that Mundas have their own religion known as Sarna. Sarna stress on the belief of one God. Mundas believe in the Supreme Being known as the Singbonga, which means the Sun God. The Mundas are highly superstitious people. The Sarna people do not have any written code of moral laws. Some of the Mundas also worship Lord Shiva. They celebrate music and dance practices on the occasion of Christmas and Easter.

Occupation of the Mundas:- Mundas have remained haunters for centuries. But now they have been converted into the settled agriculturist. Most of the them do not have land of their own. They are largely dependent on the labour work in the fields to earn their livelihood.

Food and clothing of Mundas:- Mundas have been the animal eaters for the long time. They usually eat frogs, snakes, rats, earthworms, shells and snails. They prefer having Tari and Haria wine on the various occasions. Munda men usually wear pant and shirts. While the Munda Women are seen wearing the cotton saris with the cholis or blouse.

Health:- They are most exploited, neglected, and highly vulnerable to diseases with high degree of malnutrition, morbidity and mortality. Their misery is compounded by poverty, illiteracy, ignorance of causes of diseases, hostile environment, poor sanitation, lack of safe drinking water and blind beliefs, etc. The chief causes of high maternal mortality rate are found to be poor nutritional status, low hemoglobin (anemia). Average calorie as well as protein consumption is found is below the recommended level for the pregnant as well as lactating women. Some of the preventable diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, gastroenteritis, filariasis, measles, tetanus, whooping cough, skin diseases (scabies), etc. are also high among these tribals. Some of the diseases of genetic origin are sickle cell anemia, alpha- and beta-thalassemia, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, etc. Education:- Their educational level is low. Despite the existence of anti-child labor legislation, bonded child labor is still found in Jharkhand. Despite the existence of anti-child labor legislation, bonded child labor is still found in Jharkhand. Conditions of Munda child laborers, such as those doing mica mining in the districts of Koderma and Giridih, continue to be grim. Many children have reportedly died due to mine collapse, while diseases such as silicosis, asthma and bronchitis, tuberculosis, and malnutrition are common. Social problems faced by Mundas:- Mundas are victims of land alienation through the illegal transfer of land to non-tribals in violation of the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act. The most popular method is by marrying tribal girls, buying tribal land in their names and, after dumping the tribal wives, selling the land to non-tribals. The tribals are also victimized under various forest laws. They face forcible evictions, harassment and imprisonment by the police and the forest officials. Poverty, illiteracy, and inheritance laws contribute greatly to the marginalization of Munda women in Indian society.

(v)Oraons:-The Oraons of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Chhotta Nagpur are les involved in agriculture while their involvement working in mining, quarrying, and manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs within the industrial sector has shown a rising trend. They are the followers of Sarna religion which has views alike to Hindu religion. Many of them also follow Christianity. Their mother tongue is Hindi. They often organise functions and get-together during festivals of Sarna Dharam, and follow the rituals of traditional dance and songs.

Health:- Poor status of the tribal’s leads to widespread malnutrition and anemia. According to Oraon female adolescents cold, cough, fever, headache, toothache, skin infections, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, and body ache were considered as minor health problems. They believed that such health problems occurred due to seasonal changes in the environment. Major health problems were paid more attention among Oraons as it hampered their daily life. Anemia, chickenpox, typhoid, epilepsy, jaundice, malaria, and tuberculosis were major health problems. Tribals developed their own medicine system and do possess some basic medical knowledge to diagnosis the disease at individual level. As noted in the previous section, tribals relied on both magico-religious and ethno-medical treatment for curing their health problems. Mostly, tribals preferred traditional method for their treatment instead of modern medical treatment because of low cost and easy availability than modern health care system.

Education:- Literacy levels among the Oraon are higher than those of other Scheduled Tribes. This is particularly true among Oraons who are Christians, whose better education give them access to better jobs. In addition to spreading Christianity, they have opened hospitals and dispensaries and run high-quality schools throughout the tribal area. Ranchi, the largest city of Chota Nagpur, is an important regional educational center. Formal education is also spreading rapidly among non-Christian groups.

One problem faced by the Oraon is that literacy is often in a language other than the Kurukh mother tongue. Many Oraon professionals who have good positions are concerned that the Oraons are losing their mother tongue and have asked parents to teach their children Kurukh, even though it does little to prepare them for competitive employment in the "real world." (vi)Gonds:-They live in the hilly and deep forest areas of Madhya Pradesh. Forest cover is dense in places, and communications are generally difficult.

Language:-Gonds belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is related to Tamil and Kannada. The language offers a cultural connection between the many Gond groups. Many Gonds also speak Hindi, Marathi.

Religion:-Gonds worship a high god known as Baradeo, whose alternate names are Bhagavan, Sri Shambu Mahadeo, and Persa Pen. Each village has its Village-Guardian and Village-Mother who are worshipped when villagers celebrate regular festivities. Gonds also worship family and household gods, gods of the field, and gods of cattle. Gonds believe evil spirits inhabiting the hills and the gods' displeasure cause most diseases and misfortunes.

Living Conditions:- Each Gond village has a headman (known by local names such asmukhia, mahji, orpatel) and a village council(panchayat)chosen by the villagers. The council consists of the headman, priest, village watchman, and four or five elders. It helps keep the village running smoothly and upholds Gond customs. Villages also have service castes such as Ahir (cowherds), Agaria (blacksmiths), Dhulia (drummers), and Pardhan (bards and singers). A typical Gond village has several hamlets. Each consists of homesteads that house extended families. Houses are usually built of mud and thatch. Gond houses contain cots and a few wooden stools; mats are used for sitting and sleeping. Clothing:- Gond men typically wear the dhoti, or loincloth. Women wear a saree with a choli.

Food:- The staples of the Gond diet are two millets known askodo and kutki. Vegetables are either grown in gardens or collected from forests along with roots and tubers. Honey is also gathered from forests. Rice is a luxury item that Gonds enjoy during feasts and festivals. Most Gonds like meat. Animals sacrificed at ceremonies are eagerly consumed, and animals hunted in the forest supplement the diet. Gonds must abstain from the flesh of animals that are their clan totems. Gonds grow tobacco for smoking and for celebrations make liquor from the mahua tree.

Occupation:- Gonds today are mainly farmers. Although some Gond communities have risen to the status of landowners, many are landless laborers.

Education:-Literacy among Gonds is 15 percent in Madhya Pradesh. Among females in Madhya Pradesh, it drops to about 4 percent. Few children attend school regularly, and girls rarely continue past primary school.

Health:- There are several communicable diseases prevalent amongst the Gonds. These are: tuberculosis, hepatitis, malaria, filariasis, diarrhoea, dysentery, jaundice, parasitic infestation, Viral and Fungal infections, conjunctivitis, measles, leprosy, cough and cold. They frequently become victims of repeated epidemics of the above mentioned contagious diseases. The school children are the victims of undernourishment.

Social Problems:- They suffer exploitation and discrimination, and often are forced to live on less productive lands in remote areas. They are experiencing increasing pressure on their land, a rise in the number of landless laborers, and high levels of poverty. Lack of education and low levels of literacy further reduce economic opportunity.

(vii) Birhors:- Birhors, means ‘dwellers of the forest’ (Bir-Forest, hor-dwellers), are one of the seven primitive tribes of Madhya Pradesh. In Madhya Pradesh, they are mainly concentrated in Raigarh and Surguja districts. The total population of the tribe is only 938 in Madhya Pradesh. The Birhor settlement is known as tanda which consists of at least half a dozen huts. The huts are of a conical shape. The Birhor religion presents a mixture of animism, animatism, naturalism, worship and belief in Bhuta-Preta and witchraft. Among the Birhor tribe, clan generally known is ‘Killi’ which is the most important kin group. It is an exogamous group, through the rule of exogamy is not maintained in all the cases.

Occupation:-They are nomadic hunters, food gatherers and rope makers. Their economy is still traditional and mainly based on forest. Forest plays a vital role in their life. Birhor collect a number of fruits, wood, vegetable etc. from the forests. Rope and rope made articles are also the important primary occupations of the Birhor. They have great specialization in making ropes from different types of bark of creepers and trees. Hunting and trapping of animals and birds are considered as their food. Sometimes they sell these articles at the local hatts (market) for earning money. They also gather roots, shoots, leaves, fruits and other forest products from the forest. As a result all the traditional settlements of the Birhors are found near forests.

Health:-Most of the Birhors die due to starvation. Major diseases found amongst them are nutritional deficiencies, dental disorders, skin infections, diarrheal disorders.

Education:- The standard of education of the Birhor is very low. Generally they are illiterate. Most of the girls initially attend the school and reach up to the stage of primary level. They are reluctant to continue their high school education as the school is far away from the home and parents do not wish to send them to school.

(viii)Hill Korwa: _ Pahari Korwa/ Hill Korwa tribe is found mainly in the Raigarh, Surguja and Bilaspur districts of Madhya Pradesh. The Hill Korwas are landless and their economy is forest based. Previously they were engaged in shifting cultivation. Minor forest produces like, mahua, harra, bahera, amala, chironji etc. form a part of their economy. The staple diet of the tribe is coarse rice, maize or kodo. But often their diet is supplemented with various roots, tubers, leaves, animals. They live in Kaccha houses built of mud, leaf.

Occupation:- Their socio-economic status is based on hunting and food gathering, daily wage labour.

Health:-Consumption of protein, calcium and vitamin A is not included in their diet. During diseases, they prefer traditional folk healers, and only few of them go to hospitals. Children are undernourished, drink contaminated water.

Education:-Their educational level is low due to poverty. Only 2 percent of them nearly go to school.

(Students can write any five tribes)

2)a)The various factors responsible for unrest among tribal communities in India are as follows:-

(i)Government failures:- The failure of the government to take appropriate measures to rehabilitate the tribal population both before and after independence had disappointed the tribal’s. Independent India’s Constitution envisages a comprehensive and well designed scheme of action for the tribal protection and development. The state governments are vested with the responsibility of implementing the constitutional provisions. Unfortunately, these constitutional provisions have remained non-operational. Land continues to pass out of the tribal’s to non- tribal. Money lenders continue to exploit them. There has been a heavy influx of outsiders into the tribal areas and they have grabbed most of the opportunities.

(ii) Irresponsibility and lack of sympathy on the part of the administrators and bureaucrats in dealing with the tribal problems:- There are a number of agencies to look after and supervise the implementation of the tribal welfare programmes and schemes. At the level of the central government, for example, there are major agencies namely; (i) The Ministry of Tribal Welfare (MOTA), (ii) Commissioner for Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes, (iii) National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Such multiplicity of agencies divides the responsibility and leads to irresponsibility and unaccountability. Inconsiderate and unsympathetic forest laws and regulations damaged the tribal emotionality. Lands traditionally owned and cultivated by the tribal’s have been branded as “forest lands”. As a result, the tribal’s have become strangers and encroachers in their own land. This has resulted into tribal unrest.

Lack of legislation to prevent the passing of the tribal land into the hands of non-tribal has added to tribal unrest. Due to some loopholes in the existing system of law the tribal land continues to be alienated to non-tribal for their own exclusive uses. The state governments have also acquired tribal land for industrial, irrigation, power, mining, and other projects. As a result, the tribal’s have been deprived of their rights over the land.

(iii) Political Indifference:- Lack of interest and dynamism among the political elite to solve the tribal problems made them to become disgusted. National level political parties have not paid due attention to the genuine problems of the tribal’s. Tribals are remembered only at the time of elections. The political indifference has made the tribal’s to organize their own political parties at local level.

(iv) Forceful Cultural Impositions:- Tribals want to retain their original culture but they are bewildered by the process of conversion of tribal’s into Hindu, Christian and also the Islam religions. This has caused lot of anxiety and a sense of insecurity for them.

(v) Demand for autonomy:- (i)The fear of being assimilated into the dominant culture and, hence, to preserve one’s language and culture by demanding an autonomous state, ii) the skewed economic development of India where certain groups feel that they have been left behind despite being rich in resources in their regions . Examples include the Bodoland Movement in the state of Assam, the Jharkhand Movement in the state of Bihar and Telangana movement in the state of Andhra Pradesh.

(vi)Naxalism:-The growing threat of Maoist violence in India (also called naxalism) in the tribal dominated regions of the country (like Jharkhand), where the tribes are engaged in armed rebellion against the state, is a direct consequence of their oppression, displacement, poverty and anger against their cultural erosion under the onslaught of the dominant mainstream culture.

Conclusion:- On the basis of the above mentioned factors, the major types of tribal movements can be analyzed as religious and social reform movements, statehood within Indian Union or for autonomy for tribal areas and movements for asserting cultural rights. Prior to advent of the British rule, the tribal’s of India in general led a comparatively peaceful life. The social changes occurred during the British regime affected tribal life with the generation of modern civilization. Exposure, exploitation in the hands of non-tribal’s and conversion of religion culminated into strong reaction amidst the tribal’s. Since then, the tribal’s have been revolting against the establishment for various reasons. Some of the noted 19th century tribals revolts are -Mizo (1810), Kols (1795 and 1831), Mundas (1889), Daflas (1875), Khasi and Garo (1829), Kacharis (1839), Santhals (1853), Maria Gonds (1886), Nagas (1844 and 1979).

Some of the contemporary movements are- Jharkhand movement, Bodoland movement etc.

Suggestions for ending tribal movements in India:- a. Tribal rights in land and forest should be respected.

b. Tribal culture and their values should be respected and retained. c. Top priority should be given by the government for economic development of tribal dominated deprived regions.

2)b)An account of various developmental programmes and welfare measures for tribal people with special reference to education:-

(i)Scheme of strengthening education among ST Girls in low literacy districts The primary objective of this Central Sector Scheme is promotion of education among tribal girls in the identified low literacy districts of the country. The scheme aims to improve the socio- economic status of the poor and illiterate tribal population through the education of women. The Scheme has been revised with effect from 1.4.2008. The Scheme aims to bridge the gap in literacy levels between the general female population and tribal women and is meant exclusively for ST Girls. The educational complexes are established in rural areas of identified districts and have classes I to V with a provision for up gradation up to class Xll, provided there is sufficient accommodation for classrooms, hostel, a kitchen, gardening and for sports facilities. The educational complexes impart not only formal education to tribal girls but also train the students in agriculture, animal husbandry, other vocations and crafts to make them economically strong.

(ii)Post Matric Scholarship (PMS) for ST students The Scheme was introduced during the year 1944-45 and has since been revised from time to time. The last revision of the scheme has been made w.e.f. 01.04.2013.

Salient features: • A Centrally Sponsored Scheme implemented by the State Governments and Union Territory Administrations. • 100% Central assistance over and above the committed liability of the States Governments/UTs administration from the Government of India. • The Scheme provides financial assistance to the Scheduled Tribe students studying at post matriculation or post-secondary stage. • Scholarships are available for studies in India only. • The State Government and UT to which the applicant actually belongs award the scholarship. • The scheme also covers central assistance to States/UTs for setting up Book Banks. Eligibility: • Scholarships are paid to students whose parents’/guardians’ income from all sources does not exceed Rs. 2.50 lakh per annum. • Scheduled Tribe candidates who have passed the matriculation or higher secondary or any higher examination of a recognized University or Board of Secondary Education are eligible.

(iii)Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Hostels for ST boys and ST Girls • Hostels are immensely beneficial to the students of ST community hailing from rural and remote areas. • While the Scheme of Hostels for ST Girls is in operation since the 3rd Five Year Plan, the Scheme for of ST Boys was started with effect from the year 1989-90.During the 10th Five Year Plan both the schemes have been merged into a single scheme.

Applicability of the Scheme and Objectives of the Modification • The scheme is for ST boys and girls (including Primitive Tribal Groups). The primary objective of the modification is to attract the implementing agencies for undertaking hostel construction programme for ST Girls studying in middle schools, higher secondary schools, colleges and universities towards the broader vision of containment and reduction of their dropout rate.

Implementing Agencies and Eligibility • The Scheme will be implemented through the State Governments/Union Territory

(iv)Establishment of Ashram Schools in Tribal Sub-Plan Areas • The scheme is in operation since 1990-91 and has been revised w.e.f. the financial year 2008-09. • The objective of the scheme is to provide residential schools for Scheduled Tribes including PTGs in an environment conducive to learning to increase the literacy rate among the tribal students and to bring them at par with other population of the country.

Salient features: • This is a centrally sponsored scheme and is operational in the Tribal sub-Plan States/UT Administrations. • The scheme covers primary, middle, secondary and senior secondary level of education. • Under the revised scheme, State Governments are eligible for 100% funding for establishment of Ashram Schools (i.e. school buildings, hostels, kitchen and staff quarters) for girls in TSP areas and also for construction of Boys’ Ashram Schools in TSP areas in naxal affected areas (identified by Ministry of Home Affairs from time to time). • The funding pattern for the other Boys’ ashram Schools is on 50:50 basis, while cent percent assistance is given to UTs for construction of both Girls’ and Boys’ Ashram Schools. • Financial assistance on 50:50 basis is given for other non-recurring items of expenditure i.e. purchase of equipment, furniture and furnishing, purchase of few sets of books for a small library for use of inmates of the hostels etc.

(v)Eklavya Model Residential School • The Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) for ST students take their place among the Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas, the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas and the Kendriya Vidyalayas. • Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) are set up in States/UTs with grants under Article 275(1) of the Constitution of India.

Objectives of EMRS The objective of EMRS is to provide quality middle and high level education to Scheduled Tribe (ST) students in remote areas, not only to enable them to avail of reservation in high and professional educational courses and as jobs in government and public and private sectors but also to have access to the best opportunities in education at par with the non ST population. This would be achieved by: • Focus differentially on the educational support to be made available to those in Standards XI and XII, and those in standards VI to X, so that their distinctive needs can be met, • Support the annual running expenses in a manner that offers reasonable remuneration to the staff and upkeep of the facilities. (vi)National Overseas Scholarships for Scheduled Tribe Students It is a Central Scheme to provide financial assistance to meritorious students for pursuing higher studies in foreign university in specified files of Master Level Courses, Ph.D and Post-Doctoral research programmes, in the field of Engineering, Technology and Science. The Scheme was introduced during the year 1954-55 and has since been revised from time to time. This was Non- Plan Scheme, which became a Plan Scheme from 2007-08. Salient features: • Financial assistance is provided to 15 meritorious students (13 for ST and 2 for PTG) for pursuing higher studies abroad at the Masters level and Ph. D and Post-Doctoral research programmes in 35 specified disciplines of Engineering, Technology and Sciences. • The Scheme attempts at enhancing the employment avenues for ST candidates. • 100% Central Assistance is provided directly to the candidates.

(vii) Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) and Mid Day Meal Scheme (MDMS):- SSA, launched in 2000, seeks to achieve universal access to education and retention of students in schools. MDMS, launched in 1995, seeks to address the issues of hunger and education in schools by serving hot cooked meals and improving the nutritional status of children, enrolment, and attendance and retention rates.

A shortfall in the infrastructure required for the implementation of MDMS was also observed. For example, lack of pucca buildings, separate toilet facilities for boys & girls, unavailability and poor functional condition of kitchen sheds, etc.

The Committee also noted that most states did not follow the central government’s guidelines on delivering food grains at the school by Public Distribution System dealers. There were also instances where due to the long supply chain, the supplied food grains got adulterated and pilfered. The Committee recommended that the district nodal authorities must strictly demand utilisation certificates from the implementing authority and the schools so that delivery of funds or food grains are not delayed.

Several new initiatives have been started by the central government to aid the implementation of SSA and MDMS. These include accreditation of teachers’ training institutes, Swachha Vidyalaya, Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat, and Shaala – Siddhi. The Committee also recommended that the pilot project of establishing Smart Classes in government schools must be initiated. This would help make the teaching–learning process more effective through computer enabled techniques.

2)c) Tribal Struggle in India during British Rule:-

British had to face struggle- in tribal and non- tribal areas. Problems for British were to maintain law and order. British had their own perception of tribal’s. For them they were predatory bandits who used to rob the travelers and the Britishers did not want to go into the details of the Tribal’s problems. Hutton however, observed that during the early days of British Rule, the policy of their administration was detrimental to a great extent to the economic condition of the tribal’s. Out of shear ignorance, British neglected the rights and customs. In fact the British Raj did not distinguish between tribal and caste system treating both at par, British did not give any special treatment to tribal’s. Some popular tribal rebellion:- 1. Munda Rebellion: There were series of armed uprisings from 1789 onwards. The Mundas expressed their dissatisfaction from time to time. Britishers crushed the armed resistance of tribal’s on all occasions. From 1899-1900 there was a serious Munda Revolt. It was led by Birsa Munda. Birsa was regarded as incarnation of god by the Mundas. This revolt was ruthlessly suppresses by the Britishers. 2. Kol’s, Draon’s, Ho’s rebellion: Area inhabited by Kol’s is a part of Chotanagpur plateau then province of Bengal. Ho’s and Oaons also participated in these revolts. The main cause is introduction of permanent settlement by Cornwallis into underdeveloped tribal areas. It led to general discontent amongst the tribal’s. In 1832 under the leadership of Gangnarayan Singh they revolted against the British. Like other revolt, this was also suppressed ruthlessly. 3. Santhal Rebellion: Santhals living in Bihar and Bengal also expressed their resentment which led to Santhal Rebellion in 1855 which was the most serious of all outbreaks. British killed nearly 10,000 Santhals to suppress the revolt. 4. Gonds’: Due to loss of traditional privileges in A.P. and nearby areas expressed their discontent through the Gond Rebellion. 5. Tribal’s of Andaman & Nicobar: In 1858, AandN islands were occupied by British. From this time onwards, the aborigins of this island constantly strubbled British The Onges, Jarawas were the most hostile tribe against British. 6. Bhils: In British territories of Khandesh, the Bhils disturbed the peace of the area in 1829. Britishers raised Bhil corps for establishing peace and order in the society. In Malwa (a British administered area), Bhils were constant source of trouble to authorities. Thus, in the 19th century all these rebellions show the discontent of tribal’s towards British policies.

Causes for Revolts against British:

In the opinion of Raghavaiah enhancement of cess, eviction from lands by wealthy money lenders, sufferings due to wars and harassments by disbanded soldiers were responsible for dissatisfaction amongst tribal’s and agrarian communities.

Stephen has given due importance to economic factors along with social and cultural causes. According to him, intense dissatisfaction existed amongst tribal’s against social and economic conditions which they were forced to accept. The utter neglect of the area by British was also responsible for many such revolts.

According to K.S. Singh, land problem is one of the main causes of rebellion of Mundas under Birsa. Due to ignorance about their rights on land the British enforced their laws on Mundas. Their areas were also included under permanent land settlement introduced by Cornwallis. The regulation for conservation of forests disposed the Mundas from their traditional rights. Under these regulations they were prevented from cutting wood for domestic consumption. They could not graze their cattle in the forest and were not allowed to utilize land in the forest for tilling. In famines 1896-97 and 1899-1900, Mundas suffered heavy loss of life and cattle. Similarly, the laws of traditional rights in forest were one of the main causes of revolts by Gonds.

According to Heinzendorf, important reasons for dissidence with portion of tribal’s were because of Britishers established system of law which encouraged the outsiders to enter into tribal land and exploit their life. Even Verrier Elwin opined the same. According to Ganashyam Shah there were several reasons for tribal movements in India. A few of them include deprivation of tribal’s of their forest rights which is main source of livelihood. Subsequent harassment by forest bureaucracy.

According to Verrier Elwin tribal’s firmly believe that forest belongs to them and they have the right to do what they will to do with it. They have been there for centuries. It is their life and they consider themselves justified in resisting any attempt to deprive them of it.

3)b)Development induced displacement in tribal’s:-

The following are some of the important impacts of Developmental Projects on displaced tribal’s: (i) Decline in Joint Family System:- Prior to displacement, there were 40 nuclear and 60 joint families, which after displacement was changed into 74 nuclear and 26 joint families respectively. Both tribal and non-tribal families showed the same trend of breaking down of joint family to nuclear families. This is a general feature noticed in most of the development projects similar to that of Mahanadi Coal Fields Limited.

(ii) Landlessness:- Development projects have led to landlessness of the displaced tribal’s. India being a farm dominated society with agriculture as the main occupation, displacement from land, removes the main foundation on which people’s productive systems, commercial activities and livelihood are based. Unless this foundation is reconstructed elsewhere or replaced by steady income-generating employment, landlessness sets in and the affected families are impoverished. In most of the cases/ projects, compensating land for land norm could not be followed. But cash compensation is inadequate to make up for the loss of land. This impact in case of developmental projects has serious implication on the displaced people and therefore needs special consideration by the project implementing agencies in general and particularly for the policy makers formulating strategies at the government level.

(iii) Homelessness, Joblessness and increase in the proportion of the workers in a new place :- When people were displaced from their habitat, they lose their means of livelihood. Creation of new jobs or alternative sources of income for them becomes very difficult since the oustees do not possess any skill to learn new methods of earning their livelihood. Hence those who were owners of the means of production before displacement have now become daily wage earners. In case of the LB Valley Project, though the Mahanadi Coal Fields Ltd. authorities followed the policy of providing job to a member of each of the displaced family, but the other members of the displaced families remained jobless. Prior to displacement, each and every member were working in their fields. Loss of house and shelter may be only temporary during the transition period for most of the displaced. But for some, homelessness remains a permanent feature.

(iv)Food Insecurity:- Forced displacement increases the risk of chronic food insecurity. Forced displacements deprive the oustees from their agricultural lands rendering them landless. Even when homestead land was provided to them in compensation, the oustees could not properly cultivate in the hilly area, ultimately they had to depend on the market. In the LB Valley project, the displaced families have to buy everything including food items from the market.

(v)Loss of Access to Common Property:- For the poor people, particularly, the landless and otherwise asset less people, loss of access to common property (forest lands, water bodies, grazing land, etc.) leads to a major deterioration in their income and livelihood levels. Such lost resources are rarely compensated by the Government in the relocation sites. There are also frequent conflicts between the host population and new settlers over the use of forest land and other government land. As a result, the resettle do not get fuel wood and other minor forest produce, which they used to collect from the forests in their old habitat.

(vi) Social disintegration:- Forced displacement tears apart the social fabric of the oustees. Kinship groups and family systems are often scattered and cultural identity of the people is under threat. Social and community networks that help people to cope with poverty through exchange of food and clothing, mutual help with farming, building houses and caring children are disrupted. Social disintegration has been a major impoverishment risk in all the developmental projects undertaken. In the LB Valley Project, the mutual help arrangement and other socio-economic relationships among the displaced tribal’s have been totally disrupted.

(vii)Increased Morbidity and Mortality:- Loss of ancestral and homestead land, no access to health care facilities, the psychological trauma caused thereby and the food insecurity together often leads to serious diseases among the displaced people. There is also the danger of parasitic and vector born diseases in the relocated sites because of unsafe water, poor sewerage etc. In fact, lack of food, unhygienic living and environmental degradation in the new place were found in the project area to have a serious impact on the health of the oustees. In the lb Valley project, pollution caused by coal dust and frequent blasting has caused skin diseases, eye irritation, gastric disorders, diarrhoea and other ailments. Though medical centers have been opened in the resettlement colony they are dysfunctional due to an absence of the doctors. Impact of developmental projects after resettlement of displaced people: The findings of the study shows that the following situation prevails in the resettlement area and to the displaced people in general and the displaced tribal families in particular (majority of them were tribal’s): (i)The general socio-economic condition of the displaced people has deteriorated significantly.

(ii)Socio- economic inequalities have widened among the displaced people

(iii)Their cropping has changed drastically.

(iv)There was an increase in the proportion of the agricultural labourers and an increasing trend towards nuclear families amongst the displaced people

(v)The housing condition of oustees was poor.

(vi)There was an improper use of the compensation money by the displaced people

(vii)There was a rise in incidence of indebtedness amongst the displaced people

(viii)There was a drastic reduction in the socio- economic condition of women. Prior to displacement, the tribal women were the cultivators in their agricultural land. After displacement, they were compelled to work as maid in the houses of officers in their new compensated sites.

Critical areas of concern: 1. Lack of basic amenities: Most of the development projects failed to provide basic amenities to the displaced people which are area of concern.

2. Non- availability of wage work: Avenues of wage work are severely restricted in resettlement colonies forcing many oustees to migrate to places outside the district and even the state.

3. Decline in role of women and their relationship in their family:- Women play a vital role in family, community and society. As a consequence of displacement, their income has either diminished or has come to a halt altogether. They have become totally dependent on their husband or sons for household expenditure. These made their role and status in their families very limited.

4. Social Disintegration amongst the displaced people:- The cordial and intimate relationship of pre- displacement period is now disrupted.

5. Decrease in Family Income:- Decrease in family income has created conflicts and bitterness amongst them. Number of problems is arising out of cash compensations which are often misused by male members on consumer’s durables or liquor. Increased alcolhism has leaded to rise in crimes in these areas.

6. Increasing difficulties in arranging marriage for daughters:- Women oustees now face great difficulties in getting married by demand of more dowries. Use of cash compensation on marriages leave the family pauperized. Conclusion:- In view of the above effects of displacement of developmental projects on tribal’s, it is necessary not only to identify risks in each development project that entails displacement of tribal’s but also to focus on compensation and rehabilitation for damages as well as benefit sharing arrangement for these indigenous people. Case Study:-

Developmental Projects and their impact on Tribal Displacement: Construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam The construction of the Sardar Sarovar dam at Vadgam village in Gujarat displaces more than 41,000 Adivasi families (over 200,000 people) in the three states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh. To date, Gujarat government claims to have resettled 7500 odd families affected by the project. The resettled Adivasis are facing many serious problems. The land that is given to them is uncultivable or water logged in hundreds of cases. Many more have not been given sufficient land. Many others have been given fragmented or encumbered land. Most sites do not have adequate drinking water or sanitation or health facilities. None of the sites have grazing land, fodder, or firewood facilities. Not even one hamlet has been resettled together. Not even families are settled together. Even fathers and sons have been given lands in distant places

In Rameshwarpura resettlement site of Gujarat, where Adivasis from Madhya Pradesh state have been resettled, here Adivasis died due to poor drinking water facilities and the accumulated impact of malnutrition. The authorities have made no compensation for the common property resources like forest, fish, water, among others, enjoyed by the Adivasis in their original village. Many sites have been allotted on black cotton-growing soil, which is difficult to level and construct on. There is no land provided for grazing cattle; the black soil does not facilitate even wild grass to grow. Some of the land is in a ditch and water from above will flow into the site. There are no proper roads, no drainage facilities, no sewage and, no provisions for water. The house plots allotted to the displaced persons are ridiculously far from their agricultural land.

3)c)A critical analysis of the impact of modern democratic institutions on tribal’s:-

1. PESA

Provisions of Part 9 of Constitution relating to Panchayats are not applicable to Vth Scheduled Areas. However, the Parliament may extend these provisions to such areas subject to such exceptions and modifications as it may specifically require. Under these provisions the parliament has enacted the provisions of Panchayats (Extension of Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, popularly known as PESA. As of now, A.P. Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, M.P, Maharashtra, Odisha and Rajasthan ( 9 states) has scheduled areas. Telangana is yet to submit its report to the President. Provisions under PESA include the following: 1.Gramsabha at district and Taluka at village. 2. Gram Sabha to protect traditions, beliefs and culture of tribals. 3. Local disputes to be resolved by Gram Sabha. 4. Gram Sabha to manage and protect the women properties based on their traditional systems of management and production. 5. Administration to seek permission from Gram Sabha in case of land acquisition. 6. Gram Sabha to have rights over minor forest produce. 7. Power to restore land to tribal’s, control over money lending to tribal’s, tribal welfare activities by welfare organization, local plans and sub plans for development of tribal’s, their areas and communities. 8. Gram Sabha to have control over local markets and melas. 9. Recommendation of Gram Sabha and Panchayat at appropriate levels for grants for mining and lease for mining minerals and grants for concession of exploitation of minerals by auction. 10. Gram Sabha to have rights to control the distillation, prohibition and manufacture of liquor. 11. District Panchayats to have rights and powers similar to the District Panchayats falling under the 5th Schedule. 6th Schedule falling under TAC and Governor should protect and promote the advancement of Scheduled Tribes. Limitations of PESA 1. It can be only effective as Panchayati Raj Institutions and that depend upon elected representatives to deliver. 2. For PESA Gram Sabhas are units at the ground level. Most states have enacted laws that provide bulk of powers to Gram Panchayats and not to Gram Sabhas. Hence, they remain subordinate to Gram Panchayats. 3. Lower levels of awareness and education among the tribals come in the way of rising assertive voices. 4. PESA is applicable only to those areas which are legally regarded as Scheduled Areas. A significant number of tribals living outside the Scheduled Areas are not covered by PESA. 5. While the political decentralization has been largely successful with regular elections held and with ample participation of people, superficial administration and fiscal decentralization of power which still remain with State Government. 6. Panchayats have not been given adequate responsibility to levy and collect taxes, fees, duties/ tolls. 7. Recommendations of State Finance Commission have been either accepted partially or implemented selectively. 8. Government functionaries treat tribal as inferiors and hence the district administration and forest department subordinate the Gram Sabha and hence making the act in-effective. 9. Extensive coalition between politicians, bureaucrats and private companies which has displaced scores of tribal from their lands. 10. State Governments laws and provisions clearly negate the PESA Act. For e.g. PESA is for the rural areas, states upgrade the rural Panchayats in the Scheduled Areas to urban Panchayats to bypass PESA and give clearance to mining and industries in tribal areas. 11. PESA does not specify rule making power of provided time period by which states have to frame rules. There is no provision for appearing against the decisions of gram sabha which is a pre- requisite for true democratic governance. 12. Ministry of Panchayati Raj and the Ministry of Tribal Affairs have overlapping influence on implementation of PESA and virtually function in isolation.

Minor Forest Produce TRIFED:

Retail Marketing (arts, crafts, tools) Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Delhi 13 Regional Offices

40 Offices with name “Tribes India” Success Stories:- 1. Dona Pattal project in Jharkhand- Santhals live in this region.

Dry and rainfed region In lean season non-agricultural Labourers. 2. Also similar projects in Chhattisgarh and Odisha 3. Lac Cultivation 4. Honey Cultivation 5. Tamarind Tribal’s constitute 8.6 percent of India’s population numbering 104.28 million according to 2011 Census and covers about 15 percent of countries area. The Tribal Co-operative Marketing Development Federation of India (TRIFED) came into existence in 1987. It is a national level apex organization functioning under administrative control of Ministry of Tribal Affairs. TRIFED has its head office in Delhi and it has a network of 13 Regional Offices located in various places in the country. Primary goals of TRIFED are skill up gradation, capacity building and marketing. TRIFED is engaged in procurement and marketing of tribal art and craft items through its chain of 40 retail outlets called Tribes India which offers a range of tribal products which include- 1. Metal crafts 2. Tribal Textiles 3. Tribal Paintings 4. Cane and Bamboo 5. Pottery 6. Gifts and Novelties 7. Organic and natural products Through this initiative TRIFED provides a platform through which tribal products can be marketed in retail directly to the consumers and in the process ensures tribals get a fair price. The main objectives of TRIFED shall be to serve the interests of its members in more than one state for the social and economic betterment of its members. By conducting its affairs in professional, democratic and in autonomous manner through self help and mutual cooperation for undertaking marketing development of tribal products. Activities of TRIFED include: 1. Minor Forest Produce development 2. Retail Marketing development. Minor Forest produce: It is an important source of development for tribals which are non- wood products. It includes all non- timber forest produce of plant origin and includes bamboo, canes, fooder, leaves, gums, waxes, dyes, resines and many forms of foods like nuts, wild fruits, honey, etc. Almost100 million forest dweller derive their source of livelihood from collection and marketing of minor forest produce. Retail marketing development: TRIFED aims to improve the livelihood of the tribals by creating a sustainable market and create business opportunities for them based on their cultured know and traditional skill whilst ensuring fair and equitable remuneration. It involves an exploration of marketing possibilities for marketing tribal products on a sustainable bases creating brand and providing other services which include: 1. Sourcing of tribal products 2. Marketing of tribal products 3. Exhibitions

(a)Aadishilpa for ethnic craft (b) Aadichitra for paintings (c)Octave for dance (d)International fairs

Success stories of TRIFED: Dona-Pattal project in Jharkhand: This was implemented in east Singh hum district inhabited by Santhals. It is a dry rain fed area in lean seasons this tribals work as labourers in nearby towns in order to prevent migration and exploitation. TRIFED has imparted training to these tribals for Dona- Pattal making. TRIFED assisted them with moulding and stitching machines and initial working fund to make leaves. This was collected and marketed by TRIFED. This economically empowered the Santhals. Similar projects were also implemented in Odisha and Chhattisgarh. Other success stories include Lac Cultivation in Chhattisgarh, honey cultivation and Tamarind Programme in A.P.

Tribal Markets L.P Vidyarthi in M.P, A.P, Odisha, Chotanagpur Sacchidananda

Tribal Markets are also known as Haats, Shandy’s, Bazaars which are held weekly, biweekly and monthly. (Exchange Barter, reciprocity) Peripheral Area/ Markets zone of symmetric trade/zone of Non-exploitation Tribe Tribal with tribals trade Core Is is a zone of exploitation or a zone of asymmetric area trade living or a zone of negative reciprocity (Barter + involvement of money) (Tribal-Non-tribal) Fig. 1: Tribal Market

Social

Tribal Cultural Economical Market

Political Fig. 2: Functioning of Tribal Markets

. • Organized by Bigman • Great platform for everyone to reach tribe

TM

In tribal economy market plays a vital role. These markets can be weekly, biweekly. They are generally called as Shandy’s, Haats, Bazaars,etc. Anthropologists such as Sacchidanands and L.P Vidyarthi studied structure and functioning of tribal markets in M.P., A.P., Odisha and Chotta Nagpur Plateau. Each market has a crore area and peripheral area. Peripheral area is an area where tribals barter their goods. It is a zone of non- exploitation. Here money does not play any role. Goods are exchanged for goods. Goods generally available include locally produced products like earthen ware, iron tools, etc. On the other hand, the cultural zone is the inner zone which is a zone of barter and trade, tribal’s pay money and purchase goods such as daily necessities, modern goods produced in non- tribal areas are also traded by non- tribal traders. Here, tribal’s may exchange goods using barter. The traders underway and undervalue the tribal goods and for their products they quote very high prices. This zone can be considered as a zone of exploitation or a zone of negative reciprocity.

Economic Social, Political and Cultural functions: Tribal Markets bring tribal’s together who are within 10 km radius and facilitate the exchange of local goods and purchase of non- tribal goods. Tribal Man Serve as the most powerful channels of communication with tribal’s. Every market attracts tribal’s from all nearby places. Every tribal make him/ herself sure to attend these markets. These are the best places for the tribal’s for extending their relations and strengthening their bonds and solidarity. Local leaders make arrangements of community interests in market place in order to get them relayed all over the area. Land administration, social workers, politicians, etc choose markets to convey their messages and plan their programmes. Tribal market maintains a network of socio-cultural ties amongst the people of its land and gives them a common base for regional ethnology. Discussions and settlements of disputes of tribal villages and also marriage negotiations are done in tribal markets. It also serves as a centre of redistribution of resources, material goods of occupational communities in the region. Markets serve as a centre of recreation like screening of films, dance, drama, music and other folk arts. They also serve as a centre of local liquor and also as a centre for acquiring services of palmists, astrologers, etc. Tribal Markets are also undergoing certain irreversible changes. Till now the mode of transaction was barter in general for native goods and cash for non- native goods. But, now they are in danger with involvement of business enterprises.

4)a)The Constitutional safeguards for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes:- The provisions and safeguards for SCs and STs have been incorporated in the Constitution of India. Safeguards are in the field of social, economic, educational and cultural , political and service safeguards. (A)Social Safeguards:- Article 17, Article-23, Article 24, Article 25 (2B) of the Constitution entrust the state to provide social safeguards to these communities.

• Article 17:- It relates to abolition of untouchability being practiced in the society. Parliament enacted the protection of Civil Rights Act, 1965 and SCs and STs Prevention of Atrocities Act, 1989 to tackle untouchability. • Article 23 :- It prohibits the trafficking of human beings, beggary and other similar forms of forced labour and provides that any controversy of this provision shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law. Although there s no specific mention about SCs in this, but majority of the bonded labour come from SCs. Hence, this Article has a special significance for them. The Parliament enacted bonded labour system (Abolition) Act, 1976 for identification, liberation and rehabilitation of bonded labour. • Article 24:- It provided that no child below the age of 14 yeas shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any hazardous employment. Even in this article, there is no specific mention about these communities but substantial portion of child labour engaged in hazardous jobs belong to these communities. • Article 25 (2B):- It provides that Hindu religious institutions of public character, shall be opened to all classes and sections of Hindus. The term Hindu includes persons professing Sikh, Jain ad Buddhist also. (B)Economic safeguards:- • Article 46 of Indian Constitution states that the state should promote with special care the educational and economic interests of weaker sections of society and in particular SCs and STs and should protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.

(C)Educational and Cultural safeguards • Article 15(4):- It empowers the state to make special provisions for the advancement of SCs, STs. This provisions aims to reserve seats for SCs, STs in educational institutions including technical, engineering and medical colleges. • Article 29 (1):- It states that any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same. This article has special significance for the STs as many of them has a distinct language and some of them like the Santhals have a script of their own i.e. Olchiki script. • Article 350 (A):- It "facilitates for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage". Most of the STs have their own language which usually belongs to a different family of language compared to the State’s official language. With a view to improve tribal education, it is necessary that tribal should be imparted education in their mother tongue. (D)Political Safeguards:- • Article 243-D –Reservation of seats in Panchayats:- This Article was enacted as per the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992, which states that seats in Panchayats from Village Panchayats to Zilla Parishad will be reserved for SCs and STs in proportion to their population at respective level, direst election. Out of the total seats reserved for SCs and STs, one third of the seats will be reserved for women of these categories. • Article 243-T Reservation of seats in Municipalities:- It provides that seats shall be reserved for SCs and STs in every municipalities and the number of seats so reserved shall bear as nearly as the same proportion to the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in that municipality as the population of SC in that area or ST in that area bears to the total population of that area and such seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a municipality.

• Article 330 Reservation of seats for SCs, STs in Lok Sabha:- It allocates a reservation of seats for the Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes in Lok Sabha. In pursuance of this Article, out of the 545 seats in Lok Sabha, 79 are reserved for Scheduled Caste and 41 seats are reserved for Scheduled Tribes. • Article 332:- Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes in State Vidhan Sabha.

(E)Service safeguards:-They are contained in Article 16, Art. 16 (4 A), Art. 335 • Article 16(1):- It states that there shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the state. • Article 16(4) :- It states that nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any backward class of citizens. The term backward classes mean Scheduled Castes, Scheduled tribes, Other Backward Communities, Denotified Tribes, Nomadic/ Semi-Nomadic Tribes. • Article 16 (4A)- For the words in matters of promotion to any class has been substituted with the words in matters of promotion with consequential seniority. It effect is that SCs and STs are promoted earlier than their counter parts in general category by virtue of reservation policy shall be senior to general category in the promoted scale or post. • Article 335:- It states that the claim of members of SCs, STs shall be taken into consideration consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration while making appointments to services or posts in connection with the matters of Union or State.

(F)Special safeguards:

• Tribal affairs has been assigned for special provisions in the constitution. The states are generally responsible for welfare and development of the Scheduled Tribes, the Union Government has also a direct responsibility. • Fifth Schedule:- Article 244 (1) lays down Fifth Schedule which provides for administration of tribal areas in states other than Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura. It provides for the Tribal Advisory Council in these states. It authorizes the Governor in these states to make regulation for peace and good government in the Schedule Areas of the State. Such regulations may include the following:- (i) The Governor may restrict the transfer of land by or amongst of STs in these Scheduled Areas. (ii) The Governor may regulate the allotment of land to members of STs in these Scheduled Areas. (iii) The Governor may regulate the carrying on of the business of money lenders who lend money to STs in these areas.

• Sixth Schedule :- Article 244 (2) lays down Sixth Schedule which provides for administration of tribal areas in states of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura. There are autonomous District Council and Autonomous Regional Council in these areas, which have a long tradition of self-management systems. These Autonomous Councils not only administer the various departments and development programmes but they also have powers to make laws on a variety of subjects, e.g. land, forest, shifting cultivation, village and town administration, public health and sanitation, inheritance of property, marriage and divorce and social customs.

• Article 338:- The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) was established by amending Article 338 and inserting a new Article 338A in the Constitution through the Constitution (89th Amendment) Act, 2003. By this amendment, the erstwhile National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was replaced by two separate Commissions namely- (i) the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC), and (ii) the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) w.e.f. 19 February, 2004. It reports upon the working of various safeguards for SCs and STs and make recommendations as to the measures to be taken for their welfare and uplift. The Commission has also been given powers of a Civil Court for investigating and monitoring matters relating to deprivation of rights of SCs and STs.

• Apart from the above Constitutional measures, Article 23 which prohibits traffic in human beings and beggar and other similar forms of forced labour has a special significance for Scheduled Tribes. In pursuance of this Article, Parliament has enacted the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976. Similarly, Article 24 which prohibits employment of Children below the age of 14 years in any factory or mine or in any other hazards activity is also significant for Scheduled Tribes as a substantial portion of child labour engaged in these jobs belong to Scheduled Tribes. • Article 371A has special provisions with respect to the State of Nagaland. • Article 371B has special provisions with respect to the State of Assam. • Article 371C has special provisions with respect to the State of Manipur. • Article 371F has special provisions with respect to Sikkim

Conclusion:-The state governments are vested with the responsibility of implementing the constitutional provisions. Unfortunately, these constitutional provisions have remained non-operational. Land continues to pass out of the tribals to non-tribals. Money lenders continue to exploit them. There has been a heavy influx of outsiders into the tribal areas and they have grabbed most of the opportunities.

4)b)A critical evaluation of the impact of urbanization and industrialization on tribal populations:-

Due the process of urbanization and industrialization in India, tribal’s of India underwent a change not only in their relationship with land but also in their relationship with the forests. Tribes were greatly dependent on forest for their day-to-day needs, including food, shelter and medicine. As long as the tribes were in control of forest and unrestricted use of its produce, they had no difficulty meeting these needs. In turn they preserved the forest as it was their life support system. Below we discuss the positive and negative impacts of Urbanization and Industrialization and on Tribal Population of India.

POSITIVE IMPACT OF URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION ON TRIBAL POPULATION OF INDIA

(1) Social Impact: (a) Access to the mainstream life of the Indian Society: Due to urbanization and industrialization, the displaced tribal’s came into contact with the mainstream life of the Indian society. Consequently, they could avail the benefits of the government education systems, better infrastructure like city roads, markets, electrified houses, sanitation facilities, health care facilities which were earlier not available to them in their forest based economy. Their children are now exposed to better living conditions including education and health care services. Better sanitation means better health to the community. The tribal children can also join vocational educational programmes and programmes for skilled development with the help of the NGOs.

(b) Tribal’s are now aware of Governmental schemes/policies: With access to education, they can be aware about the governmental schemes, policies and developmental programmes undertaken for the development of the tribal’s. (c)Governmental Support: The displaced tribal does can get the support from the government during any natural calamity and manmade disasters.

(d) Change in life-style: After migration to the cities, induced by displacement due to urbanization and industrialization, the tribal’s have a change in their life-style in the form of modern dressing habits , changes in their food habits and most importantly their interaction with the non-tribal’s. Now, the tribal’s preferred to eat nutritious food instead of the raw foods from the forest. All these changes have led to an improvement in their standard of living. (2) Economic Impact:- (a)Scope for better income:- The displaced tribal’s due to urbanization and industrialization are compelled to move to the cities. In the cities, they can join jobs as daily wage labourers in the construction sites as per the MGNREGA, 2005.This can give them better incomes unlike their previous income from the sale of agricultural produce and the forest based products. Consequently, they are in contact with the monetary economy. (b)Benefits of Economic Reforms:- The Economic Reforms in India in the form of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG) Policy, 1991 have generated huge employment opportunities in the areas of mining and industries. Meanwhile, the tribal’s are also displaced due to these policies of urbanization and industrialization. As a result, the displaced tribal’s can avail job opportunities, claim for a compensation for the loss of land from these industries. For instance, in Odisha, tribal’s were displaced due to industrial activities of NALCO, Mahanadi Coal Fields. The displaced tribal’s can avail job opportunities, claim for a compensation for the loss of their land and common property resources from these industries. (c)Political Impact:- The displaced tribal’s due to urbanization and industrialization, are made aware of their rights in relation to the forest, i.e. FRA, 2006. In the urban areas, they can join jobs as per the MGNREGA, 2005. In relation to their Land Rights, they can be aware of the Land Acquisition Act, 2013. As a result, they can have access to justice and law of the land.

NEGATIVE IMPACT OF URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION ON TRIBAL POPULATION OF INDIA

In the states of Jharkhand and Odisha- the two Indian states having most of the mining and industrial activities, the industrial and other development projects that have come up in these states have not made jobs available to the tribal’s. The main negative impacts of urbanization and industrialization on the tribal’s are as follows:-

(A) Social Impact 1. Loss of traditional way of life of the tribal’s:- Before the advent of urbanization and industrialization, tribal’s were leading lives of sustainable subsistence. They depend on traditional agriculture and a regenerative forest economy. However, with the commercial exploitation of forests through mining, there has been a shift in the tribal livelihood. Tribal, whose subsistence was dependent on forest produce such as edible fruits, leafs and tubers, they were gradually deprived of their common property resources. Moreover with the opening of tribal lands in the wake of industrialization, the tribe caste interaction was intensified. This has resulted in mark changes in tribal life style, changes in their food habits and dresses and the upsurge of a new culture. Tribal’s have become pauperized as their own resources base is shrinking and encroached upon by the industrialists and also by outsiders. The numbers of wage earners in the tribal’s is increasing.

2. Migration of tribal people:- Developmental projects have caused large scale immigration of tribal people in search of housing and employment. The tribal’s who were the original inhabitants of the forest have lost their homes and their relationship with the nature. The displaced tribal’s due to urbanization and industrialization in the states of Jharkhand and Odisha, could not be properly rehabilitated from their independent self-employment status in agriculture and the forest economy. They have become wondering wage earners in the informal sector urban economy, their traditional sources of livelihood is now almost lost. The domination of the upper caste Hindus in the organized sectors jobs of the region leaves them with little scope to enter to the formal job market.

3. Decline in Joint Family system:- For centuries, tribal’s were living in joint family system. But, the displaced tribal’s due to urbanization and industrialization are compelled to live in nuclear families. After displacement, no families were settled together. Even fathers and sons have been given lands in distant places. There have been cases where brothers have been given lands in places a long distance away from each other.

4. Displacement and its impact on gender:- The process of displacement has also affected the gender group. In the tribal society, women are the primary forest product collector. After displacement, the women lost their traditional occupational activities. The fact is that prior to the displacement, women of the tribal family used to play primary role in collecting MFP, firewood etc. for their family requirements. Besides this, they used to take part in agricultural activities as well as kitchen, gardening, livestock rearing, poultry etc. After displacement, they have lost their source of livelihood and not been able to carry out those domestic activities because of lack of facilities at the resettled colony. Thus, they are depending on the head of the family for their maintenance. Further, after losing the economic activities due to the displacement, women are compelled to do the job of domestic laborer in the households of higher ranked factory employees, while they were used to work of their own families before displacement.

5. Health Problem:- During the pre-displacement period, the tribal people used to depend on forest for the medicinal plants for their health care. They used to collects various fruits, roots, leaves and take them while suffering from any diseases. Though the tribal’s are not much aware of the modern health system, in the post-displacement period, they treat their patient in the hospital, which also contribute to the marginalization of their economic condition. So, one way or the other, the tribal’s are the worst sufferers of the displacement process due to urbanization and industrialization. Also, in the new environment, the women are suffering from health hazard, malnutrition and various common diseases.

(B) Economic Impact 1. Compensation to the Displaced Tribal’s:- The industrial authority provided meager amount of cash compensation to those tribal’s who lost their agriculture land. The amount that they received was much lower than the market value because most of the tribal people did not have patta (Land Document). Moreover, the socio-economic and cultural life of the tribal had a close link with the forest but no such compensation has been provided for its losing. After displacement, they became poor and marginalized. The resettled tribal’s are facing many serious problems. The land that is given to them is uncultivable or water logged in hundreds of cases. Many more have not been given sufficient land. Many others have been given fragmented or encumbered land. Most sites do not have adequate drinking water or sanitation or health facilities. None of the sites have grazing land, fodder, or firewood facilities. The authorities have made no compensation for the common property resources like forest, fish, and water among others, enjoyed by the tribal’s in their original village.

2. Problem of resettlement:- The house, which was provided to the displaced tribal people, was of only one room with attached kitchen. As the family size of the tribal people was bigger than the other communities, they were unable to accommodate in a single room. Prior to the displacement, they never faced any problem to maintain their families because all the family members used to contribute to their livelihood through collecting Minor Forest Products (MFP), agricultural activities, cattle breeding, etc. However, in the post displacement period, things have changed and the entire family members i.e., children, the old person and women depend on the only one breadwinner. Meanwhile, the market- oriented occupation has negative impact on the old and younger generations. Younger generations were not able to accommodate themselves in the fast growing market economy because they were not skilled enough to get job or to practice business.

3. Food Insecurity: Food insecurity is one of the major problems for the tribal people after their displacement. Prior to the displacement, every tribal family used to preserve food for the whole year. Mostly, they used to preserve Paddy, Ragi, Maize, etc. and the forest products i.e. Mango kernel, Amta, seeds of Jackfruit, jungle roots etc. After displacement, they have lost their common property resources and agricultural lands, which resulted in chronic food insecurity among the tribal people. Presently, they have to buy food items from the market out of the money earned from jobs or wage labour. As the family size is big and for everything they need to depend on the market, they have been facing many problems to manage themselves with only one person's income.

4. Unemployment: During the pre displacement period, the tribal people used to engage themselves in their traditional occupation like collecting MFP, agriculture, cattle rearing, poultry etc. However, after the displacement, the majority of the tribal people became unemployed. Even, in the resettlement colony, there are no such opportunities to carry out their traditional activities and none of them were well educated or skilled enough to get employment. By giving false hope of employment, the contractors or brokers take these tribal people to the nearest states as wage labourers, and pay them very little wage and keep them in inhuman condition.

5. Indebtedness: The displaced tribal people were in debt to maintain their family expenses. Most of them were borrowing money from the moneylenders to meet the expenses of their children's marriage, health care, festivals, etc. Taking advantage of the poor condition of the tribal people, the moneylenders usually charge high interest.

(C) Socio-Cultural Impact:

(1) Disintegration/Loss of tribal identity: The social organization of the tribal people disintegrated due to the industrialization and displacement. The kinship groups were scattered and there was no more community solidarity and cultural identity of the tribal people. In the resettlement colony, the displaced tribal’s maintain social relation with those people who are in their same income category. Even while celebrating traditional, social and cultural ceremonies, the higher income groups are not willing to participate with the lower income groups. Thus, in the tribal society, socio-cultural and community solidarity has disappeared by the process of displacement.

(2) Impact on Socio-cultural Life:- Forest was not only the major source of livelihood but also it was socio-cultural and religious life for the displaced tribal people. The socio-cultural life of the tribal was intimately connected with the forest. The tradition, custom, belief and practice are the way of life for the tribal people. Prior to displacement, tribal people used to worship the forest God and Goddess for the community's well being, to improve the economic condition of their family, security and happiness. For them, forest was also the place to develop group solidarity, social relation and to celebrate their cultural festivals. However, due to the industrialization, they lost the social and cultural base of their life system. The culture, tradition and customary practices no more existed. They have also lost the community solidarity and social relation. In addition to this, the sacredness of the forest is no more existed. Although the meager compensation has provided for the loss of agricultural land, but who will compensate for the loss of their culture, custom, practices and the community solidarity? Thus, displacement has adversely affected the social and cultural practices of the displaced tribal people. (3) Religious Impact:- Displacement of tribal’s due to urbanization and industrialization, the Tribal beliefs is being mocked at in the light of other religions like Christianity and Hinduism. Magical cures which the tribal’s practiced have become out of date and look down upon. (D) Political Impact: (1) Bureaucratic apathy and corruption:- The tragic part for the displaced tribal people was that under the Panchayati Raj, numerous anti poverty programmes have been implemented but it fails to achieve the objectives. Consequently, the displaced tribal’s migrate to some other states in search of their livelihood. In this context, the plan and programme have no meaning for the displaced tribes. In the whole process, bureaucratic apathy and corruption have been going on in the name of tribal development. (2) Naxalism:- Mineral rich states like Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh have weaker property rights and poor enforcement of law and these lead to retarded development outcomes. Poverty and lack of development extract a terrible price. And one of them has been the rise of Naxalism in Jharkhand. Tribal’s now see no other option but to embrace Naxalism in the present model of development. A prime reason for spread of naxalism has been forced eviction of tribal people from their lands for ‘development projects ’and failure of state to provide remote areas with facilities for health and education and prospect for dignified employment. Successive governments including multinational companies have been grabbing mineral rich lands of the 104 million people. This process has impoverished, dispossessed and exiled tribal’s in their own land and has also driven them to join the Maoist movement, which claims to stand for their well-being and for addressing their grievances.

(3) Poor Implementation of the FRA, 2006:- There has been no proper implementation of the FRA, 2006 in all the states of the country. Archaic laws, red tapism and official apathy have led to marginalization of the tribal’s who without the title deeds and domicile certificates are branded as encroachers.

What needs to be done?

(i) The needs of the displaced tribal’s must be properly addressed by the Government and the industries displacing the tribal’s. The tribal’s must be given adequate compensation for the loss of their land and common property resources. Simultaneously, new sources of employment should be created for them in their new sites.

(ii) Forest and tribal’s are inseparable entities. They naturally complement each other and have thus evolved over thousands of years. In this regard, an active partnership of the forest department and the tribal’s with mutual respect and trust will be beneficial for both in the long run.

Case Study of Mining in Jharkhand Jharkhand which means 'forest tract' is rich in minerals with huge reserves of coal, iron ore, mica, bauxite, limestone, copper, chromite, china clay, fire clay, uranium, manganese, dolomite, tungsten, gold. This region produces 48 per cent of the country's coal, 45 per cent of its mica, 48 per cent of its bauxite, 90 per cent of its apatite and all of its kyanite. Further, this region is very rich in forests. 84.42 per cent of Bihar's forest area lies in Jharkhand. For centuries this region has been the homeland of indigenous people such as the Santals, Mundas, Oraons, Hos, Gonds, Kharias, Bhuiyas, Bhumij, Birhors, Turi, Sadans, Kamar, Kl'mhars, Kurmis. These indigenous groups comprising 85 to 90 per cent of the total population of Jharkhand have been the worst hit by the large-scale exploitation of the natural resources of the region through the development of mines, industries and commercial exploitation of forests. The majority of them live in a state of semi-starvation throughout the year.Coal is the biggest mining industry of Jharkhand. Prior to nationalization in 1971 coal was mined in a haphazard manner by private mine owners. After nationalization the entire coal industry of the region was entrusted to Coal India (CIL) and its subsidiaries.

IMPACT OF MINING:- (i)Environmental Problems: The exploitation of mineral resources through surface and underground mining has caused wide ranging environmental problems such as land degradation, air, water and noise pollution, etc. Vast areas of rich forests and agricultural lands belonging to the indigenous people have been laid waste because of haphazard mining. Underground mining operations, especially of coal, have created unsafe surface conditions in many areas warranting diversion of roads, railway lines, etc. and the shifting of a number of townships. It adversely affected ground water table in many areas with the result that the yield of water from the wells of adjoining villages has drastically reduced. Today the River Damodar, considered a sacred river by the Santal tribals, is quite like a sewage canal shrunken and filled with filth and rubbish, emanating obnoxious odors.

5)a)A detailed account of the development of Forest Policy in India:-

Forests occupy a central position in tribal culture and economy. Forest not only provide them shelter, food, dress, material for housing, cultural equipment, medicines, spiritual life, pleasures but also dictate their way of life from birth to death.

The Hari Singh committee-1967 mentioned that 60% of Indian tribes live in forests and rest of 40% live in vicinity of forests. They treat forests as mother goddess; moreover the tribal existence has been linked to forest due to historical factors. There is a symbiotic relation between forest and tribes. Even their economy is called as forest economy. Their magic religious beliefs are all linked with forests.

They also dedicate some forest tracts to their deities called as scared groves. Several Proto-Austrolid tribes marry the mango tree before their actual marriage. Even for their recreation they depend on forests because of their close relation with forests they are also called as Anabasis, Vanajati and Vanaputra.

They were the masters of forests until the advent of British. The British policy of commercial forestry had shattered the rights of tribal over forests. It all started in 1855 when Lord Dalhousie issued a memorandum on forest conservation showing their concern about destruction of forest due to slash and burn cultivation. He emphasized on “Teak production” and exports for ship building industry in England. Later number of policies and acts were formed, the imports are as follows:-

1) Forest Act, 1865:- It aims to regulate the collection of forest produce by forest dwellers. In the process the socially regulated practices of local people were restrained by law.

2) Forest Act, 1878:- It further extended the states authority over forests. It prohibited certain acts such as trespassing or pasturing of cattle and declared certain activities as forest offences. Imprisonments and fines were also levied. 3) Forest Policy ,1894:- This is the first forest policy. It regulated rights, restriction and privileges of users in forest. It also stated that the public benefit was the soul object of forest administration. However, several regulations were made for forests under British control for commercial use. 4) Indian Forest Act,1927:- This further curtailed the rights of people over forest land and its produce. It created an extremely powerful and adequately protected executive consisting of forest officers of IFS (Indian Forest Service), State forest service, Rangers, Foresters and forest guard.

5) National Forest Policy,1952:- This followed the lines of British administration where the tribal had virtually no statutory right but enjoyed only certain concession or privileges.

6) WPA,1972(Wildlife Protection Act):- This act empowered government to declare any area to be constituted as protected area namely a National Park, W.S, Tiger Reserve or community conservation area, where the operations of tribal are restricted and killing of protected animals is a non-bail able offence. This act usurped the lands which were hitherto held by tribes and restricted the pastoral tribal movements in protected area.

7) Recommendation of National committee on Agriculture and Tribal Rights:- The NCA recommended drastic reduction in people’s rights over forests and its produce. It stated that free supply of forest produce to local communities and their privileges have brought destruction to the forests because they are contributing much to the maintenance of forest. If further recommended strengthening of forest legislature by enactment of a revised All India Forest Act these recommendations were rejected by forest ministers’ conference in 1882. In 1976 by 42nd CAA the forests were brought into concurrent list.

8) The Committee for Review of Rights and Concessions,1980:- This committee recommended that exercise of concession and rights should be restricted to those tribal and other rural people residing within the distance of 8km from the existing forests to non- reserved forest. The task of collection of minor forest produce should be taken by state and should be distributed to tribal through departmental depots opened outside the forests for this purpose committee also recommended that grazing of cattle in forests should be restricted to carrying capacity of forest.

9) B.K. Roy Burman Committee :- It emphasized importance of forest in tribal life. It stated that besides getting free fuel, fodder, wood, the tribal earn of their income from sale of minor forest produce. This committee expressed its regret over the little importance given to tribal economy in previous forest policies. It stated that benefits should flow to tribal through the imagination forestry program and conservation recognition of skills. In other words the local tribal community and National interest, individual tribal should be regarded as 3 crones of forest. Forest policy must fulfill 3 sets of needs:-

1. Ecological security 2. Foods, fruits, etc. 3. Fuel, fodder and other domestic needs of rural and tribal population.

Committee also recommended that where ever the community rights existed on the forest land they should be recognized and adopted to serve the urgent needs of soil and water management and reforestation of tracts by suitable plants.

10) New National Forest Policy and Tribal Rights,1988:- It is a pro-tribal forest policy in which most of the recommendations of Roy Barman committee are accommodated. It envisages environment stability and maintenance of ecological balance through the active involvement of local communities. This policy may be called as environment population policy. This is the 1st forest policy which recognized the needs of the forest dwellers for the 1st time since the forest administration began in India. This policy recognized the symbiotic relationship of tribal with forests and directed all the agencies involved in the forest management including the forest associations should involve tribal in the protection, regeneration and development of forests as well as to provide gainful employment to the tribal living in around the forests. It assumes that customary rights and concessions are fully protected adding to the domestic requirement of fire wood, fodder and minor forest produce. Though it relates the rights and concession of tribal to carrying capacity of forests, it also mentions need for optimizing this carrying capacity by increased investment, civil-cultural research and eco-development. The policy strongly desires for the re-establishment of symbiotic relationship with tribal for the protection, regeneration and development of forests.

This policy hooks some essential decisions regarding development of tribal. They are:- a) To reduce the illegal cutting and exploitation of forest, the contractors should be refaced by Forest Corporation, labour and tribal cooperative. b) Special attention should be paid for protection, regeneration and optimum collection of minor forest produce along with institutional alignment for its marketing. c) Family oriented schemes for improving the status of tribal beneficiaries. d) Integrated area development program to meet the needs of tribal economics in and around the forest areas.

11) S.T and other traditional forest dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act,2006:- It is a key forest legislation passed in India on 18th December, 2006 which is intended to redress the historical injustice done to the tribes and traditional dwellers of forest as a result of the continuance of colonial forest laws in India. It has also been called “Forest Rights Act”, “Tribal Rights Act”, tribal bill and tribal land act. This act for 1st time has recognized and vested the forest rights and occupations in the forest dwelling S.T and other traditional dwellers who have been residing in such forests for generation but whose rights couldn’t be recorded, provide framework for recording the forest rights so vested and the nature of evidence required for such recognition and vesting in respect of forestland recognition of rights of forest dwellers includes the responsibilities and authority for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance and there by strengthening conservation regime of forest while ensuring livelihood and food security to them.

12) Grey areas of forest rights act:- Act didn’t specify any time limit before which process of settlement of claims over land, pasture lands and minor forest produce required to be concluded. It is applicable to only those tribal who are cultivating or grazing or collection minor forest produce but not to those who are already displaced by different development projects. Further recognition of land rights is restricted to10 areas/4hect which is meager when compared to larger land holdings held by tribal and unproductive nature of lands. Act wouldn’t recognize any new claim on forest land and hence lands less at present continue to be so. Further it didn’t address the issue of land alienated to non-tribal. This act is applicable to tribal and non-tribal and hence non-tribal given their bargaining power with gram sabha as well as corrupt revenue and forest administration the tribal voice may be silenced. But for these short comings the act is land mark legislation, for empowerment of tribal and sustainable development in India.

Case studies:-

The Bishnoi communities of Rajasthan who live in around deserts have been jealously guarding lush green forest stretches and the black bucks for centuries in the arid region of R.J, Punj, H.R and M.P from human encroachers. Word bishnoi is derived from bis=20 and noi=9 that is followers of 29 principals given by Guru Jambashwar. Guru gave the message to protect trees and wild life around 540 years ago when nobody could predict that harming the environment means harming you. He formulated 29 tents, which were not only failered to conserve biodiversity of area but also ensured a healthy eco-friendly social life for the community out of the 29, 8 tents have been prescribed to preserve biodiversity and encourage good animal husbandry. These include a ban on killing animals and felling green trees and providing protection to all life forms. The community is also directed to see that fire wood which they use is devoid of small insects wearing blue clothes is prohibited because the dye for colouring them is obtained by cutting a large quantity of shrubs. In 1730, 363 Bishnoi men, women and children gave their life’s to protect trees from cutting by the then kings men. This incident happened in khejaeli, a village in Jodhpur distance. In this incident 363 bishnoi’s sacrificed life’s while protecting trees by hanging them and this was the 1st event of chipko movement in history.

Many plants have plants and animals as their totem whose killing is tabooed and also it is their duty to protect their totems by providing congenial growth environment and stopping encroachments and poaching. This method is just tip on ice beeg in biodiversity conservation by tribal. The Talakana experiment of joint forest management in seshachalam hills is worth emulating elsewhere for wonderful results. Talakana is a famous eco-tourism center for its waterfalls and lush green forests used for film shootings there the forest department of A.P. has built a conference hall and guest houses called log huts. These are maintained by local self help groups of indigenous tribes called “Vansamrakshana smiths”. It is responsible for protecting forests and not to allow felling of trees and poaching of animals. The sale proceeds of log huts and catering services are received into a joint account held by chairman of VSS who is invariably a yanadi tribal and the concerned forest ranger and some is used for paying salaries to yanadi people who are involved in the maintenance of guest house and restaurant. They are also entitled to collect minor forest produce such as honey, Amla, tamarind, plums, etc. and tubers such as Maredugadda and Palagadda and certain roots used in making perfumes. This is quite successful in a way that local communities are empowered and environment is also protected. The Earth summit-1992 and 2012(Rio 20+) has rightly acknowledge the customary rights of indigenous communities or the ecosystem people to live in forest and use its recourses in a sustainable manner. The summit also brought into focus the immense knowledge of local communities about the biodiversity and their inherent traditional methods they practice for conserving the ecological diversity of area they inhabit. Summit advocated that states should recognize and support their identity, culture and interest and enable their effective participation in achievement of sustainable development.

5)b)Health and nutrition amongst tribal population is a matter of grave concern due to the following reasons:-

Health among tribal is very poor and usually suffer from serious health hazards, this is due to their way of life. Shyness of mixing with other communities, superstitious beliefs also cause this. Skin diseases, T.B, Leprosy, anemia, diarrhea are very common among tribal people. Pregnancy related diseases, maternal mortality, neonatal mortality, etc are also high in tribal people. Many a time’s diseases are caused due to malnutrition illiteracy, lack of awareness. Poor infrastructure, poor diagnostics, lack of medicines, lack of availability of physicians, etc are also some factors. Especially in tribal communities over dependence on traditional system of medicines, blind beliefs, superstition, etc. also lead to poor health and nutrition. All these cause low life expectancy among tribal. It is not surprising that morbidity and mortality are very high causes are multi- factorial and effects are multi- dimensional. Case Study:-Health and nutritional status of the Reang and Tripuri tribes of Tripura Lacks of personal hygiene, poor sanitation, absence of health insurance, absence of health education are all responsible for the poor health of the Reang and the Tripuri tribes of Tripura. Problems like in-sanitary food supplies, water contamination, and poor food in-take reflect on the health status of these tribals. The tropical disease like malaria is still widespread in these tribal areas. Better nutrition and good environmental health are the important aspects of health care services amongst these tribals.

Birth Rate and Mortality Rate: According to the report of the Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council (TTAADC), requirements of the health care facilities in the area are not proportional to the increasing demand of the people due to the fact of population explosion.

Maternal and child health care practices: According to the NFHS-4 (National Family Health Survey), maternal mortality is reported to be highest amongst the tribal groups. This is because, from the inception of pregnancy to its termination, no specific nutritious diet is consumed by the tribal women. Their consumption of iron, calcium and vitamins during pregnancy is poor. Moreover, the tribal women carry on their regular activities including hard labour during advanced pregnancy. More than 90 per cent of deliveries are conducted at home, attended by elderly ladies of the household. No specific precautions are observed at the time of conducting deliveries which resulted in an increased susceptibility to various infections. Services of paramedical staff are secured only in difficult labour cases. Vaccination and immunization of infants and children have been inadequate among these tribal groups. One reason for this is that these tribal’s reside in midst of the forest, far away from the community dispensaries. In addition, extremes of magico-religious beliefs and taboos tend to aggravate the problems.

Nutritional status of tribes of Tripura: In Tripura, the rate of malnutrition is high among the tribal mother and children. Nutritional deficiency leads to diseases like endemic goiter, thyroid, anemia amongst the tribal women. Nutritional anemia is a major problem for women in India and anemia lowers resistance to fatigue, affects working It creates conditions of stress and increases susceptibility to other diseases. Tribal diets are generally grossly deficient in calcium, vitamin A, vitamin C and riboflavin.

Recommendations of XaXa:-

• Bridge the scientific knowledge gap of century’s health care. • Health literacy by way of mass education method, folk media, modern media and school curriculum should be promoted. • Enormous scope exists for communication in local dialects and for use of technology. • Traditional dwellers play an important role in indigenous health care. So, instead of alienating or rejection them a sensitive way of including them of getting their cooperation in healthcare must be approved. • Traditional herbal medicines should be protected through community ownership. • Intellectual property rights of tribal community over their own herbal medicines and practices should be endured. • Apart from physical distance a huge cultural distance separates tribal from other. • Healthcare delivery to tribal population should be culture sensitive and in the local language in order to overcome the distance. • Healthcare delivery systems of scheduled areas must be kept as guiding principles. • The ministry of health and family welfare should design the primary health and secondary healthcare centers and services in a new pattern. New pattern shouldn’t be in the form of national program but should provide how to prepare local participation and local planning to implement these programs. • Well known difficulty in deploying Doctors, nurses, etc. to scheduled area is one of the major drawbacks of providing healthcare in scheduled areas. It would be more effective and efficient in long term to select, train and deploy local schedule tribes candidates at different levels like ASHA, ANM’s and Paramedic workers at same level, at block and district levels doctors. • Candidates must be locals belonging to schedule tribes, who are fluent in local dialects be selected on merit and should be committed to serve in local scheduled areas for at least 10 years. • Separate medical colleges should be opened in selected scheduled districts and all those seats should be reserved for committed schedule tribe’s candidates to be selected from respective scheduled areas. • Addiction has serious effects on socio-economic fabric of tribal society. It affects health, productivity, family economy, social harmony and ultimately development. Hence, excise policy for scheduled area approved by MHA, government of India in 1976 and accepted by the states should be implemented effectively. • The availability and consumption of tobacco, alcohol and their products among schedule tribes population should be monitored effectively. This effort should become a critical part of tribal sub-plan. • All national data systems like census, NSSO, etc. should be asked to plan and generate schedule tribes specific on health indications of district level and above.

1% of total budget for Schedule Tribes population in tribal sub-plan should be allocated to the generation of reliable timely and relevant segregated data on schedule tribe’s populations from local to national levels

5)c) “In the present age of modernization and plethora of scientific advancements, still some tribes prefers to remain in isolation”. Below we discuss this statement with special reference to the Sentinelese tribes:-

Article 366(25) of the Indian Constitution refers to Scheduled Tribes (ST’s) as those communities who are scheduled in accordance with Article 342 of the Constitution of India. This article says that only those communities who have been declared as such by the President through an initial public notification or through a subsequent amending act of parliament will be considered to be ST’s. The criteria followed for specification of a community as ST was first laid by “Lokur Committee”. The criterion is as follows:- 1) Indication of primitive traits. 2) Distinctive culture. 3) Geographical isolation. 4) Shyness of contact with the community at large. 5) backwardness While some STs have adapted to mainstream of life, at the other end of spectrum there are certain ST’s (75 in number) known as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). PVTGs have some basic characteristics -they are mostly homogenous, with a small population, relatively physically isolated, social institutes cast in a simple mould, absence of written language, relatively simple technology and a slower rate of change, they are hunterers and gatherers, have negative population growth, have extremely low level of literacy. Examples of PVTGs are Chenchus, Dongria Khonds, Asurs, Baigas, Sentinelese, Onges, Jarwas etc.

The Sentinelese Tribe : The Sentinelese tribe belonging to the Negrito tribes, has been living on the North Sentinel Island for up to 55,000 years and has no contact with the outside world. They are probably the world’s only Paleolithic people surviving today. They vigorously reject all contact with outsiders. They are very hostile and never leaves their island. Their extreme isolation makes them very vulnerable to diseases to which they have no immunity, meaning contact would almost certainly have tragic consequences for them. They hunt and gather in the forest, and fish in the coastal waters. They carry bows and arrows, as well as spears and knives, and unwelcome visitors. Missionaries have been historically unwelcome in the Andamans, and the Sentinelese has resisted to contact them with bows and arrows. Their language and customs is not known to outsiders. Illegal poaching in their waters, people trying to make a contact with them are some of the problems faced by them.

How are they protected? The Govt. of India issued the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation, 1956 to declare the traditional areas occupied by the tribes as reserves, and prohibited entry of all persons except those with authorization. Photographing or filming the tribe members is also an offence. The rules were amended later to enhance penalties. But restricted area permits were relaxed for some islands recently.

Case Study:- In 2006, two fishermen were killed by the Sentinelese after their boat entered into the Sentinelese zone in the mid night.

In November 2018, two fishermen accompanied John Allen Chau, the American missionary who was allegedly killed by the Sentinelese tribe in the North Sentinel Island. Chau apparently went to preach Christianity to the Sentinelese. Fishermen who took Chau to North Sentinel said they saw the tribe burying the body on the beach.

A police team took a boat just off North Sentinel Island and spotted men from the Sentinelese tribe on the beach where the American missionary John Allen Chau was last seen. Using binoculars, officers in a police boat about 400 meters from the shore, saw men armed with bows and arrows. The boat withdrew to avoid any chance of a confrontation. The Andaman administration and the Centre together have recommended suspension of all such operations that may lead to disturbing the indigenous tribe in North Sentinel Island. It has been decided that we will suspend expeditions to North Sentinel Islands to retrieve the body. This is being done keeping in mind the sensitive situation involving the Sentinelese. “We do not want to disturb them in any way,” a senior police officer.

Conclusion:- If we carefully the Sentinelese, we see that presently they continue to use large quantities of iron to make adze blades and arrowheads. We also notice small glass bead necklaces around their necks. Hence, scientific advancements have reached them. Some see the hostility of the Sentinelese as signs of primitivity and the result of complete isolation from civilization while others interpret it as an effect of the historical memory of colonial brutality. Their hostility can be regarded as a key to their survival.