http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I began this journey with the aim of reaffirming my identity as a Cook Islander. This was initiated by the loss of my grandfather, Maka Kea who was the foundation of our family. For our family, my grandfather was the epitome of Cook Island culture and, our visual link to our culture. His contributions as a grandfather, father and mentor instilled many cultural beliefs in the formation of our identities. I must also acknowledge my late grandmother, Elizabeth Kea, a taunga of tivaevae design. Although her presence left many years ago, the memory of her has never faded. This research is dedicated to them both, whose presence and contributions embodied Cook Island culture. Firstly I would like to thank my son Dhyntae, whose continued support and patience has given me the determination to keep going through the years. I would also like to thank Uncle Matauri and Aunty Jean whose contributions, support and enthusiasm towards this work have been extremely beneficial while their encouragement kept me going. I would also like to thank my mother Ngavaine, whose continued support through my years of study has enabled me to strive to achieve and without her help, I could have never have completed in the time I had. I would like to thank Mrs Maea Moeroa, whose contributions and continued support have been phenomenal. I would also like to thank Mrs Bateseba Daniel, whose presence and contributions have been of great assistance. Also, I would like to thank Reverend Timote Turu and his wife, Mata Vaiura Turu for their gracious contribution. Lastly but definitely not least, I would like to thank my supervisors, Emmanuel Turner and Nicholas Vanderschantz for their contributions, patience and continued support. - ii - ABSTRACT The issues surrounding appropriation leads this study to investigate if cultural appropriation is detrimental to Cook Island culture. The research focuses on Cook Island culture with the aim of identifying if appropriation occurs and if it leads to loss of Cook Island visual identity. Furthermore, the research considers the references utilised by Cook Island young adults with the aim of identifying the associations made with their visual identity. This extends to consider if Cook Island young adults have stronger associations with brands who appropriate Cook Island designs to their own culture. Thus, giving thought to consider if the influence of cultural primes utilised by foreign agencies generate a loss of identity within the youth culture of the Cook Islands, and ultimately generate a loss of cultural identity for future generations. However, the limitations of this research and lack of literature, hindered the ability to substantiate if cultural appropriation leads to loss of Cook Island visual identity. Nonetheless, the research did provide recognition of the issues faced by the Cook Islands regarding cultural appropriation, identifying its ability to afford the same protection of its cultural forms as provided to those within Western society, are hindered due to the nature of its arts and culture. Furthermore, the research acknowledges the difficulty surrounding the identification of motifs considered to be distinct to the Cook Islands is predicated upon motifs generalised as Polynesian. The research also provided insight into the cues utilised by Cook Island young adults in the formation of their visual identity and, acknowledges the existence of brands utilising cultural forms as references utilised for representations of their visual identity. - iii - CONTENTS Acknowledgements ii Abstract iii Contents iv List Of Figures vi List Of Tables xiii Glossary xiv 1. Introduction 1 2. Literature Review 5 2.1 The Cook Islands 7 2.1.1 Geography 9 2.1.2 History 9 2.1.3 Religion 10 2.1.4 Culture 12 2.1.5 Identity 14 2.1.6 Visual Identity 15 2.1.7 Re-Positioning 18 2.1.8 Re-Claiming of Identity 19 2.1.9 Ta-Tatau 20 2.1.10 Tivaevae 28 2.1.11 The Cook Islands Summary 35 2.2 Cultural Appropriation 37 2.2.1 Intellectual Property 37 2.2.2 Cultural Appropriation 38 2.2.3 Authenticity 41 2.2.4 Representation/Misrepresentation 43 2.2.5 Rationale 44 2.2.6 Control 46 2.2.7 Design Responsibility 47 2.2.8 Cultural Appropriation Summary 48 2.3 Appropriating Cook Island Motifs 50 2.3.1 Ta-tatau Motifs 50 2.3.2 Tivaevae Designs & Motifs 51 2.3.3 Appropriating Cook Island Motifs Summary 54 2.4 Young Adult Visual Identity 56 2.4.1 The Formation of Identity in the Young Adult 56 2.4.2 Visual Identity 57 2.4.3 Young Adults & Brands 58 2.4.4 Young Adult Visual Identity Summary 59 2.5 Literature Review Conclusion 61 3. Study of Tivaevae & Motifs 65 3.1 Identification of Motifs 66 3.1.1 Methodology 66 3.1.2 Results 69 3.1.3 Findings 70 3.1.4 Identification of Motifs Discussion 70 3.1.5 Future Research 71 - iv - coNTENts 3.2 Analysis of Cook Island Tivaevae 72 3.2.1 Methodology 73 3.2.2 Results 75 3.2.3 Findings 76 3.2.4 Cook Island Tivaevae Discussion 82 3.3 Analysis of Polynesian tivaevae 84 3.3.1 Methodology 85 3.3.2 Results 86 3.3.3 Findings 86 3.3.4 Polynesian Tivaevae Discussion 93 3.4 Cook Island & Polynesian Tivaevae 95 3.4.1 Results 95 3.4.2 Findings 96 3.4.3 Cook Island and Polynesian Tivaevae Discussion 100 3.5 Study of Tivaevae & Motifs Conclusion 102 4. Study of Cook Island Visual Identity 105 4.1 Participant Visual Questionnaire 106 4.1.1 Methodology 106 4.1.2 Results 109 4.1.3 Findings 111 4.1.4 Participant Visual Questionnaire Discussion 114 4.2 Participant Interviews 117 4.2.1 Methodology 117 4.2.2 Results 117 4.2.3 Findings 131 4.2.4 Participant Interview Discussion 135 4.3 Study of Cook Island Visual Identity Conclusion 139 5. Conclusion 141 5.1 Future Research 145 References 147 Bibliography 152 Appendix 1 158 Appendix 2 159 Appendix 3 161 Appendix 4 162 Appendix 5 165 Appendix 6 168 - v - LIST OF FIGURES Fig.2.1 The Cook Islands 8 Vector graphic: B. Kea WorldAtlas.com (n.d.). Fig.2.2 Mangaian God 11 Art Galleries and Museums Association of NZ (1969). No Sort of Iron: Culture of Cook's Polynesians. Christchurch. p.10. Fig.2.3 Aitutaki Triple God 11 Art Galleries and Museums Association of NZ (1969). No Sort of Iron: Culture of Cook's Polynesians. Christchurch. p.10 Fig.2.4 Rarotongan Standing God 11 Hooper, S. (2006). Pacific Encounters: Art & Divinity in Polynesia 1760-1860. Wellington, New Zealand: Te Papa Press. p.21 Fig.2.5 Cook Island Flag incorporating CIP colours. 16 Flagspot.net (2006). Fig.2.6 Cook Island Flag 16 Flagspot.net (2009). Fig.2.7 Artificial flowers 17 Photograph: B. Kea Collection: Mrs Moeroa Maea Fig.2.8 Makea Pori, Rarotongan Chief 21 National Library of Australia. (n.d). Fig.2.9 Tupai's rau teve 24 Buck, P. (T. R. Hiroa). (1944). Arts and Crafts of the Cook Islands. Honolulu, Hawaii: The Museum. p.132. Fig.2.10 Pakitoa's rau teve 24 Buck, P. (T. R. Hiroa). (1944). Arts and Crafts of the Cook Islands. Honolulu, Hawaii: The Museum. p.132. Fig.2.11 Tai Uritaua's rau teve 24 Buck, P. (T. R. Hiroa). (1944). Arts and Crafts of the Cook Islands. Honolulu, Hawaii: The Museum. p.132. Fig.2.12 Ruru motif 24 Buck, P. (T. R. Hiroa). (1944). Arts and Crafts of the Cook Islands. Honolulu, Hawaii: The Museum. p.132. Fig.2.13 Ruru motif 24 Buck, P. (T. R. Hiroa). (1944). Arts and Crafts of the Cook Islands. Honolulu, Hawaii: The Museum. p.132. Fig.2.14 `etu motif 24 Buck, P. (T. R. Hiroa). (1944). Arts and Crafts of the Cook Islands. Honolulu, Hawaii: The Museum. p.132. - vi - list of figURES Fig.2.15 Mangaian Tapa 29 Buck, P. (T. R. Hiroa). (1944). Arts and Crafts of the Cook Islands. Honolulu, Hawaii: The Museum. p.30. Fig.2.16 Cook Island Tapa detail. 29 Mirow, G. (1993). Polynesian and Oceanian Designs. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover; Newton Abbot: David & Charles. p.149. Fig.2.17 Cook Island hair cutting ceremony 30 Hammond, J. D. (1986a). Tifaifai and Quilts of Polynesia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p.60. Fig.2.18 Tivaevae taorei 31 Mrs Teatuanui Teau (1975). Photograph: B. Kea Collection: Jean Teauono Fig.2.19 Tivaevae manu 31 Mrs Moeroa Maea (1995). Photograph: B. Kea Collection: Mrs Moeroa Maea Fig.2.20 Tivaevae ta'taura 32 Mrs Moeroa Maea (1975). Photograph: B. Kea Collection: Mrs Moeroa Maea Fig.2.21 Detail of tivaevae tuitui ta'taura 32 Mrs Elizabeth Kea (circa 1970). Photograph: B. Kea Collection: Kea family Fig.2.22 Tivaevae tataura.