Introduction

Home , Franz Hartmann, Karl Eugen Neumann

Notes

Introduction

1. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Arische Weltanschauung (München: Bruckman, 1905). All translations are mine unless otherwise noted. I would like to thank Susanne Myers for her support in substantially improving their accuracy and quality. Any remaining errors are mine. 2. For background on religious pilgrimages to the Ganges, see Gavin Flood, An Introduc- tion to Hinduism (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), especially 212– 14, which deals briefly with the Ganges and the city of Varanasi (Benares); also Steven J. Rosen, Introduction to the World’s Major Religions: Hinduism, vol. 6 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2006). 3. I will use the terms Kaiserreich, Second Reich, and Wilhelmine era interchangeably, all three of which refer to the period from the coronation of Wilhelm I in 1871 to the fall of the German Empire under Wilhelm II in 1918. 4. For the early fascination with India, see Bradley L. Herling, The German Gītā: Herme- neutics and Discipline in the German Reception of Indian Thought, 1778–1831 (New York: Routledge, 2006); and Nicholas Germana, The Orient of Europe: The Mythical Image of India and Competing Images of German National Identity (Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2009). Still useful are several older works: Leslie A. Willson, A Mythical Image: The Ideal of India in German Romanticism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1964); and Jean Sedlar’s India in the Mind of Germany: Schelling, Schopenhauer, and Their Times (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1982). For a broader and more master- ful account of the European encounter and fascination with Asia during the eighteenth century, see Jürgen Osterhammel, Die Entzauberung Asiens: Europa und die asiatischen Reiche im 18. Jahrhundert (München: C. H. Beck, 1998); for the long nineteenth century and specifically the German context, see Suzanne Marchand’s pathbreaking German Orientalism in the Age of Empire: Religion, Race, and Scholarship (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009). 5. Familiarly, the first Oriental Renaissance was originally so named by Raymond Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680– 1880, trans. Gene Patterson-Black and Victor Reinking (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984). Marchand, in German Orientalism, identifies a second Oriental Renaissance after 1850 that intensified post- 1880. 6. Marchand, German Orientalism, 297. Marchand describes the “furor orientalis,” as con- sisting of those academics from theology, classics, art history, and of course, Orientalistik, who vigorously championed “the claims of the Orient to historical, religious, philosophical, and/or artistic priority (and sometimes even superiority) over and against the dominant tendency to isolate and exalt ancient civilizations conventionally hailed as special, especially Greece and Israel” (215). The Indologist’s shifting view of Greece will become an important topic in Chapter 4 of this monograph. 202 Notes

7. Ibid., 298. Marchand insightfully points out that those cultures the Germans treated with high regard tended to be places in which Germany had no colonial interests, whereas concerning those areas where the opposite was the case, such as China and the “Islamic world,” German appraisals tended to be far more critical. On China, see George Steinmetz, The Devil’s Handwriting: Precoloniality and the German Colonial State in Qin- gdao, Samoa, and Southwest Africa (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2007). 8. Marchand, German Orientalism, xxxiii. 9. Those intellectuals who engaged with India were indeed frequently credentialed Indologists, yet what I refer to as India experts includes a far broader set of thinkers than those holding chairs in Indology at German universities. Academics from a broad range of fields such as philosophy, theology, and the natural sciences also felt compelled to say something about India. Moreover, Protestant preachers speaking from the pulpit and publishing journal essays, Catholic Jesuit missionaries reporting from the confessional frontlines in India, and avant- garde religious innovators, in some cases with little or no credentialed knowledge of the Indian subcontinent, also contributed to Germany’s knowledge making about India. Because this group defies any specific categorization other than intellectual or thinker with an opinion about India, I use such terms as India expert, pundit, guru, or authority interchangeably, yet without intending to ascribe a definitive expertise; rather, simply, in this book an India expert designates anyone who felt obliged to join the discussion of India and found a published avenue to express it. 10. The term field for Bourdieu denotes an arena in which social agents contend for symbolic capital. That is, a field could be any sphere of interest from art, religion, class, science, or politics, where stakeholders seek to distinguish themselves. See Pierre Bour- dieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984): 466– 88. 11. For Said’s reasoning for Germany’s irrelevance for his work, see Orientalism (New York: Pantheon, 1978), especially 18– 19. 12. Dorothy Figueira, to cite just one critical example particularly relevant to my work here, argues in Translating the Orient: The Reception of Sakuntala in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991) that Said’s work is built on the fallacy that all discourse is political and thus reduces all academic work on the cultural Other to a calculated power grab: “The Orientalist’s scholarly frenzy was nothing but a deliberate attempt at cultural hegemony” (3). The critical literature on Said is now massive, but one might begin with Aijaz Ahmad’s essay, “Orientalism and After: Ambivalence and Metropolitan Location in the Work of Edward Said,” in his In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures (London: Verso, 1992): 159– 220. 13. Marchand, German Orientalism, xxi (italics in original). 14. The term “thick description” derives from Clifford Geertz’s seminal essay, “Religion as a Cultural System,” in The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York: Basic Books, 1993): 87– 125. 15. Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, trans. Gino Raymond Matthew Adam- son (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991): 73. See page 39 for a more detailed description of Bourdieu’s use of the term marketplace, which can be seen as any field of human interaction where symbolic capital becomes negotiated, evaluated, and ritualized into a set of established sociocultural practices. Bourdieu is not indebted to economic theory in any significant manner but does employ economic terminology to emphasize what might be termed the “transactive” nature—the give and take—of inter- personal and intercultural interaction. Notes 203

16. Ibid., 39. In the case of Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s generative linguistics, Bourdieu bemoans that neither account for the fact that language always exists in and functions inseparably from the social domain. See especially 43– 44. 17. Ibid., 76 (italics in original). 18. Steinmetz, The Devil’s Handwriting, 49. In reference to the Wilhelmine era, Steinmetz describes each of these three classes as “rooted in a different social source of status: the modern economic bourgeoisie, based in wealth and property; the nobility, based in titles and land; and the middle-class intelligentsia or Bildungsbürgertum, based in educational culture” (49). 19. For general background on the increasing German interest in “foreign” objects of culture, see James Sheehan, Museums in the German Art World: From the End of the Old Regime to the Rise of Modernism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Andrew Zim- merman, Anthropology and Antihumanism in Imperial Germany (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001); and H. Glenn Penny, Objects of Culture: Ethnology and Ethno- graphic Museums in Imperial Germany (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). 20. Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, 113 (italics in original). 21. Ibid., 89. Habitus can be defined simply as a set of social practices and rewards. See Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, 51. 22. An important predecessor to Bourdieu is Norbert Elias’s The Civilizing Process: Socioge- netic and Psychogenetic Investigations, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2000), which traces historically the European habitus during the medieval era to dem- onstrate how individual psychological perceptions are molded by society. 23. Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, 106. 24. Ibid., 117 (italics in original). Bourdieu employs the term “institution,” in the sense to constitute—that is, to designate the parameters for selection, or distinction, in the social marketplace. In the case of education, for instance, Bourdieu explains “that one has only to assemble the different senses of instituer and of institutio to form an idea of an inaugu- ral act of constitution, of foundation, indeed of the invention which, through education, leads to durable dispositions, habits and usages” (123). 25. Ibid., 81. 26. Evidence for the continuing general interest in Prussian history is the recent book by Christopher Clark, Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600– 1947 (Cam- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009). 27. Susanne Zantop, Colonial Fantasies: Conquest, Family, and Nation in Precolonial Ger- many, 1770– 1870 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997); Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992). 28. From a different angle, but also responding to the inadequacies of Said’s binary model— a one- way analytical street that restricts intercultural enquiry to exposing the colonizer colonizing Others— other scholars have begun to challenge this model in their work on the intercultural encounters between Germans and Indians. While this work extends beyond the scope of my purposes here, these critical new studies have opened up a new field in the German context that builds on the work of subaltern studies and hybrid- ity (Homi K. Bhaba) to investigate the intercultural influences between Germany and India. See Andrew Sartori, “Beyond Culture- Contact and Colonial Discourse: ‘German- ism’ in Colonial Bengal,” Modern Intellectual History 4.1 (2007): 77– 93; and Kris Man- japra, “The Mirrored World: Cosmopolitan Encounter between Indian Anti- Colonial Intellectuals and German Radicals, 1905–1939” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2007); also Manjapra, “From Imperial to International Horizons: A Hermeneutic Study of Ben- gali Modernism,” Modern Intellectual History 8.2 (2011): 327– 59. 204 Notes

29. The term Indo- Germanic was coined by one of the early German Indologists, Julius von Klaproth. See Osterhammel’s Die Entzauberung Asiens, 85; also Schwab, Oriental Renais- sance, 184. 30. Walter Leifer, India and the Germans: 500 Years of Indo-German Contacts (Bombay: Shakuntala, 1971): vii. 31. Douglas T. McGetchin, Indology, Indomania, and Orientalism: Ancient India’s Re-Birth in Modern Germany (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2009): 55. 32. Ibid., 94–95. 33. Ibid., 130. 34. Robert Cowan, The Indo-German Identification: Reconciling South Asian Origins and European Destinies (1765– 1885) (Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2010): 3. 35. For the British version of the “Aryan myth” during the nineteenth century, see Thomas Trautmann’s Aryans and British India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), which also has critical references to German Indology. 36. Another important work that examines the emergence of Orientalistik in Germany throughout the nineteenth century, and that does include Indology in the academic development that the book focuses on, is Sabine Mangold’s Eine “weltbürgerliche Wissenschaft”— Die deutsche Orientalistik im 19. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2004). 37. Marchand, German Orientalism, xxiii. 38. Ibid., 302. 39. The best example in this regard is Nicholas Goodrick- Clarke’s The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology. The Arisophists of Aus- tria and Germany, 1890– 1935 (Wellingborough: Aquarian, 1985); or Sheldon Pollock’s essay, “Deep Orientalism? Notes on Sanskrit and Power Beyond the Raj,” in Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia, ed. Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993): 76– 133. 40. The details of these processes extend far beyond the scope of my work here, but for more general histories that include important insight on religious culture and society, and specifically church and state during the nineteenth century, see Thomas Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte: 1800– 1866, Bürgerwelt und starker Staat (München: Beck, 1983); and David Blackbourn, History of Germany, 1780–1918: The Long Nineteenth Century, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003). More will follow on Immanuel Kant in this monograph’s Chapter 6. 41. Rudolf Lill, ed., Der Kulturkampf: Quellentexte zur Geschichte des Katholizismus (Pader- born: Schöningh, 1997): 9. 42. Dieter Langewiesche, Liberalism in Germany, trans. Christiane Banerji (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000): 200. For other important work on German liberalism, see James Sheehan, German Liberalism in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1978). 43. Protestant objectives and Prussian politics had of course been closely aligned long before this period, but after Bismarck’s rise to power his political strategy concerning the “deutsche Frage” and Reichsgründung became more explicitly linked with Protestant traditions leading up to and during the Kulturkampf. Bismarck manipulated denominational sentiment to consolidate his national prerogatives. See Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte, 1866– 1918, bd. 2, Machtstaat vor der Demokratie (München: C. H. Beck, 1992), especially 364– 408. 44. The term Kulturkampf was coined by the well- known pathologist and liberal, Rudolf Virchow. For more background on Virchow, see Andreas Daum, Wissenschaftspopular- isierung im 19. Jahrhundert: Bürgerliche Kultur, naturwissenschaftliche Bildung und die deutsche Öffentlichkeit, 1848–1914 (München: R. Oldenbourg, 2002). There is a wealth Notes 205

of literature on denominational conflict and the Kulturkampf during the Wilhelmine era, but see especially Michael B. Gross, The War against Catholicism: Liberalism and the Anti- Catholic Imagination in Nineteenth- Century Germany (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004); Ronald J. Ross, The Failure of Bismarck’s Kulturkampf: Catholi- cism and State Power in Imperial Germany, 1871–1887 (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1998); Helmut Walser Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict: Culture, Ideology, Politics, 1870– 1914 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Blackbourn Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Bis- marckian Germany (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993); Jonathan Sperber, Popular Catholicism in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984); also Langewiesche, Liberalism in Germany, 85– 127. 45. My point here is not to ignore or simplify the deep complexities of defining German nationhood after 1871. Enlightenment values, Prussian dominance and regional independence, Pietism, and the emergence of empirical science, among other influences, played various roles in Germany’s attempt to define itself as a nation. These influences exceed my book’s focus. That said, I want to explore here the specific link between denomination and, generally, religious objectives and spiritual concerns as they became coalesced with assertions of nationhood in the Kaiserreich. For a detailed study of the link between Protestantism and politics during that era, see Gangolf Hübinger, Kul- turprotestantismus und Politik: Zum Verhältnis von Liberalismus und Protestantismus im wilhelminischen Deutschland (Tübingen: J. B. Mohr, 1994). 46. Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte, 1866– 1918, bd. 2, 374– 75. 47. Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict, 40– 41. 48. Ibid., 44. 49. Ibid., 47. 50. Blackbourn, History of Germany, 224. 51. Ibid., 227. 52. Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte, 1866–1918 , bd. 2, 416. These laws more or less reversed the anti-Catholic laws of the 1870s, with the exception of reinstating the Order of Jesuits in Germany. 53. On the role of the Zentrumspartei after 1890, see Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte, 1866– 1918, bd. 2, especially 541– 54. 54. See especially parts 2 and 3 of Smith’s German Nationalism and Religious Conflict, which thoroughly treats the denominational conflicts and debates in Germany after the 1880s’ demise of the Kulturkampf. 55. Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict, 142. As Smith shows, Bülow, German chancellor from 1900 to1909 and remembered especially for his promotion of the Bagh- dad railway, sought to consolidate the German nation through an anti-Catholic cam- paign (141). The “Los von Rom” movement in Austria, which Smith treats in chapter 7, is another example of powerful anti- Catholic sentiment long after the Kulturkampf. 56. Nipperdey, Religion im Umbruch: Deutschland 1870–1918 (München: C. H. Beck, 1988): 49; for a more detailed analysis, see Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict, 61– 78. 57. The “iron cage” refers of course to Max Weber’s well- known phrase “stahlhartes Gehäuse,” from “Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus,” in Gesam- melte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie I (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1988), in which Weber posits that material goods have become an increasing and inescapable determinant of modern “life praxis” (Askese der Welt). Weber’s analysis can be applied to the broader dilemmas of the era deriving from empirical/material views of the world, and modern industrial capitalism. See Weber’s Religionssoziologie I: 203. 206 Notes

58. Owen Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1975); also Hugh McLeod, Seculariza- tion in Western Europe, 1848– 1914 (New York: St. Martin’s, 2000). 59. Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte: 1800– 1866, 403. 60. Thomas Anz, Literatur des Expressionismus (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 2002): 18. 61. Examples are David Friedrich Strauss’s Der alte und der neue Glaube: Ein Bekenntniß (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1872); and Paul de Lagarde’s “Germanic religion,” as Fritz Stern calls it. On Lagarde and other radical thinkers of the era—namely Julius Langbehn and Moeller van den Bruck— see Stern’s older but still important, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the Germanic Ideology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963). Eduard von Hartmann’s search for meaning in the unconscious was also influential and controversial. See Hartmann’s Die Philosophie des Unbewußtens : Versuch eine Weltanschauung (Berlin: Carl Duncker’s Verlag, 1869). Hartmann’s work clearly struck a cultural chord. Numerous Protestant intellectuals, for example, wrote critical essays on what they termed Hartmann’s “religion of pessimism.” Just two examples among others are Edmund Pfleiderer, “Der Moderne Pessimismus,” Deutsche Zeit- und Streit- Fragen 4.54– 55 (1875): 231– 356; and Hugo Sommer, “Die Religion des Pessimismus,” Deutsche Zeit-und Streit-Fragen 13.199 (1884): 241–80. The ten-year span between these two works signals the continuing relevance of Hartmann’s provocative ideas during the era. Unsurprisingly, Catholic thinkers criticized Hartmann’s work sharply. 62. Some of these movements will be explored in more detail in later chapters. For now briefly, theosophy originated under the leadership of the Russian émigré Helene Bla- vatsky and the American Henry Steele Olcott in New York. The movement was based on the idea that there is a core of truth in all religions. Monism can best be described as a pantheistic nature religion founded by the German zoologist and Darwinist, Ernst Haeckel. Anthroposphy came later, founded in 1912 by Rudolf Steiner, who had been a leading figure in the German theosophical society but who rejected the increasing embrace of Eastern tenets by Blavatsky’s successor, Annie Besant. 63. Marchand, German Orientalism, 270. 64. Blackbourn, History of Germany, 216. 65. Important work in Germany’s case has already emerged on various aspects of religion and spirituality during the nineteenth century (George Williamson, Smith, Blackbourn, Sperber, Gross, Marchand), to which my work is deeply indebted. 66. There has long been a scholarly debate about secularization processes, which is still on going. See Steve Bruce, ed., Religion and Modernization: Sociologists and Historians Debate the Secularization Thesis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992); Hartmut Lehmann, ed., Säkularisierung, Dechristianisierung, Rechristianisierung im neuzeitlichen Europa: Bilanz und Perspektiven der Forschung (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997); and William H. Swatos Jr. and Daniel V. A. Olson, eds., The Secularization Debate (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000). 67. Peter L. Berger, The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967): 89. 68. Vestiges was originally published in 1844 and ignited a sensation in Victorian England. See James A. Secord, Victorian Sensation. The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2000). 69. See Peter Bowler, Darwinism (New York: Twayne, 1993) for an excellent study of the various outgrowths and cultural applications of Darwinism in Europe during the late nineteenth century. For the dissemination of Darwin’s ideas in Germany, see Alfred Kelly, The Descent of Darwin: The Popularization of Darwinism in Germany, 1860– 1914 Notes 207

(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981); also Robert J. Richards, Dar- win and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior (Chicago, IL: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1987). 70. José Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1994): 15. 71. Nipperdey, in Deutsche Geschichte, 1866– 1918, bd. 1, Arbeitswelt und Bürgergeist (München: C. H. Beck, 1990), cites various statistics concerning participation in the Lord’s supper, church weddings, and church attendance. See especially pages 504–5. 72. Among others, one of the most significant offshoots of Strauss’s work of course was Ludwig Feuerbach’s Das Wesen des Christentums (Leipzig: Reclam, 1957), an anthropo- logical study of Christianity that led to an entire generation of theologians such as Adolf von Harnack, Albrecht Ritschl, and Ernst Troeltsch attempting to reconstruct Protestant theology as a historically valid social science. 73. Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte, 1866– 1918, bd. 1, 509. 74. The literature on this subject is immense, but for more general work on the Conse- quences of Modernity, one might begin with Anthony Gidden’s book of the same title (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990); and Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880–1918 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983). Also from a historical- theoretical perspective, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler’s older Modernisierungstheorie und Geschichte (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975). For a more sociological approach, see Peter Wehling, Die Moderne als Sozialmythos: Zur Kritik sozialwissenschaftlicher Modernisierungstheorien (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 1992), especially his first chapter. For broader surveys of intellectual culture in Germany and the formation of the Bildungsbürgertum, see the multivolume Bildungsbürgertum im 19. Jahrhundert, ed. Werner Conze et al. (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1985–1992); and Jürgen Kocka, ed., Bürger und Bürgerlichkeit im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987). For more focus on the sense of lost spirituality during the Wilhelmine era, see the introduction and part 1, “The Cult of Bildung,” from my book, The Double- Edged Sword: The Cult of Bildung, Its Downfall and Reconstitution in Fin-de- Siècle Germany (Rudolf Steiner and Max Weber) (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2004); Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair; Fritz Ringer, The Rise and Fall of the German Mandarins, 1890–1933 (Hanover, NH: Univer- sity Press of New England, 1969); and the introductory chapters of Richard Noll, The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); for the interrelationship between science and spirituality in Germany, see Anne Harrington, Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996). 75. Specifically, and from a more practical perspective, there were fewer jobs for pastors and priests as industrial capitalism and commercialization redirected cultural assets elsewhere. 76. Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair, xi. Stern is referring generally to the antimodern- ists that his case studies in the book analyze in detail. 77. See Anz, Literatur des Expressionismus, especially 18– 23. 78. Widespread interest in Buddhism among the educated is quite evident and theologians of the day felt compelled to respond to the Buddhist euphoria. Catholic and Protestant theologians filled their professional journals and wrote books on the subject. During the Kaiserreich two Protestant journals, Deutsche Zeit-und Streit-Fragen and Allgeme- ine Missions- Zeitschrift, contained many articles on Indian culture and religions, as did the Catholic journal, Stimmen aus Maria- Laach. Intellectuals also attempted to address their work to a wider audience. Alfred Bertholet, for example, professor of theology, responded to the request of the Christian Student Union of German Switzerland to 208 Notes

deliver an address on the subject, later published in Buddhismus und Christentum (Tübin- gen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1902); the series, Biblische Zeitfragen, late on the scene, began in 1908 to present important biblical issues to a lay audience. Here, see Otto Wecker’s Christus und Buddha (Münster: Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung, 1908); and Peter Sinthern, Catholic Jesuit, responded with his Buddhismus und buddhistische Strömungen in der Gegenwart: Eine apologetische Studie (Münster: Verlag der Alphonsus- Buchhandlung, 1906), less to Buddhism itself but rather to what he termed “multifari- ous Buddhist currents in the West” (xi). 79. Christian Pesch, “Das Licht Asiens,” Stimmen aus Maria- Laach 31 (1886): 255. 80. Friedrich Fabri. Bedarf Deutschland der Colonien? Eine politisch- ökonomische Betrachtung (Gotha: Friedrich Andreas Berthes, 1879). See Hans Fenske, Preussentum und Liberal- ismus: Aufsätze zur preußischen und deutschen Geschichte des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts (Dettelbach: J. H. Röll, 2002). 81. See Marchand, German Orientalism, and her chapter “Orientalism in the Age of Impe- rialism,” 333–86; and Steinmetz, The Devil’s Handwriting. 82. Marchand, German Orientalism, 344. 83. See the recent works of Nina Berman, Mangold, Marchand, Pratt, Zantop, and others that corroborate this assertion. 84. Langewiesche, Liberalism in Germany, 237. 85. At the death of Madame Blavatsky in 1891, Besant became president of the Theosophi- cal Society even though there were numerous splinter groups. Besant proved much more radical in her approach to God’s “secret doctrine.” She rejected Christianity outright and eventually moved the Society’s headquarters to Madras, India. Once in India she became deeply involved in the Indian nationalist movement. For more background, see Anne Taylor, Annie Besant: A Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992); also Mark Bevir, “Mothering India,” History Today 56.2 (2006): 19– 25; and his “In Opposition to the Raj: Annie Besant and the Dialectic of Empire,” History of Political Thought 19.1 (1998): 61– 77. 86. Roger-Pol Droit, The Cult of Nothingness: The Philosophers and the Buddha, trans. David Streight and Pamela Vohnson (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003): 167. Droit’s work on the European image of Buddhism should be considered with cau- tion because it primarily considers only one specific line of reasoning, that of canon thinkers, without fleshing out the deeper complexities and variety of Europe’s broader fascination with Buddhism. 87. Chamberlain, Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, 2 vols. (München: Bruck- mann, 1922). 88. Ibid., 34. 89. Ibid., 35. 90. Most important here is the work by George L. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York: Howard Fertig, 1964); and Goodrick- Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism; more biased is the work by Daniel Gasman. See his Haeckel’s Monism and the Birth of Fascist Ideology (New York: Peter Lang, 1998) and The Scientific Origins of National Socialism (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2004). 91. For an overview of these debates and a historiography of the Second Empire, see Mat- thew Jefferies, Contesting the German Empire, 1871– 1918 (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008), which provides an excellent synopsis of each of these disputes among historians; also on the Historikerstreit and Sonderweg thesis, see the introductory chapter to Weh- ling, Die Moderne als Sozialmythos. 92. Marchand, in German Orientalism, discusses what she also terms Deussen’s “Schopenhau- erian Christianity,” but as previously mentioned, she emphasizes the racist undertones in Notes 209

Deussen’s work. Like Chamberlain’s case, race is critical to an understanding of either of these thinkers. Yet I will concentrate on other motivational factors in their constructed India.

Chapter 1

1. Christian Hönes, “Die Reformbewegung des Brahmosomadsch in Indien als Schranke des Missionswesens,” Deutsche Zeit- und Streit- Fragen 6.88 (1877): 4. 2. Ibid., 4. Here Hönes cites “Max Müller: Eine Missionsrede.” Müller’s text was originally published as Eine Missionsrede in der Westminsterabtei am 3 December 1873 gehalten von F. Max Müller: Mit einer einleitenden Predigt von Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (Strassburg: Trübner, 1874): 52. 3. Calw is of course the birthplace of Hermann Hesse, son of a Protestant minister with strong Pietist leanings that deeply influenced the famous Nobel Prize winner. Radi- cal Pietist enclaves existed throughout the predominantly Catholic southwest Germany, which probably also influenced Hönes and Paul Wurm. As we will explore in more detail in Chapter 3, Pietism’s special emphasis on introspection for achieving salvation played an influential role in how Germany’s “religious innovators” read India. See Hans Schnei- der, Radical German Pietism, trans. Gerald T. MacDonald (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2007), for a more detailed investigation. 4. Wurm, “Der Buddhismus,” Allgemeine Missions- Zeitschrift. Monatshefte für geschichtliche und theoretische Missionskunde 7 (1880): 145. Wurm also published a full- length monograph on Indian religion titled, Geschichte der indischen Religion im Umriss dargestellt (Basel: Bahnmaier’s Verlag [C. Detloff], 1874). Wurm taught at the Basler Mission, which was founded in 1815 and heavily influenced by southwest German Pietism. For a short history, see Paul Jenkins, Kurze Geschichte der Basler Mission (Basel: Basler Mission, 1989). 5. The study of Sanskrit, as well as discussions of the Vedas and Brahminism, preceded Eugène Burnouf’s text, but his work did influence Indological studies in a profound way during the era. For background, see Marchand’s German Orientalism, especially 123–41. 6. For background on the history of Indian studies in France, see Roland Lardinois, L’invention de l’Inde: Entre Ésotérisme et Science (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 2007); also on Burnouf, see Pascale Rabault-Feuerhahn, L’archive des Origi- nes: Sanskrit, Philologie, Anthropologie dans l’Allemagne du XIXe Siècle (Paris: Cerf, 2008), especially165– 69; on Europe’s discovery of Buddhism, see Philip Almond, The British Discovery of Buddhism (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988). 7. An early example written in German for a more general reader is by the Young Hegelian, Karl Koeppen, Die Religion des Buddha und ihre Entstehung (Berlin: Schneider, 1857). 8. The Lalita Vistara, which contains a biography of the Buddha, is a Buddhist text written in a combination of Sanskrit and a vernacular. Composed by several different authors, the text probably dates to the third century CE. Encyclopedia Britannica Online, s.v. “Lalitavistara,” http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/328358/Lalitavistara. 9. Tomoko Masuzawa, The Invention of World Religions: Or, How European Universalism was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2005): 126; also Hans Kippenberg, Die Entdeckung der Religionsgeschichte: Religionswi- senschaft und Moderne (München: C. H. Beck, 2001). 10. See Langewiesche, Liberalism in Germany, especially 56– 120 for more elaboration on the political frustration felt by Protestant Liberals after 1848. 210 Notes

11. The sections on Leopold von Schroeder in this chapter and Chapter 4 are revised ver- sions of an article that appeared in the German Studies Review as Perry Myers. “Leopold von Schroeder’s Imagined India: Buddhist Spirituality and Christian Politics during the Wilhelmine Era,” German Studies Review 33.2 (2009): 619–36. © 2003–2012 German Studies Association, all rights reserved. Reprinted with permission of the Johns Hopkins University Press. I would like to thank the GSR and Johns Hopkins University Press for permission to reprint this revised version of the essay. 12. Michael Baumgarten, “Der Protestantismus als politisches Prinzip im deutschen Reich,” Deutsche Zeit- und Streit- Fragen 1.9 (1872): 18. 13. Theodor Schultze, Christus, der Weltversöhner, der Welterlöser, der Weltbesieger, der Weltseligmacher,—und seine Kirche “die Eine,” “die Einige.” Eine Schlüssel zum klaren Verständniß der ganzen Bibel und somit die Offenbarung wirklich—offenbar (Oldenberg: Theodor Schulze, 1862): 7. 14. Rudolf Seydel, Die Religion und die Religionen (Leipzig: Verlag von F. G. Findel, 1872): 183. 15. Baumgarten, “Protestantismus als politisches Prinzip,” 50–51 (original set in quotation marks and larger font). 16. A glance through the table of contents in the Deutsche Zeit-und Streit-Fragen from the 1870s and 1880s divulges many titles dealing with the era’s sense of spiritual anxiety. Aside from numerous essays in response to Eduard von Hartmann’s “religion of pessimism,” others contended with related topics such as nihilism (Stephan Gätschenberger, “Nihilismus, Pessimismus und Weltschmerz”) or conflicting Weltanschauungen (A. H. Braasch, “Die materialistische und idealistische Weltanschauung”). 17. The importance of von Schroeder’s work, for instance, is well attested in Ernst Win- disch, Geschichte der Sanskrit-Philologie , 3 bd. (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1917–21). Various texts by von Schroeder receive mention in several academic debates, and Win- disch describes von Schroeder’s contribution to research on the Akhyana-Hymnen in significant detail. See Windisch, Geschichte der Sanskrit-Philologie , 410–12. In his autobiography, von Schroeder also mentions frequent contact with major Indologists of the era such as Albrecht Weber, Otto von Böthlingk, and Berthold Delbrück. See his Leb- enserinnerungen, ed. Felix v. Schroeder (Leipzig: Haessel, 1921): 84– 85. Von Schroeder’s self- proclaimed academic breakthrough came in 1878 at the Deutsche Philologensam- mlung, where he delivered a paper on his work concerning the Maitrayani Samhita to “a circle of the best orientalists,” which “came across as generally convincing and won them over so completely, that since then the Maitrayani Samhita has been indubitably acknowledged as an ancient Veda.” Von Schroeder, Lebenserinnerungen, 85. 18. See Valentina Stache-Rosen, ed., German Indologists: Biographies of Scholars in Indian Studies Writing in German (New Delhi: Max Mueller Bhavan, 1991): 117–18, who points out that the Russian government had issued an ultimatum in 1895 “that all lectures in Dorpat and other Baltic universities be delivered in Russian.” Benedict Anderson, in Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991): 87, also indicates that the University of Dorpat was closed down in 1893 due to its continued use of German in the classroom. 19. Stefan Arvidsson’s Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science, trans. Sonia Wichmann (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2006) and Marchand’s German Orientalism both have sections on von Schroeder that offer a more balanced and erudite analysis of the German-Estonian Indologist. I will devote more attention to his Arische Religion in Chapter 6. Notes 211

20. Von Schroeder, “Einleitende Betrachtungen,” in Reden und Aufsätze vornehmlich über Indiens Literatur und Kultur (Leipzig: H. Haessel Verlag, 1913): 1–9. This essay originally appeared in the Baltischer Monatsschrift in 1878. 21. Von Schroeder, Lebenserinnerungen, 84. 22. Ibid., 228. 23. Ibid. 24. The dating is unclear in the play, but Buddhism flourished in India approximately from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE. Nor does von Schroeder cite any historical sources for the play. During the Chola Dynasty (300 BCE–1279 CE) in the Tamil region of southern India, Sundara Chola reigned during the tenth century CE. There is no indication that this was von Schroeder’s model. Interestingly the Cholas did resist Buddhist influence and remained faithful to their Hindu religious traditions. See K. A. Sastri, A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar (Madras: Oxford University Press, 1966). 25. Von Schroeder, König Sundara (Dorpat: Schnakenburg, 1887): 22. 26. Ibid., 7. 27. Von Schroeder, “Einleitende Betrachtungen,” 5. 28. Ibid., 1. 29. Von Schroeder, Lebenserinnerungen, 68. 30. For a more detailed description of the “neue Ära” and German liberalism leading up to the Reichsgründung, see Langewiesche, Liberalism in Germany, especially 85– 127. 31. Von Schroeder, Lebenserinnerungen, 68. 32. The Baltic Germans were quite well established culturally in the Russian Empire. There is evidence in fact that von Schroeder had a positive disposition to the Russian tsars and was greatly distressed by the murder of Tsar Alexander II in 1881. See von Schroeder’s Lebenserinnerungen, 91 for his reaction to the murder. For a more detailed assessment of the Baltic Germans during the era, see John A. Armstrong, “Mobilized Diaspora in Tsar- ist Russia: The Case of the Baltic Germans,” in Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices, ed. Jeremy R. Azrael (New York: Praeger, 1978): 63– 104. 33. Von Schroeder, König Sundara, 8. 34. Ibid., 41. 35. Ananda was a real historical figure, who became an important disciple of the Buddha and the Buddha’s personal attendant. 36. Von Schroeder, König Sundara, 52. 37. Ibid., 69, 72. 38. Burning at the stake is a Christian idiom, which von Schroeder here applies to India. To my knowledge burning at the stake was never employed in India as a punitive measure. I would like to thank the late Selva Raj for assisting me in clarifying this point about Indian practices. 39. Von Schroeder, König Sundara, 76. 40. Ibid., 85. 41. As Blackbourn points out, it would not be correct to assume that Protestants sought to publicly emancipate women, nor does von Schroeder’s depiction of Brijamwada indicate this, yet many Protestants indeed alleged that female “feelings were . . . being abused by the clergy in ways which seemed to violate the rules of bourgeois family life.” Black- bourn, “Progress and Piety,” in his Populists and Patricians: Essays in Modern German History (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987): 150. 42. Blackbourn, Populists and Patricians, 150. Von Schroeder’s depiction of the girl, Brijam- wada, as the courageous heroine in the final scene also raises issues about his view of gender. Despite the role of Brijamwada in the play, I have yet to discover any indication 212 Notes

in von Schroeder’s work that might point toward an attempt to reconstruct female gender definitions in less traditional ways. 43. Von Schroeder, König Sundara, 118. 44. Ibid., 119. 45. Pollock, “Deep Orientalism,” 81– 82. 46. “Muscular Christianity” is a movement associated with Victorian England and Charles Kingsley’s novels, in which attempts to reconstruct male gender identity under pressure became manifest in combined images of physical strength, religious assertion, and sociocultural agency, and intricately manifest in British visions of empire. See Donald E. Hall, ed., Muscular Christianity: Embodying the Victorian Age (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994). I would like to thank Katie Arens for pointing out this possible link to a German version of “muscular Christianity.” 47. Seydel was born in Dresden and attended the Kreuzschule there. He later studied philology under G. W. Nitzsch, and also theology and philosophy from 1852 to 1856 under the Leipziger Professor of Philosophy, Christian H. Weisse, under whom he completed his dissertation on Schopenhauer in 1856. Seydel was strongly influenced by the anti- materialism of Fechner, K. Snell, and E. von Hartmann, and exhibited early on a free- thinking attitude toward Christianity. He became a Freemason at age 17 and was an early and avid advocate of the newly founded Protestantenverein. See Kurt Rudolf, Die Religionsgeschichte an der Leipziger Universität und die Entwicklung der Religionswissen- schaft. Ein Beitrag zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte und zum Problem der Religionswissenschaft (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1962): 79–86. To my knowledge, no secondary material exists on Seydel. Marchand discusses Seydel’s comparative work in German Orientalism, 270– 75, in which she focuses primarily on the important theological debates surround- ing the claims by some, including Seydel, that Christianity had borrowed heavily from Buddhism. 48. Seydel, Das Evangelium von Jesu in seinen Verhältnissen zu Buddha- Sage und Buddha- Lehre mit fortlaufender Rücksicht auf andere Religionskreise (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1882). 49. Seydel, Buddha und Christus (Breslau: Schottländer, 1884). 50. G. W. F. Hegel, Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte (1837; Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1986). After Hegel, who built on the work of his predecessor J. G. Herder’s Auch eine Philosophie der Geschichte zur Bildung der Menschheit (1774; Stuttgart: Reclam, 1990), history became the dominant analytical paradigm for evaluating the progress of civilizations and their cultures. For a critique of Hegel’s thought as he applied it to India, see Ranajit Guha’s History at the Limit of World- History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002). 51. Wilhelm Emanuel von Ketteler, Freiheit, Autorität und Kirche: Erörterungen über die großen Probleme der Gegenwart (Mainz: Franz Kirchheim, 1862). For further reference, see Karl Brehmer, Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler (1811– 1877): Arbeiterbischof und Sozialethiker. Auf den Spuren einer zeitlosen Modernität (Regensburg: Schnell & Steiner, 2009); and Martin O’Malley, Wilhelm Ketteler and the Birth of Modern Catholic Social Thought: A Catholic Manifesto in Revolutionary 1848 (München: Utz, 2008). 52. Seydel, Katholicismus und Freimauererei: Ein Wort zur Entgegnung auf die vom Freiherrn von Ketteler, Bishof von Mainz wider den Freimauererbund erhobenen Anklagen (Leipzig: Hermann Luppe, 1862). 53. On Freemasonry, see Helmut Reinalter, Die Freimaurer (München: C. H. Beck, 2000); on Catholics and Freemasons, see Klaus Kottmann, Die Freimaurer und die katholische Kirche: Vom geschichtlichen Überblick zur geltenden Rechtslage (Frankfurt: Lang, 2009). Notes 213

54. Seydel, Katholicismus und Freimauererei, 7. 55. Ibid., 17. 56. For a discussion of the tensions in German Freemasonry between moral universalism as it derived from the Enlightenment and national particularism, which became especially exacerbated between French and German Freemasons after 1871, see Stefan- Ludwig Hoffmann, “Nationalism and the Quest for Moral Universalism: German Freemasonry, 1860– 1914,” in The Mechanics of Internationalism: Culture, Society, and Politics from the 1840s to the First World War, ed. Martin H. Geyer and Johannes Paulmann (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001): 259–84. Hoffmann shows how nationalism and moral universalism became conflated among German Freemasons and were “inextricably inter- twined until 1914” (284). 57. Langewiesche, Liberalism in Germany, 201. 58. A quick glance, however, at the table of contents of the Protestant- influenced journal, Deutsche Zeit-und Streit-Fragen , reveals numerous essays concerning the development of the new Prussian state and its religious underpinnings. Unsurprisingly, there are also numerous articles that are clearly anti- Catholic and frequently attack the Order of Jesuits. 59. Wilhelm Oncken, “Das deutsche Reich im Jahre 1872. Zeitgeschichtliche Skizzen,” Deutsche Zeit-und Streit-Fragen 2.22 (1873): 61 (original emphasized with enlarged font). 60. Adrian Hastings, The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion, and Nationalism (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997): 191. Hastings’s work makes an excellent contribution to the debate over definitions of nation and nationhood, sparked especially by Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983); Anderson, Imagined Communities; and Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Hastings disputes the claim that the nation and nationalism are phenomena that are exclusively modern and emerged from the Enlightenment. 61. Lill, Kulturkampf, 11. 62. Weiße Revolutionär (white revolutionary) is the subtitle to Lothar Gall’s biography, Bis- marck: Der weiße Revolutionär (Frankfurt: Ullstein, 1980) and refers to what has been commonly referred to as the “revolution from above,” which occurred during the process of national consolidation after the 1866 war with Austria and leading up to the Franco- Prussian War of 1870–71. See Gall’s chapter, “Die ‘Revolution von oben,’” in Bismarck, 373– 455; and Blackbourn, History of Germany, especially 184– 95. 63. Protestant Liberals foresaw what Langewiesche describes in his Liberalism in Germany as a “de-churched (entkirchlichte) state as a guarantee of the freedom of the individual to live a rational life: this liberal ideal raised learning to a central cultural value” and moreover, a state that possesses “undivided administrative power” (180). Similary, as Nipperdey points out, Bismarck also sought the modernization of the Prussian state and thus both found a common enemy in the Catholic Church. For more detail, see Nip- perdey, Deutsche Geschichte, 1866– 1918, bd. 2, 359– 64. 64. Seydel, Katholicismus und Freimauererei, 19. 65. Ibid., 21. 66. Ibid. 67. For the most comprehensive work on the link between Protestansim and politics in Wilhelmine Germany, see Hübinger, Kulturprotestantismus und Politik; also Friedrich Wilhelm von Graf and Hans Martin Müller, eds., Der deutsche Protestantismus um 1900 (Gütersloh: Kaiser, Gütersloher Verlag, 1996). 214 Notes

68. Wurm, Geschichte der indischen Religion, iii. According to his own account, he did study Sanskrit under the renowned Rudolf Roth, but after his calling to the Basler Mission his teaching duties no longer allowed him to continue his studies. 69. Strauss, Das Leben Jesu, kritisch bearbeitet (Tübingen: C. F. Osiander, 1835); Feuerbach, Das Wesen des Christentums. For background, see George S. Williamson, The Longing for Myth in Germany: Religion and Aesthetic Culture from Romanticism to Nietzsche (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2004). 70. For background, see Masuzawa, The Invention of World Religions; and Kippenberg, Die Entdeckung der Religionsgeschichte; also for related contexts, Zimmerman, Anthropology and Antihumanism in Imperial Germany; and Penny, Objects of Culture. 71. Seydel, Religion und die Religionen, viii. 72. Ibid., iv. 73. Both Kant and Herder wrote some comparative texts, as did Hegel at the beginning of the nineteenth century. After the publication of The Sanscrit Language by Sir William Jones in 1776, in which Jones noted a striking similarity between San- skrit, Greek, and Latin, Friedrich Schlegel’s Über die Weißheit und Sprache der Indier (Heidelberg: Mohr & Zimmer, 1808) became the spark for many German thinkers to explore the roots of Sanskrit in search of an Ursprache with potential links to German. The actual title of Jones’s text is “The Third Anniversary Discourse on the Hindus, delivered 2nd of February, 1786” in The Works of Sir William Jones, vol. 1 (London: G. G. and J. Robinson, 1799). I would like to thank Thomas Trautman for clarifying this title. 74. Seydel, Religion und die Religionen, v. 75. The scholarly work on the emergence of historical criticism in the nineteenth century is significant. One might begin with Williamson, Longing for Myth; also Otto Ger- hard Oexle’s edited volume, Krise des Historismus—Krise der Wirklichkeit: Wissenschaft, Kunst und Literatur, 1880– 1932 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2007); and Michael Gillespie, Hegel, Heidegger, and the Ground of History (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1984); For more background on the emergence of religious-historical approaches in nineteenth- century Germany, see Gerd Lüdemann and Martin Schröder, eds., Die Religionsgeschichtliche Schule in Göttingen: Eine Dokumentation (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987). 76. For a more detailed analysis of how Protestants dealt with the science versus belief problem (Wissenschaft- Glaube), see Claudia Lepp, Protestantisch- liberaler Aufbruch in die Moderne: Der deutsche Protestantenverein in der Zeit der Reichsgründung und des Kul- turkampfes (Gütersloh: Chr. Kaiser, Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 1996), especially 189–219. 77. Seydel, Religion und die Religionen, v. 78. Ibid., 185. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid., 182–83. 81. Ibid., 170. 82. Ibid., 184. 83. Ibid., 1. 84. Ibid., 2. 85. Ibid. 86. Ibid., 3. 87. Ibid. 88. On the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, see Geoffrey Wawro, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France in 1870–1871 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003). Notes 215

89. Seydel, Religion und die Religionen, 185. 90. The German title of Eduard Grimm’s address is “Die Lehre über Buddha und das Dogma von Jesus Christus.” I was unable to ascertain the site and audience of the address. I am citing the printed version in Deutsche Zeit-und Streit-fragen 6.90 (1877): 345–73. Grimm, like Seydel, was also a member of the Protestantenverein and the Allge- meinen evangelisch-protestantischen Missionsverein. Though he never studied Sanskrit formally, he gave popular lectures on the world’s diverse Weltanschauungen at the Kolo- nialinstitut in Hamburg, where he taught theology from the winter semester of 1908–9 until 1919. This biographical information can be found at Biographisch- Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon, www.kirchenlexikon.de. 91. Grimm, “Lehre über Buddha,” 345. 92. Grimm gives credit for this anecdote to Friedrich Max Müller, Essays, bd. 1 (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1869– 79): 364. 93. Grimm, “Lehre über Buddha,” 346– 47. 94. See Blackbourn, History of Germany, especially184– 203; also Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte, 1866– 1918, bd. 2, 250– 65. 95. Seydel, Religion und die Religionen, 165. It is important to note here that Seydel employs the subjunctive II (hypothetical) tense, which suggests that this purported progression is yet to be completed. 96. Marchand, in German Orientalism, corroborates this point in her assessment of late nineteenth- century New Testament studies “in which so much inquiry . . . focused on the origins of Christianity question” (269). 97. Seydel, Religion und die Religionen, 48– 49. 98. Ibid., 49. 99. Ibid., 50. 100. Ibid. 101. Ibid., 57. See Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and His- torical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000). To summarize, a transition narrative praises and glorifies the past in order to explicitly criticize the present as decadent and corrupt. 102. Seydel, Religion und die Religionen, 63. 103. Ibid. 104. Ibid., 64. The expression “sein Leben lassen” literally means to leave life, to die. 105. The Buddha’s death is dated around 472 BCE, which seemed to make Christian influence on the Buddha’s life and teachings chronologically untenable. In many of the primary texts that I discuss in this book the authors explore the chronology question. Those with more sympathetic views of Eastern religion embrace the accepted chronological facts of religious history, while those less sympathetic either deny the historical timeline altogether or reconstruct diffusion theories that reject categorically any Buddhist influence on Christianity. We will explore these arguments in greater detail in Chapter 4. 106. Seydel, Buddha und Christus, 18. 107. Ibid., 19. 108. Ibid. 109. Marchand, German Orientalism, 273. Specifically, Marchand states that “Seydel argued . . . Christianity had absorbed universal and this- worldly, positive elements from ‘European Aryan’ religions, endowing it with a less contradictory set of ethics and a greater scope for individual freedom than Buddhism permitted.” While Marchand acknowledges that these India experts were “loyal to some sort of cultural Protestantism” (275), she does not pursue in this context just how entangled Seydel’s account of Bud- dhism and Christianity was with his confessional perquisites for the German nation. 216 Notes

110. Seydel, Evangelium von Jesu, 116. 111. Ibid., 118. 112. Ibid., 295. 113. Ibid., 320. 114. Ibid., 324 (italics in original). 115. Ibid. (italics in original). 116. Ibid., 326. 117. Ibid. 118. Ibid., 328. 119. Ibid., 325. 120. Ibid., 336– 37 (italics in original). 121. Ibid., 328. 122. W. Hönig, “Die Bedeutung der religiösen Frage für unsere nationale Entwicklung,” Prot- estantische Flugblätter 17.2 (1882): 11.

Chapter 2

1. Fridolin Piscalar, “Indisches,” Stimmen aus Maria-Laach 1 (1871): 466. Piscalar was a Jesuit, who departed for India on September 12, 1867, according to the Annalen der Verbreitung des Glaubens zum Vortheil der Missionen (1868): 198. In Alfons Väth’s Die deutschen Jesuiten in Indien: Geschichte der Mission von Bombay-Puna (1854–1920) (Regensburg: Verlag Jos. Kösel & Friedrich Pustet, 1920): 242 cites Piscalar’s date of birth as 1841, but no date of death is given. Piscalar departed India in 1870. 2. Piscalar, “Indisches,” 466. 3. On Catholic missions in India, see Christopher Becker, History of the Catholic Missions in Northeast India, 1890–1915 (Calcutta: Firma KLM, 1980); and Kenneth Ballhatchet, Caste, Class, and Catholicism in India, 1789– 1914 (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1998). 4. While a statistical justification of German Catholic Jesuit presence in India goes far beyond my purposes here, notable is the predominance of German Jesuits in Franz Xavier College in Poona, near today’s Mumbai. Another example is the important position of the German Section of the Society of Jesus beginning around the middle of the nineteenth century, which according to Alfons Väth, completely took over responsibility for the Bombay- Pune mission during the height of the Goa schism in 1858. See Väth, deutschen Jesuiten in Indien, 66. The spelling of the College name in these German essays varies. I will use “Xavier” except in original citations. 5. Anon., “Das Colleg des hl. Franz Xaver in Bombay und seine Bedeutung für die indische Mission,” Die katholischen Missionen. Illustrirte Monatschrift 23 (1895): 7. The authors of many of the essays in this journal, which began publication in 1873, and Stimmen aus Maria- Laach are unidentified. In some cases the journals present translated essays written by non-German Catholics. I have avoided using these texts and have concentrated on sources written explicitly by German authors or at least approved by the journal’s German editors. 6. Väth, deutschen Jesuiten in Indien, 97. At the time, these writers used the name Bombay rather than the currently used name of Mumbai. I will do the same to maintain consis- tency. The same holds true for the formerly used Madras, now called Chennai. 7. As early as 1848, following the failed German revolution, Catholics began to respond to these threats to their cultural authority. Exemplary is the establishment of Catholic missionary crusades in Germany. See Gross’s chapter, “Revolution, the Missionary Crusade, and Catholic Revival,” in War against Catholicism, 29– 73. Notes 217

8. Pesch, “Christlicher Staat und moderne Staatstheorien,” Stimmen aus Maria-Laach 16 (1879): 428. 9. Pesch was a Catholic Jesuit, who was forced to complete his Catholic education in Hol- land during the 1870s due to the anti- Jesuit laws. After returning briefly to Germany, Pesch was appointed as chair of a Catholic dogmatics group in Ditton-Hall, England in 1884, where he remained until 1895, before taking a similar position in Holland. Pesch published extensively on Catholic dogmatics and also Church history. His years in England are particularly insightful here because during his sojourn there he published a series of essays in Stimmen aus Maria-Laach on Buddhism, which will receive more attention in Chapter 4. See the online Biographisch- Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon, http://www.bautz.de/, for more biographical detail. 10. Pesch, “Christlicher Staat und moderne Staatstheorien,” 429. 11. The Sunderbans is a heavily forested area in the eastern Indian state of Bengal, which includes the Ganges delta, whose waters deliver into the Bay of Bengal. 12. Edmund Delplace, “Missionärs- Leben im Ganges- Delta,” Die katholischen Missionen 2 (1874): 233. Delplace explains in the same paragraph that Schitans are Anglicans and Dubits are Baptists. 13. Ibid., 233. 14. Ibid. 15. Väth, deutschen Jesuiten in Indien, 183. 16. Delplace, “Missionärs- Leben,” 263. 17. Pesch, “Christlicher Staat und moderne Staatstheorien,” 429. 18. See Nicholas Dirks, Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India (Prince- ton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001) for an excellent study of caste during the Raj; also Ballhatchet, Caste, Class, and Catholicism in India. 19. Anon., “Indische Kasten und ihre Bedeutung für die Mission,” Die katholischen Mis- sionen 4 (1876): 8. 20. Ibid., 10. 21. On Lord Thomas Macaulay’s school reforms, see Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf, A Concise History of Modern India, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 2006), especially 81– 83. 22. Anon., “Indische Kasten,” 11. 23. Ibid., 12. 24. Anon., “Colombo, die Hauptstadt Ceylons,” Die katholischen Missionen 18 (1890): 214. 25. Anon., “Indische Kasten,” 12. 26. Väth, deutschen Jesuiten in Indien, 176. 27. Fridolin Piscalar, “Indisches II,” Stimmen aus Maria- Laach 2 (1872): 243. 28. Piscalar, “Indisches,” 468. 29. Ibid., 471. 30. Ibid., 470. 31. Piscalar, “Indisches II,” 253. 32. Anon., “Das apostolische Vikariat Bombay (Puna),” Die katholischen Missionen 10 (1882): 163. 33. Ibid., 209. 34. Anon., “Nachrichten aus den Missionen: Vorderindien,” Die katholischen Missionen 27 (1898– 99): 208. 35. Ibid., 208. Here the “Nachrichten” are citing statistics from the Bombay Catholic Exam- iner (1899), page 143. 36. Ibid., 210. 218 Notes

37. Gerhard Schneemann was born in Wesel, in today’s North-Rhein Westphalia, to a wealthy Catholic family. He studied law, then theology in Bonn, and later joined the Society of Jesus in 1851. In 1856, Schneemann took his vows as a priest in Paderborn and then after 1860 served as professor of Church history in Bonn, Aachen, and later at the Benedictine abbey Maria- Laach. During the early 1870s, like so many other Jesuits, Schneemann fled to Holland where he spent the remainder of his life until his death in 1885. Schneemann was one of the founders of Stimmen aus Maria-Laach . Based on his many essays in Stimmen aus Maria-Laach and other venues, Schneemann was known as an ardent defender of papal infallibility. For more information, see the Deutsche Biog- raphie, http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz78788.html; and in volume 30 (1886) of Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, 167–89, there is a longer obituary of Schneemann. 38. Schneemann, “Unsere Erfolge im Culturkampfe,” Stimmen aus Maria- Laach 19 (1880): 316. 39. Ibid., 317. 40. Anon., “Die apostolischen Vikariate von Vorderindien,” Die katholischen Missionen 8 (1880): 7. 41. Pesch, “Christlicher Staat und moderne Staatstheorien,” 265. 42. Anon., “Die buddhistische Ruinenstadt Anuradhapura,” Die katholischen Missionen 7 (1879): 188. 43. Anon., “apostolischen Vikariate von Vorderindien,” 7. 44. Ibid., 10. 45. Joseph Dahlmann, Indische Fahrten, 2 vols. (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1927). Dahl- mann was undoubtedly a progeny of the Kulturkampf. Still in his teens during the confessionally turbulent 1870s, Dahlmann was forced to leave his native Germany for Feldkirch, Austria, to pursue his intellectual interests and complete his Catholic education. Dahlmann eventually became a well-known Sanskritist, producing important texts on the Maharabata. For a more elaborate analysis of Dahlmann’s impressions of India and his Catholic mission, see my essay, “Making Invisible Empires: Joseph Dahlmann’s India and His Catholic Vision during the Wilhelminian Era,” in Mapping Channels between Ganges and Rhein: German-Indian Cross-Cultural Relations, ed. Jörg Esleben, Christina Kraenzle, and Sukanya Kulkarni (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2008): 160– 87; also Rabault-Feuerhahn, “Wer spricht im Text? Literarischer und wissenschaftlicher Reisebericht Bonsels’ Indienfahrt und Dahlmanns Indische Fahrten,” Cahiers D’Études Germaniques 38 (2000): 201– 14. 46. Dahlmann, Indische Fahrten, vol. 2, 198. 47. Delplace, “Missionärs- Leben,” 264. 48. Neither was Dahlmann for that matter. In 1905 he sought and was granted an audience with the Pope, in which he argued for the establishment of a Catholic University in Tokyo, which was granted. Dahlmann then help found Tokyo’s Sophia University in 1913, where he became Professor of Sanskrit until his death in 1930. The university website provides a brief history of Dahlmann’s efforts. See “The Society of Jesus and the Founding of Sophia University,” http://www.sophia.ac.jp/eng/aboutsophia/history/ spirit/spirit_02. 49. Just in the vicarage of Bombay-Poona from 1848 to 1919, Väth lists a total of 366 Ger- man Jesuits that served there. See the “Anhang,” which begins on page 241 in Väth’s deutschen Jesuiten in Indien. 50. See Robert Aldrich, Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996): 97–100, for a succinct description of the cultural prerogatives of the French prime minister, Jules Ferry, who coined the term “mission civilisatrice” (civilizing mission) in the late 1880s. On the civilizing mission in the German colonies, see Nina Notes 219

Berman’s Impossible Missions? German Economic, Military, and Humanitarian Efforts in Africa (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004). One of the most abusive cases of the link between colonial and religious prerogatives is of course the Belgian Congo, in which millions of Congolese died during the Belgian obsession with rubber. See Adam Hochschild’s King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998). 51. Franz Xavier (1502– 52) was an important Catholic missionary in Asia. Born in Spain, Xavier devoted his professional life in service to the Catholic missions, a significant por- tion of which he spent in India. His renown among Catholic Jesuits in India receives frequent mention in their writings. The well-known Franz Xavier College in Poona is named in his honor. See Gordon Johnson, C. A. Bayly, and John F. Richards, eds., The New Cambridge History of India, vol. 1 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987) for a more thorough account of the early Catholic missions in India under the Portuguese. 52. Adolph Müller, “Eine Pilgerfahrt nach Goa zum Grabe des hl. Franz Xaver,” Die katholischen Missionen 19 (1891): 103. 53. Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer during the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, who discovered the sea route to the East Indies. Da Gama is the subject of many works and background information on his life and travels is abundant. See especially Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998). 54. Väth, deutschen Jesuiten in Indien, 30. 55. Anon., “apostolischen Vikariate von Vorderindien,” 8. 56. Th. Hauser, “Bombay und seine Umgegend,” Die katholischen Missionen 5 (1877): 133. 57. Ibid., 133. 58. Väth., deutschen Jesuiten in Indien, 30. 59. Anon., “Colombo, die Hauptstadt Ceylons,” Die katholischen Missionen,181. 60. Ibid., 181. 61. Ibid., 182. 62. Georg Weniger, “Der katholische Soldat in der britischen Armee Indiens,” Stimmen aus Maria- Laach 28 (1885): 372. 63. Ibid., 370. 64. Otto Pfülf (1856–1946) was born and grew up in Speyer. After gymnasium (secondary school) he began to study Church history in Würzburg in 1875, but he left for Holland after one year in the midst of the Kulturkampf. Once there he joined the Society of Jesus. He completed his studies in Holland and later England. He became a lecturer of Church history from 1886 to 1888 at the Jesuit College in Ditton, England. From 1889–1913, Pfülf served as editor of the important Catholic journals Stimmen aus Maria- Laach and Stimmen der Zeit, in which he published over 300 essays. Only in 1913 did Pfülf return to Mainz, Germany, later Münster, and then eventually moved to Rome, where he played an important role in the training of priests at the Vatican. Toward the end of his life he returned again to Germany, where he survived World War II in a hospice for priests in Neuburg/Donau. He died there in 1946. 65. Pfülf, “Das britische Kolonialreich und seine Bedeutung für die Gegenwart,” Stimmen aus Maria- Laach 39 (1890): 281– 82. 66. Ibid., 287. 67. Ibid., 288–89. 68. Ibid., 299. 69. Hauser, “Bombay und seine Umgegend,” 81. 220 Notes

70. After the 1857 mutiny in India the British were obviously extremely sensitive to any potential insubordination regardless of its source. See Christopher Hibbert, The Great Mutiny: India, 1857 (New York: Viking, 1978). 71. Hauser, “Bombay und seine Umgegend,” 83. 72. Anon., “Arumugan, der standhafte indische Prinz,” in Beilage für die Jugend (supple- ment), Die katholischen Missionen. Illustrirte Monatschrift. 12 (1884): n.p. 73. Ibid., n.p. 74. As Portuguese power gradually declined in the seventeenth century in India, and in turn its support for the supply of missionaries there, the Holy See in Rome began to send missionaries to India through the Congregation of Propaganda, which worked inde- pendently from the Portuguese crown. The Holy See also began to appoint its own apostolic vicars in formerly Portuguese jurisdictions in western districts, but also in other parts of India. This eventually generated conflicts between these appointed vicars and Portuguese clergy over Church authority that came to a head in the nineteenth century, especially in Bombay, which in 1794 was divided into two rival Catholic jurisdictions— Padroado and Propaganda. This “Indo-Portuguese Schism,” the “double-jurisdiction,” was finally resolved only in 1886. See the online Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www .newadvent.org/cathen/06602a.htm; also see Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity in India, 1757–1808 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985). A broader but highly important work on this topic is Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500–1700: A Political and Economic History (London: Longman, 1993). 75. Väth, deutschen Jesuiten in Indien, 168. 76. Educational mandates played a prominent role in the Kulturkampf. For an assessment of education during the era, see Nipperdey’s chapter, “Das Bildungswesen,” in Deutsche Geschichte, 1866– 1918, bd. 1, 531– 601; and Christa Berg, ed., Handbuch der deutschen Bildungsgeschichte, bd. 4, 1870– 1918, Von der Reichsgründung bis zum Ende des Ersten Weltkriegs (München: C. H. Beck, 1991). 77. Anon., “apostolische Vikariat Bombay,” 166. 78. Ibid., 209. 79. Ibid., 211. 80. Ibid., 210. 81. Ibid., 211. 82. On education in India, see Judith E. Walsh, Growing Up in British India: Indian Autobi- ographers on Childhood and Education under the Raj (New York: Homes & Meier, 1983); and Clive Whitehead, Colonial Educators: The British Indian and Colonial Education Service, 1858– 1983 (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003). 83. Pfülf, “britische Kolonialreich,” 291. The taxes to which Pfülf refers were imposed on nonstate schools. The intention was to steer native Indians to British education (indoc- trination) and thus generate more loyal Indian subjects. 84. Anon., “Das Colleg des hl. Franz Xaver in Bombay und seine Bedeutung für die indische Mission,” Die katholischen Missionen 23 (1895): 7. 85. Ibid., 8. 86. A discussion of Catholic and Protestant accounts of Darwin’s scientific model is far beyond the scope of my work here, but virtually all Catholics and most Protestants, except the most reform minded, would have considered any Darwinian influence in their worldviews an abomination. For background to the scientific debates of the era, see especially Daum, Wissenschaftspopularisierung im 19. Jahrhundert. Notes 221 Chapter 3

1. Paul Dahlke, Buddhismus als Weltanschauung (Breslau: Walter Markgraf, 1912): 196. 2. Schultze, Das Dhammapada: Eine Verssammlung, welche zu den kanonischen Büchern der Buddhisten gehört (Leipzig: Otto Schulze, 1885): xi. 3. The Dhammapada is a collection of Pali verses that contain the essential teachings of the Buddha. Schultze translated from F. Max Müller’s English version into German. 4. Weber’s famous phrase comes from his well- known 1917 speech, “Wissenschaft als Beruf,” later published in Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Wissenschaftslehre, ed. Johannes Winckelmann. (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Siebeck], 1988): 594. Weber’s term “Enzau- berung” is usually translated as disenchantment, but this term fails to adequately call attention to the “sacral” loss in the modern subject that Weber’s work underscores. 5. Franz Hartmann, The Life of Philippus Theophrastus, Bombast of Hohenheim: Known by the Name of Paracelsus and the Substance of His Teachings Concerning Cosmology, Anthro- pology, Pneumatology, Magic and Sorcery, Medicine, Alchemy and Astrology, Philosophy and Theosophy (London: George Redway, 1887): x. 6. This rarely translated into social action, but there were exceptions. The most perva- sive manifestation of social action was the theosophical movement in India, especially under the leadership of Besant, who actively promoted and sought social reform for India under British rule and played a role in the free India movement. On Besant, see Mark Bevir; also Anne Taylor’s biography of Besant; and Gauri Viswanathan’s chapter on Besant and theosophy in Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, and Belief (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998). 7. J. Websky, “Der Protestantismus als das Christentum der Innerlichkeit und der Frei- heit,” Protestantischer Flugblätter 42.5 (1907): 42 (larger font in original). 8. Kaspar von Greyerz, Religion und Kultur: Europa (1500– 1800) (Göttingen: Vanden- hoeck & Ruprecht, 2000): 334. 9. Troeltsch, Die Soziallehren der christlichen Kirchen und Gruppen, bd. 2 (Tübingen: Mohr, 1994): 623. 10. Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Grundriss der verstehenden Soziologie (Frankfurt: Zweitausendeins, 2010): 683–88. For a more detailed elaboration of the Bildungs- bürgertum’s identity construct, see the introductory chapters to my The Double-Edged Sword; M. Rainer Lepsius, “Das Bildungsbürgertum als ständische Vergesellschaftung,” in Bildungsbürgertum im 19. Jahrhundert: Teil 3: Lebensführung und ständische Vergesell- schaftung, M. Rainer Lepsius (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1992): 9–18; also Max Scheler, Die Wissensformen und die Gesellschaft (Bern: Francke, 1960). 11. See Weber, “protestantische Ethik,” in Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie I. The debate over Weber’s thought- provoking thesis has been immense and long lasting, and reaches far beyond the scope of my work here. One might begin with Greyerz, Religion und Kultur, especially 331– 41. 12. Greyerz, Religion und Kultur, especially 331– 41. 13. For a short history of Buddhism in Germany, see Hellmuth Hecker, Buddhismus in Deutschland: Eine Chronik (Hamburg: Deutsche Buddhistische Union, 1973). Much work on German theosophy and other fringe movements is still to be done. Corinna Treitel’s The Science of the Soul: Occultism and the Genesis of the German Modern (Bal- timore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004) has initiated this work, which devotes a chapter to theosophy in Germany; also Maria Carlson’s “No Religion Higher Than Truth”: A History of the Theosophical Movement in Russia, 1875–1922 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), which has an excellent outline of theosophical doctrine in chapter 5. There has been significant scholarly work on theosophy outside 222 Notes

of Germany, especially Blavatsky, Olcott, and Besant. These works focus on England, the United States, and India, but less on continental Europe. See Bruce F. Campbell, Ancient Wisdom Revived: A History of the Theosophical Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Joscelyn Godwin, The Theosophical Enlightenment (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994); also in the British context, but highly relevant for a deeper understanding of these European religious and cultural movements, see Alex Owen, The Place of Enchantment: British Occultism and the Culture of the Mod- ern (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2004); further, see Peter Staudenmaier’s “Between Occultism and Fascism: Anthroposophy and the Politics of Race and Nation in Germany and Italy, 1900– 1945” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 2010) and his various essays on anthroposophy and Rudolf Steiner. 14. See McGetchin’s Indology, Indomania, and Orientalism, especially 120– 40. 15. The work of Ferdinand Tönnies and later Max Weber are two important examples of the era’s consternation over the definition of community and the modern human subject as modern cultural forms— empirical science, rationalization of the economic marketplace, and the decreasing importance of traditional religious institutions— threatened to unravel traditional forms of community consensus. 16. The Bildungsbürger can be defined as an educated— intellectually, morally, and spiritually— citizen in nineteenth- century Germany. This “self- formation” was derived from the Enlightenment ideal of self-realization and linked as well with the Pietist con- cepts of introspection and duty in the community. See the introductory chapters to my The Double- Edged Sword. 17. Examples of Buddhist journals during the era are Der Buddhist, Buddhistische Welt, and Buddhistische Warte, all edited by Karl Seidenstücker during the first two decades of the twentieth century, and Neue buddhistische Hefte (1918), edited by Dahlke. Theosophist journals came on the scene earlier. Examples from the late 1880s and after are Wilhelm Hübbe- Schleiden’s Sphinx, which was later published as Metaphysische Rundschau, and then Neue metaphysische Rundschau, among others. Another important publisher of eso- teric material was Eugen Diederichs Verlag. See Justus H. Ulbricht and Meike G. Wer- ner, Romantik, Revolution und Reform: Der Eugen Diederichs Verlag im Epochenkontext 1900– 1949 (Göttingen: Wallstein, 1999). 18. The German-Danish war in 1864 had ended Schultze’s career temporarily when the Prussian government annexed the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. As a civil servant of the Holstein government, Schultze had pledged allegiance to the Danish King. After the annexation he requested from King Christian IX to be released from his obligation, which was granted. This move, however, so angered the Prussian government that Schul- tze was dismissed from service. He was allowed to reenter government service two years later and remained there until his retirement. See Arthur Pfungst, Ein deutscher Buddhist (Oberpräsidialrat Theodor Schultze) (Stuttgart: Fr. Frommanns Verlag, 1901): 9– 10. 19. Franz Hartmann expresses his good wishes to Hübbe-Schleiden’s initiative in “Kurzer Abriss der Geschichte der Theosophischen Gesellschaft” in Lotusblüthen 1 (1893): 85, but later founded his own theosophical society in Leipzig. 20. This stands in glaring contrast to Besant’s theosophical movement. Besant was a strong proponent of social reform and after moving to Chennai (Madras), India, she partici- pated in the first Indian National Congress, which sought to free the country from Brit- ish rule. 21. Pfungst, Ein deutscher Buddhist, 5. For further background on Schultze, see Hecker, Lebensbilder deutscher Buddhisten, vol. 1 (Konstanz: Universität Konstanz, Sozialwissen- schaftliche Fakultät, Fachgruppe Soziologie, 1996): 216– 18. 22. Pfungst, Ein deutscher Buddhist, 15– 16. Notes 223

23. Hecker, Lebensbilder, vol. 1, 216. 24. Ibid., 17. 25. Schultze, Christus, der Weltversöhner, 41. 26. Ibid., 35. 27. Schultze, Das Christentum Christi und die Religion der Liebe. Ein Votum in Sachen der Zukunftsreligion. (Leipzig: Verlag von Wilhelm Friedrich, 1891): 4–5. This volume was later combined with the companion work, Das rollende Rad and published in 1893 as Vedanta und Buddhismus als Fermente für eine künftige Regeneration des religiösen Bewußt- seins innerhalb des europäischen Kulturkreises. 28. Ibid., 77. 29. The literary work of Gerhart Hauptmann, especially his play The Weavers (1892), and other naturalist artists of the era frequently depict the hardships of demographic and economic transformation that were part and parcel to Germany’s industrialization. For historical background, see Wolfgang Mommsen, Der autoritäre nationalstaat: Verfassung, Gesellschaft und Kultur im deutschen Kaiserreich (Frankfurt: Fischer,1990), especially 234– 56. 30. Pfungst, Ein deutscher Buddhist, 31. 31. Schultze, Christentum Christi, 74. 32. Ibid., 75. 33. Ibid., 77. 34. Schultze could not read original texts in Pali or Sanskrit. His German translation is based on F. Max Müller’s English version. Karl Eugen Neumann’s translation of the Dhamma- pada into German from the original Pali had yet to appear. 35. Schultze, Dhammapada, vi. 36. Ibid., vi. 37. Weber, “protestantische Ethik,” in Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie I. Weber’s term has traditionally been translated as “iron cage.” For a discussion and criticism of this term, see Dirk Käsler, “Ein ‘stahlhartes Gehäsue’ ist kein ‘Iron Cage,’” http://www. literaturkritik.de/public/rezension.php?rez_id=16239. 38. Neumann, Das Wahrheitspfad, Dhammapadam: Ein buddhistisches Denkmal (München: Piper, 1921): 114. Neumann grew up in Vienna, studied at a commercial college in Leipzig, and later worked at a bank and studied Buddhist texts at night. He later studied comparative religion, Chinese, Indology, archaeology, medicine, and astronomy in Berlin and eventually completed his doctorate in Halle in 1890. He spent a year in India in 1894 and later worked at the Oriental Institute in Vienna, where he began his translations of Pali texts. His translations, especially Die Reden Gotamo Buddhos (Zürich: Artemis Verlag, 1956), which was the first translation of many original Pali texts into a European language (German), were held in high regard by such renowned authors as Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, and Stefan Zweig, but his books never sold well. He died in financial difficulty on his fiftieth birthday in 1915. See Stache- Rosen, 157–58. 39. Neumann, Wahrheitpfad, Dhammapadam, 115. 40. Ibid., 121. 41. Schultze, Dhammapada, viii. 42. Neumann, Die innere Verwandtschaft buddhistischer und christlicher Lehren: Zwei buddhistische Sutta und ein Traktat Meister Eckharts (Leipzig: Spohr, 1891): 9. See Horst Thomé’s introductory essay, “Modernität und Bewußtseinswandel in der Zeit des Natu- ralismus und des Fin de siècle,” in Hansers Sozialgeschichte der deutschen Literatur vom 16. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart, ed., York-Gothart Mix, bd. 7, Naturalismus, Fin de siècle, Expressionismus, 1890– 1918 (München: Hanser, 2000): 15– 27. 43. Ibid., viii. 224 Notes

44. Schultze, Der Buddhismus als Religion der Zukunft: Das rollende Rad des Lebens und der feste Ruhestand (Frankfurt: Neuer Frankfurter Verlag, 1901). 45. Schultze, rollende Rad, 1. To be fair, Schultze does not focus on the Semitic heritage or Jewish influence on Christianity as other thinkers did. 46. Particularly relevant for our context is Marchand’s German Orientalism, especially chapter 7, “The Passions and the Races.” 47. Dahlke, Die Bedeutung des Buddhismus für unsere Zeit (Breslau: Walter Markgraf, 1912): 4. 48. Schultze, rollende Rad, 12. 49. Subhara Bhikschu (formerly Friedrich Zimmermann), Buddhistischer Katechismus zur Einführung in die Lehre des Buddha Gotamo (Berlin: C. A. Schwetschke & Sohn, 1902): v. 50. Ibid., 39. 51. Seydel, Religion und die Religionen, 64. 52. Schultze, rollende Rad, 42. 53. Ibid., 63. 54. Subjective idealism during the early nineteenth century derived from Enlightenment thought and can be simply defined as the idea that reality is primarily dependent on the human mind (cognition). For a more in- depth elaboration, see Herbert Schnädelbach, Philosophy in Germany 1831– 1933, trans. Eric Matthews (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984). 55. Schultze, rollende Rad, 66. 56. Neumann, innere Verwandtschaft, 3. 57. Ibid., 8. 58. Ibid., 6. 59. Schultze, rollende Rad, 180. 60. Neither Pfungst nor Hecker mention Schultze’s participation in any Buddhist organisation. 61. Schultze “Buddhismus und Christentum, was sie gemein haben, und was sie unterscheidet (zwei öffentliche Vorträge von Dr. L. von Schroeder). Kritische Bemerkungen von Th. Schultze,” in Die Gesellschaft: Monatschrift für Literatur, Kunst und Sozialpolitik Jg. 10 (February 1894): 230. Von Schroeder’s work from the 1890s and thereafter will receive our attention in the following chapters. 62. Neumann, innere Verwandtschaft, 9. 63. Stache-Rosen, German Indologists, 154–55. Also see Hecker’s Lebensbilder, vol. 2, 13–36 for more background on Dahlke. 64. Dahlke, Bedeutung des Buddhismus, 3. 65. Ibid., 19. 66. Medical technological advances were also significant during the era. By the late nineteenth century numerous vaccines had already been developed by Louis Pasteur and others, and Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen began to put his x-ray machine to medical use in 1895. 67. Dahlke, Bedeutung des Buddhismus, 5. 68. Ibid., 4. 69. Dahlke, Buddhismus als Weltanschauung, 6. 70. I have avoided translating the German “Ich” into the Freudian term “ego.” There is no indication that Dahlke borrowed from Freud in his thinking, though any intellectual of the era would have certainly been familiar with Freud’s work. Using the term ego here would evoke other implications about Dahlke’s thought that are not necessarily warranted. Notes 225

71. Dahlke, Buddhismus als Weltanschauung, 44. 72. Ibid., 48 (italics in original). 73. Dahlke, Bedeutung des Buddhismus, 12. 74. Dahlke, Buddhismus als Weltanschauung, 147. 75. Ibid., 149. 76. Ibid., 179. 77. Ibid., 179–80. 78. Ibid., 180. 79. Ibid., 181. 80. See Bowler, Darwinism. 81. Dahlke, Buddhismus als Weltanschauung, 181. 82. Ibid., 196. 83. Dahlke, Bedeutung des Buddhismus, 9. 84. Ibid., 10. The term Kamma is the Pali term, which in modern English usage is usually known as “Karma” (Sanskrit), which can best be defined as the law of moral causation. 85. Ibid., 50 (italics in original). 86. Ibid., 56. 87. Ibid., 11. 88. Ibid., 12. 89. Kant, Was ist Aufklärung? (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985): 55. 90. Ibid., 12. 91. Ibid., 13. 92. Ibid., 14. 93. Franz Hartmann, “Theosophie,” Lotusblüthen 1 (1893): 5. The author(s) of many articles in this journal are unnamed, though most likely Hartmann penned many of the texts or, at least as editor, influenced any text that he did not compose. 94. Ibid., 5. 95. The biographical information on Franz Hartmann is from Walter Einbeck, “Zum Gedächtnis an Dr. Franz Hartmann (1838–1912),” Theosophische Kultur. Sonderheft 2. (Leipzig: Theosophischer Kultur, 1925). 96. Ibid., 3. 97. Olcott was president of the theosophical society from its founding in 1875 until his death in 1907. For background on Olcott, see Stephen Prothero, The White Buddhist: The Asian Odyssey of Henry Steel Olcott (Bloomington: University of Indian Press, 1996). 98. Franz Hartmann, “Theosophie und Okkultismus,” in Einbeck “Zum Gedächtnis an Franz Hartmann (1838–1912).” Hartmann’s essay originally appeared in Neue Lotus- blüten 3 (1910). 99. In Franz Hartmann’s medical field, for instance, by the late nineteenth century dramatic scientific advances had been made in understanding the eye and various eye problems such as glaucoma and cataracts. 100. Franz Hartmann, “Die weisse und schwarze Magie oder: Das Gesetz des Geistes in der Natur,” Lotusblüthen 1 (1893): 51. Hartmann composed this text originally in English as “Magic, White, and Black.” 101. Ibid., 52. 102. Ibid., 56. 103. Franz Hartmann, “Licht vom Osten: Eine Untersuchung der Grundlage, des Wesens und der Geheimnisse der echten Freimaurerei,” Lotusblüthen 1 (1893): 22. 104. Ibid., 16. 105. Ibid., 20. 226 Notes

106. See Masuzawa, The Invention of World Religions; and Kippenberg’s Discovering Religious History in the Modern Age, trans. Barbara Harshay (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002) on the definition of world religions. 107. Hartmann, “Licht vom Osten,” 17. 108. Ibid., 16. 109. Ibid., 48. Hartmann uses the masculine singular form here, which I have maintained in the translation. 110. Ibid. 111. Hartmann, Life of Philippus, 184. 112. Hartmann, “Theosophie,” 6. 113. Ibid., 7–8. 114. Hartmann, “Die geistig Toten,” Lotusblüthen 1 (1894):127– 28. 115. Hartmann, “Licht vom Osten,” 26. 116. Ibid., 19. 117. Ibid., 19–20. 118. Hartmann, “Die Weisheit der Brahminen,” Lotusblüthen 1 (1894): 314. 119. Hartmann, “Licht vom Osten,” 55. 120. Hartmann, “Theosophie,” 11– 12. 121. Richard Rorty, “Religion as Conversation-Stopper,” in Philosophy and Social Hope (Lon- don: Penguin, 1999): 168– 74. 122. Hartmann, “Licht vom Osten,” 30.

Chapter 4

1. Von Schroeder, “Buddhismus und Christentum, was sie gemein haben, und was sie unterscheidet,” in Reden und Aufsätze vornehmlich über Indiens Literatur und Kultur (Leipzig: H. Haessel Verlag, 1913): 85. 2. Pfungst, Ein deutscher Buddhist, 2. 3. Edwin Arnold (1832– 1904), born and raised in England, attended King’s College Lon- don, and later Oxford University. At 24 he became the principal of Deccan College in Poona, India, where he began to learn Pali and Sanskrit. He later returned to England where he worked as a journalist for the Daily Telegraph. During this time he composed The Light of Asia or the Great Renunciation: Being the Life and Teaching of Guatama, Prince of India and Founder of Buddhism (London: K. Paul, 1879). The only biography of Arnold to my knowledge is Brooks Wright, Interpreter of Buddhism to the West (New York: Bookman Associates, 1957). 4. Pesch, “Das Licht Asiens,” 254. Pesch cites a German title to the poem but does not indicate whether this is his own translation. He also refers to the thirty-first printing of the poem in 1885 but also does not indicate whether this is a German translation or the English version. 5. Ibid., 253. 6. Ibid., 254. 7. Ibid., 255. 8. Ibid., 256. 9. Ibid., 267. 10. Pesch, “Die Buddha- Legende und die Evangelien,” Stimmen aus Maria- Laach 31 (1886): 388. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid., 390. Notes 227

13. Ibid., 391. Pesch repeats this same argument in “Buddha und Christus,” Stimmen aus Maria- Laach 31 (1886): 517. 14. Pesch, “Buddha- Legende und die Evangelien,” 392. 15. Ibid., 393. 16. Ibid., 399. 17. Pesch, “Buddha und Christus,” 505. 18. Ibid., 506. 19. Dahlmann, Buddha: Ein Culturbild des Ostens (Berlin: Dames, 1898). 20. Dahlmann, Die Thomas- Legende und die ältesten historischen Beziehungen des Christen- tums zum fernen Osten im Lichte der indischen Altertumskunde (Freiburg: Herdersche Verlagshandlung, 1912). This subject has long been debated and discussed in academic and lay circles. For background, one could start with Stephen Neill, A History of Chris- tian Missions, 2nd ed. (London: Penguin, 1986). 21. Dahlmann, Thomas- Legende, 93. 22. Ibid., 97. 23. Ibid., 93–94. 24. Ibid., 173. Gandhara (Gundara, Eng.) is an ancient archaeological site located in today’s Pakistan- Indian border region, near the city of Peshawar, Pakistan. 25. Pesch, “Die sittigenden Erfolge des Buddhismus,” Stimmen aus Maria- Laach 33 (1987): 119. 26. Dahlmann, Buddha, 119. 27. Ibid., 160. 28. Pesch, “sittigenden Erfolge des Buddhismus,” 122– 23. 29. Ibid., 128. 30. Ibid., 18. 31. Dahlmann, Buddha, 167. For more detail on Dahlmann’s travel observations, see my essay, “Making Invisible Empires: Joseph Dahlmann’s India and His Catholic Vision during the Wilhelminian Era,” in Mapping Channels between Ganges and Rhein: Ger- man-Indian Cross-Cultural Relations, ed. Jorg Esleben, Christina Kraenzle, and Sukanya Kulkarni (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2008). 32. Ibid., 28. 33. Ibid., 31. 34. Ibid., 117–18. 35. Pesch, “Buddha- Legende und die Evangelien,” 387. 36. Pesche, “sittigenden Erfolge des Buddhismus,” 132. Pesch cites two essays that he leaves unnamed, nor does he cite the authors, who refer to the Schlegels’s studies that explored Indian religious traditions in search of an Urreligion that might be linked to German. The essays appeared in the Magazin für die Literatur des In- und Auslandes 8: 657; and the Allgemeine Zeitung 181.B (1886). 37. Dahlmann, Indische Fahrten, vol. 1, 293. 38. Sinthern, Buddhismus und buddhistische Strömungen, 1. 39. Ibid., 2. 40. Ibid., 11. 41. Ibid., 70– 71 (italics in original). 42. Ibid., 71 (italics in original). 43. I make this point based not on any statistical evidence about theosophical conversions, but rather on the prolific production (pamphlets, journals, speeches) of various German theosophical leaders beginning in the 1880s. Important theosophical acolytes such as Hübbe- Schleiden, Franz Hartmann, and Steiner (theosophist and later founder of the Anthroposophical Society), for instance, understood well the potential of innovative 228 Notes

emerging print mediums and generated volumes of theosophical “propaganda,” which dwarfs the number of Buddhist publications in Germany by comparison. Steiner alone wrote multiple volumes of essays and tirelessly delivered talks and speeches, which now represent in print over 300 volumes. 44. Sinthern, Buddhismus und buddhistische Strömungen, 74. 45. Ibid., 82 (italics in original). 46. Ibid., 77 (italics in original). 47. Ibid., 75. 48. Ibid., 126. 49. Pesch, “sittigenden Erfolge des Buddhismus,” 132. 50. Ibid., 519. 51. Sinthern, Buddhismus und buddhistische Strömungen, 128 (italics in original). 52. Ibid., 129. 53. The European powers met in November 1884 in Berlin and essentially carved up Africa, with Germany finally receiving its share of the remaining colonial spoils. See Woodruff Smith, The German Colonial Empire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978). Older but still useful works on Bismarck and colonialism are Gordon Craig, Ger- many: 1866– 1945 (London: Oxford University Press, 1978), especially 116– 24; Wehler, Bismarck und der Imperialismus (Köln: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 1969); also Carol Aisha Blackshire- Belay, “German Imperialism in Africa: The Distorted Images of Cameroon, Namibia, Tanzania, and Togo,” Journal of Black Studies 23.2 (December 1992): 235–46. For a general history of European colonialism in Africa, see Thomas Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa, 1876– 1912 (New York: Random House, 1991). 54. See Stache-Rosen, German Indologists, 124– 25. 55. Hermann Oldenberg, “Über Sanskritforschung,” Deutsche Rundschau 47 (1886): 393. There are numerous biographies on William Jones, but one of the best analyses in the context of my work here is Trautman’s chapter on Jones in Aryans and British India. 56. Oldenberg, “Über Sanskritforschung,” 386. 57. Ibid., 388–89. 58. Ibid., 389. 59. Ibid., 395. 60. Ibid., 401. Roth and Böthlingk worked on the dictionary over a span of three decades (1852– 1875). The work was financed and printed by the Petersburg Academy of Sci- ence and thus is often referred to as the Petersbürger Wörterbuch. See Heinrich von Stietencron’s essay, “Attraktion und Ausstrahlung: Das Wirken Rudolf von Roths,” in Indienforschung im Zeitenwandel: Analysen und Dokumente zur Indologie und Religions- wissenschaft in Tübingen, ed. Heidrun Brückner, Klaus Butzenberger, Angelika Malinar, and Gabriele Zeller (Tübingen: Attempto Verlag, 2003): 77– 89. 61. Oldenberg, “Über Sanskritforschung,” 402. 62. Oldenberg, “Die Religion des Veda und der Buddhismus: Eine religionsgeschichtliche Studie,” Deutsche Rundschau 85 (1895): 204. 63. Many books exist on Alexander’s reign and his expeditions, but one might start with A. B. Bosworth, Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988). 64. Oldenberg, “Über Sanskritforschung,” 407. 65. This provocative text was originally published in 1894 in French as La Vie inconnu de Jésus- Christ. 66. The text did not stand the test of academic scrutiny for long and was soon exposed as a sham. Many Indologists, however, responded frequently to Notovich’s claims in their Notes 229

less linguistic/technical works, usually in the context of introductory remarks about the state of Indological studies. 67. Oldenberg, “Religion des Veda,” 194. 68. Ibid., 197. 69. Ibid., 200. 70. Ibid., 206–7. 71. See Nietzsche’s 1874 essay, “The Uses and Disadvantages of History,” in Thoughts Out of Season. Part II. (London: George Allen & Unwin, n.d.). 72. Oldenberg, “Religion des Veda,” 207. 73. See the older, but still useful E. M. Butler, The Tyranny of Greece over Germany: A Study of the Influence Exercised by Greek Art and Poetry over the Great German Writers of the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 1935); also see Marchand’s excellent study, Down from Olympus: Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750– 1970 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996). 74. Tuska Benes, In Babel’s Shadow: Language, Philology, and the Nation in Nineteenth- Century Germany (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 2008): 161. 75. See Marchand’s German Orientalism, especially 53– 101; also, with more emphasis on philology, see Benes’s In Babel’s Shadow, especially 159– 96. 76. Many prominent German thinkers and political figures during the late eighteenth century, none other than Goethe and Frederick the Great, viewed France as that culture to emulate. Yet after the bloody terror of the French Revolution and the later demise of Napoleon, attitudes toward French culture began to shift and German thinkers became more aligned throughout the nineteenth century with the nationalistic sentiments of Johann Gottlieb Fichte’s “Reden an die deutsche Nation.” For general background to the beginnings of nationalism in Germany, see Blackbourn, History of Germany; J. Breuilly, ed., The State of Germany: The National Idea in the Making, Unmaking and Remaking of a Modern Nation-State (London: Longman, 1992); and M. Levinger, Enlightened Nation- alism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). 77. Oldenberg, “Religion des Veda,” 211– 12. 78. Ibid., 212. 79. Ibid., 213. 80. Ibid., 214. 81. Ibid., 217. 82. Ibid. 83. Ibid., 218. 84. Ibid., 221. 85. Ibid., 223. 86. Ibid., 224. 87. Paul Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Religionen, 2 vols. (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1894– 1917). 88. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, II.1 (1911; Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1921): v. 89. Deussen attended the elite gymnasium (secondary school) Schulpforta near Naumburg with Nietzsche. See Deussen’s autobiography, Mein Leben for more detail. 90. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, II.1, 1. 91. Ibid., v. 92. Ibid., 3. 93. Ibid., 3–4. 94. Ibid., 14. 95. Ibid., 217. 230 Notes

96. Ibid., 246. 97. Ibid., 315. 98. Ibid., 317. 99. Ibid., 315. 100. Ibid., 317. 101. Ibid., 390. 102. Ibid., 391–94. 103. Oldenberg, “Religion des Veda,” 224. 104. Ibid., 225. 105. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, II.1, 7. 106. Oldenberg, “Religion des Veda,” 225. 107. Oldenberg did however publicly reject Seydel’s claims about Buddhist influence on Christianity in a review of Ernst Windisch’s book, Mara und Buddha. The review is titled “Der Satan des Buddhismus” and appeared in the Deutsche Rundschau 88 (1896): 473– 75. 108. Oldenberg, “Der Buddhismus und die christliche Liebe,” in Aus dem alten Indien: Drei Aufsätze über den Buddhismus, altindische Dichtung und Geschichtschreibung (Berlin: Ver- lag von Gebrüder Paetel, 1910): 1– 22. 109. Ibid., 2. 110. Richard Pischel, Leben und Lehre des Buddha (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1906). 111. Oldenberg, “Buddhismus und die christliche Liebe,” 5. Importantly, Maitri (Sanskrit) or Metta (Pali), according to The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion, comp. Stephan Schuhmacher and Gert Woerner (Boston: Shambhala, 1994), s.v. “Maitri,” means literally “kindness, benevolence; one of the principal Buddhist virtues.” The Ency- clopedia further elaborates that in practice this is “the feeling of kindness . . . directed first toward persons who are close to one another and then gradually extended toward persons and other beings who are indifferent and ill- disposed toward oneself.” 112. Oldenberg, “Buddhismus und die christliche Liebe,” 5. 113. Richard Garbe, Indien und das Christentum: Eine Untersuchung der religionsgeschichtlichen Zusammenhänge (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1914): vi. This text is a compilation of numerous essays, as Garbe points out, that had been previously published in scholarly journals, many in the Deutsche Rundschau. 114. On Christian apologetics, see Marchand’s German Orientalism, especially 267– 79. 115. Ibid., vi. 116. Oldenberg, “Buddhismus und die christliche Liebe,” 7. 117. Ibid., 8. 118. Ibid., 11. 119. See Heiko Overman, Luther: Man between God and the Devil (New York: Doubleday, 1992), especially 50– 81. 120. It is no coincidence of course that during the decades leading up to World War I the Protestant League asserted itself as a “national” organization and such movements as the “Los Von Rom” movement became established. See Smith’s German nationalism and Religious Conflict for a thorough examination of the entanglement of denominational issues and German nationalism. 121. Oldenberg, “Buddhismus und die christliche Liebe,” 14– 15. 122. Ibid., 15. 123. Ibid., 15–16. 124. Ibid., 16. Notes 231

125. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, especially 63– 87, in which he argues that in industrial societies the “nation” becomes the means through which a society maintains and oversees its social infrastructure. 126. Oldenberg, “Buddhismus und die christliche Liebe,” 21. 127. Ibid., 21–22. 128. Von Schroeder, “Indiens geistige Bedeutung für Europa,” in Reden und Aufsätze, 167. 129. Von Schroeder, “Buddhismus und Christentum,” 86. 130. Ibid., 85. 131. Ibid., 91. 132. Ibid. 133. Ibid., 92. 134. Ibid., 100. 135. See McLeod, Secularization in Western Europe, 81, for his discussion of what he terms the “blending of religious and the patriotic” in Germany during the era. 136. Von Schroeder, “Buddhismus und Christentum,” 103. 137. Ibid., 103–4. 138. Ibid., 104. 139. Von Schroeder claims to have struggled with his religious convictions until experiencing a reconversion to his Christian roots during his late thirties. This would place the event around 1890 and just prior to the publication of his essay “Buddhismus und Christen- tum.” In his autobiography he references a 1912 speech at the Jahresversammlung der christlichen deutschen Studenten titled “Rufen Gottes,” in which he depicts his reconversion experience as a “true inner reversal” (Lebenserinnerungen 229). This speech was published a few years later in pamphlet form by the Furche- Verlag as “Das Rufen Gottes,” in 1917. Von Schroeder inserts it as a chapter in his Lebenserinnerungen, 228– 40. 140. Von Schroeder, “Buddhismus und Christentum,” 115. 141. Ibid. 142. Ibid., 121. 143. Ibid., 118. 144. Ibid., 122. 145. Ibid., 127.

Chapter 5

1. D. Christian Gottlieb, “Der indobritische Opiumhandel und seine Wirkungen,” Allge- meine Missions-Zeitschrift. Monatshefte für geschichtliche und theoretische Missionskunde 4 (1877): 527. 2. Christlieb was educated at the Tübinger Stift and was heavily influenced by Würtem- berg Pietism. After a stint in England as pastor of the deutsche Gemeinde in London (Islington) from 1858 to 1865, Christlieb later became a professor of practical theology in Bonn in 1868, where he remained until his death. For more information, see the Deutsche Biographie, http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz8315.html. 3. In this chapter I will focus primarily on Hübbe- Schleiden. I have treated Ernst Haeck- el’s vision of India elsewhere in “Monistic Visions and Colonial Consciousness: Ernst Haeckel’s Indische Reisebriefe,” Seminar 44.2 (May 2008): 190– 209. 4. Numerous studies exist on the British-German relationship during the era. One might begin with Paul Kennedy’s The Rise of the Anglo- German Antagonism: 1860– 1914 (Lon- don: George Allen & Unwin, 1980). 232 Notes

5. The Brahmo Samaj was a religious/social reform movement in nineteenth-century India. For background, see Frans L. Damen, Crisis and Religious Renewal in the Brahmo Samaj (1860–1884): A Documentary Study of the Emergence of the “New Dispensation” under Keshab Chandra Sen (Leuven, Belgium: Department Oriëntalistiek, Katholieke Univer- siteit Leuven, 1983); also, the second half of Dorothy Figueira, Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority Through Myths of Identity (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002). 6. Hönes, “Reformbewegung des Brahmosomadsch,” 6. 7. Ibid., 7–8. 8. Ibid., 13. 9. Ibid., 9. 10. Ibid., 15. 11. Ibid., 18. 12. Ibid., 19. 13. Ibid. 14. A positive view of England’s material successes is common, especially among colonial supporters, but there were other voices in Germany. For instance, in a short essay, “Indi- ens Bankerott,” from Das Ausland 52 (1878): 1027, the unnamed author presents a more gloomy economic outlook for the Raj: “The truth is that under British rule Indian society as a whole has been impoverished in alarming ways and the poor situation continues to worsen.” 15. Hönes, “Reformbewegung des Brahmosomadsch,” 22. 16. Ibid., 23. 17. For the actual text of the speech, see Keshab Chandra Sen, Keshub Chunder Sen in Eng- land: Diary, Sermons, Addresses, and Epistles (Calcutta: Writer’s Workshop, 1980). 18. Also important here is Partha Chatterjee’s brief account of Sen in The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). Chatterjee writes of Sen’s view of Christianity during his trip to India: “He seemed to suggest that the ideals of reason and rational religion that may have been suit- able for Europe were not so for India” (40). 19. Damen, Crisis and Religious Renewal in the Brahmo Samaj, 91. 20. Hönes, “Reformbewegung des Brahmosomadsch,” 9. 21. W. Germann, “Der Brahma Samadsch,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift. Monatshefte für geschichtliche und theoretische Missionskunde 2 (1875): 146. Germann does not cite the original source of the speech, only the discussion of it from Ch. Miss. Int., 341– 50. 22. Christlieb, “indobritische Opiumhandel,” 466 (italics represent enlarged font in original). 23. Hübbe-Schleiden was a well-known colonial propagator during the era. See his Ethi- opien: Studien über West- Afrika (Hamburg: L. Friederichsen, 1879), which recounts his two- year stay in West Africa from 1875 to 1877. Here Hübbe-Schleiden exhibits blatant colonialist discourse based on his more racially charged views about the absence of Aryan roots in Africa. The reader confronts frequent statements in the text such as, “This world awaits the refining breed of a foreign master’s hand” (279); also see his Deutsche Colo- nisation: Eine Replik auf das Referat des Herrn Dr. Friedrich Kapp über Colonisation und Auswanderung (Hamburg: Friederichsen, 1881); and Üeberseeische Politik: Eine culturwissenschaftliche Studie mit Zahlenbildern (Hamburg: Friederichsen, 1881). For assess- ments of Hübbe-Schleiden’s role in German colonialism, see Wehler, Bismarck und der Imperialismus, 121 and 144–47; and Klaus J. Bade, Friedrich Fabri und der Imperialismus in der Bismarckzeit: Revolution, Depression, Expansion (Freiburg im Breisgau: Atlantis Verlag, 1975): 14. Notes 233

24. Hübbe-Schleiden, Das Dasein, als Lust, Leid und Liebe: Die altindische Weltanschauung in neuzeitlichen Darstellung. Ein Beitrag zum Darwinismus (Braunschweig: Schwetchke & Sohn, 1891): 32. 25. Ibid., 18. See Wilhelm von Humboldt’s “Einleitung zum Kawi- Werk,” in Schriften zur Sprache (Stuttgart: Reclam, 1973): 36, for a more elaborate depiction of this concept. 26. Hübbe-Schleiden, Dasein, als Lust, Leid und Liebe, 91. For Ernst Haeckel’s version, see my essay, “Monistic Visions and Colonial Consciousness.” 27. Ibid., 17. 28. Hübbe-Schleiden, Indien und die Indier (Hamburg: L. Friederichsen, 1898): 31– 32. 29. Ibid., 25. 30. Ibid., 265. 31. The phrase “Jewel in the Crown” was coined during the British Rule in India under Queen Victoria (1819– 1901), who added “Empress of India” to her title in 1876. See Antoinette M. Burton, At the Heart of the Empire: Indians and the Colonial Encounter in Late- Victorian Britain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998). 32. Such racial undertones became more pronounced in the work of Chamberlain and later von Schroeder, whose work we will explore more thoroughly in the following chapter. 33. Von Schroeder, Arische Religion, 2 vols. (Leipzig: H. Haessel Verlag, 1914): 183. 34. Hübbe-Schleiden, Indien und die Indier, 10. 35. Ibid., 32. 36. Ibid., 131. 37. In Philosophie Zoologique (1809), Jean-Baptiste Lamarck argued that organisms adapt to their environment by developing characteristics that promote their survival or progress and that these acquired characteristics are passed on to their offspring (transformism). In Darwin’s model, adaptation is not the mechanism for evolution, but rather certain natural traits of an organism provide a better chance of survival and thus are passed on. Change or evolution is thus not the point of contention here, rather only the mechanism. For a concise explanation, see Richard Firenze, “Lamarck vs. Darwin: Dueling Theories,” Reports of the National Center for Science Education 17.4 (July– August 1997): 9– 11, also available at http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/lessons/lam.dar.pdf. 38. Hübbe-Schleiden, Indien und die Indier, 139. 39. Ibid. 40. Ibid., 137. 41. Ibid., 138. 42. Ibid., 139. 43. Ibid., 27. 44. Ibid., 78. 45. Ibid., 80. Beginning on the prior page, Hübbe- Schleiden explains that crime is not a problematic issue for the British. 46. Ibid. 47. Richard Garbe, Indische Reiseskizzen (Berlin: Gebrüder Pätel, 1889): 82– 83. 48. The degree of support for the imperial policies and colonialist agenda of the Second Reich has been vigorously debated. For an overview, see Mommsen’s chapter, “The Causes and Objectives of German Imperialism before 1914,” in Imperial Germany, 1867– 1918: Politics, Culture, and Society in an Authoritarian State (Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1998): 75– 100. 49. Hübbe-Schleiden, Indien und die Indier, 62. 50. The Raj was of course showing clear fault lines by the 1890s as the Indian independence movement had gained significant steam. The Indian National Congress had been 234 Notes

established in 1885 and Gandhi’s return to India from South Africa was less than two decades away. 51. Hübbe-Schleiden, Indien und die Indier, 2. 52. Garbe, Indische Reiseskizzen, 27. 53. Ibid., 49. 54. Ibid. In other passages of Garbe’s text (59) he found no difficulty in lambasting the brutal despotism of the Moghuls and their suppression of Hinduism. Briefly, Hegel’s master- slave dialectic, which he explains in his Phänomonologie des Geistes (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1986): 145–55, suggests that when two self-consciousnesses mirror one another a conflict results and one must win, leading to an unsatisfactory resolution because mastery, in Hegel’s model of self-consciousness, produces an asymmetrical relationship through mirroring the other and therefore becomes self-defeating— that is, the enslaved will eventually defeat the master. For a much more thorough explanation of the master- slave dialectic, see Robert C. Solomon, In the Spirit of Hegel: A Study of G. W. F. Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), especially 443– 55. 55. Hübbe-Schleiden, Indien und die Indier, 232– 37. 56. Garbe, Indische Reiseskizzen, 125. 57. Hübbe-Schleiden, Indien und die Indier, 238. 58. Ibid., 226. 59. Ibid., 125, 129. 60. Ibid., 265. 61. Ibid., 2. 62. Hübbe-Schleiden, Dasein, als Lust, Leid und Liebe, viii. 63. Ibid., 11. 64. Russell Berman, Enlightenment or Empire: Colonial Discourse in German Culture (Lin- coln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998): 40. 65. On Stanley, see Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost; on the Herero struggle against the Germans, see Horst Drechsler, “Let Us Die Fighting”: The Struggle of the Herero and Nama against German Imperialism (1884– 1915), trans. Bernd Zöllner (London: Zed, 1980); on Carl Peters, see Arne Perras, Carl Peters and German Imperialism, 1856– 1918: A Political Biography (Oxford: Clarendon, 2004).

Chapter 6

1. Dahlke, Bedeutung des Buddhismus, 7. 2. Thomas Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2005). 3. See Sebastian Conrad and Jürgen Osterhammel, eds., Das Kaiserreich Transnational: Deutschland in der Welt (1871– 1914) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004); and Conrad’s more recent, Globalisierung und Nation im Deutschen Kaiserreich (München: C. H. Beck, 2006) for a more detailed analysis of just how “globalized” the Kaiserreich had become. 4. Chamberlain, Grundlagen, 33 (italics in original). For Chamberlain’s biography, see Geoffrey G. Field, Evangelist of Race: The Germanic Vision of Houston Stewart Chamber- lain (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981); also Anja Lobenstein-Reichmann’s Houston Stewart Chamberlain— Zur textlichen Konstruktion einer Weltanschauung: Eine sprach- , diskurs- und ideologiegeschichtliche Analyse (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2008). 5. Anz, Literatur des Expressionismus, 54. Notes 235

6. Von Schroeder, Arische Religion, 1– 2. 7. Ibid., 3. 8. Ibid., 9–10. 9. Chamberlain, Arische Weltanschauung, 21. 10. See Marchand’s chapter, “The Passions and the Races,” in German Orientalism. 11. Chamberlain, Arische Weltanschauung, 10. 12. For instance, Goodricke- Clark, The Occult Roots of Nazism. 13. Marchand also uses “Schopenhauerian Christianity” in reference to Deussen. See her German Orientalism, 300– 311. 14. Deussen has attracted some scholarly attention (Bagchi, Marchand). 15. Chamberlain, Arische Weltanschauung, 28. 16. Three of Deussen’s major works receive attention in Chamberlain’s brief chapter and are often cited by other Indologists during the era: Die Elemente der Metaphysik (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1877); Das System des Vedanta nach den Brahma- Sutras des Cankara über Die- selben als ein Compendium der Dogmatik des Brahmanismus vom Standpunkte des Cankara aus (Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1883); Sechzig Upanishad’s des Veda aus dem Sanskrit über- setzt und mit Einleitungen und Anmerkungen versehen (Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1897). 17. Chamberlain, Arische Weltanschauung, 21. Mimamsa, according to the Encyclopedia Bri- tannica, means “reflection” or “critical investigation.” For more basic background, see Encyclopedia Britannica Online, s.v. “Mimasa,” http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ topic/383181/Mimamsa. 18. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, I.1, 8 (1894; Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1922). 19. Ibid., 9– 10 (italics in original). 20. According to The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion, comp. Stephan Schuh- macher and Gert Woerner (Boston: Shambhala, 1994), s.v. “Vedanta,” the term Vedanta means literally “end of the Vedas, as contained in the Upanishads.” For more detailed analysis of the Vedanta, see Arvind Sharma, The Philosophy of Religion and Vedanta: A Comparative Study in Relgion and Reason (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995); and Hans Torwesten, Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism, trans. John Phillips (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1985). 21. Deussen, Sechzig Upanishad’s, x. 22. Ibid., xii. 23. Shankara (788–820 CE) was an Indian philosopher who developed the philosophical system, Advaita Vedanta. The term advaita means nondual. For background on Shan- kara, see Natalia Isayeva, Shankara and Indian Philosophy (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); and George Cronk, On Shankara (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2003). 24. Deussen, System des Vedanta,18. 25. Ibid., 21. 26. Kant, Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 2 vols. (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1995). For more background on Kant’s Critique, see Jill Vance Buroker, Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason: An Introduction (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006). 27. Deussen, System des Vedanta, 48. 28. A wealth of literature exists on Schopenhauer, but one might begin with Michael Tanner, Schopenhauer (New York: Routledge, 1999). 29. Deussen, System des Vedanta, 57. 30. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, II.3, 378. 31. Ibid., 428. 32. Ibid., 429. 236 Notes

33. For an excellent work on the role of Kantian philosophy during the later half of the nineteenth century, see Klaus Christian Köhnke, The Rise of Neo-Kantianism: German Academic Philosophy between Idealism and Positivism (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1991). 34. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, II.3, 449. 35. Ibid., 459 (italics in original). The translation of noli me tangere is “do not touch me.” In other words, transcendental consciousness as Deussen describe it here is inaccessible. 36. T. K. Seung, Kant: A Guide for the Perplexed (London: Continuum, 2007): 17. 37. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, II.3, 459. 38. Deussen, Sechzig Upanishad’s, vii. 39. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, II.3, 481. 40. Ibid., 459. 41. The reference here of course is to A. O. Lovejoy’s well-known book titled The Great Chain of Being. 42. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, II.3, 481. 43. Ibid. 44. Ibid., 489. 45. Ibid., 494. 46. Ibid. 47. Ibid., 508. 48. Ibid., 495. 49. Ibid., 547. 50. The reference here of course is to Madame Blavatsky’s Isis Unveiled, a benchmark text in theosophy. 51. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, II.3, 548. 52. Ibid., 549. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid., 550. 55. See Weber’s “protestantische Ethik,” in Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie I. See Wolfgang Hardtwig, Geschichtskultur und Wissenschaft (München: Deutsche Taschenbu- chVerlag, 1990). Though he does not discuss Weber specifically in this context, Hardtwig does offer a relevant description for my discussion of what he terms the “Sakralisierung von Politik und Ökonomie,” 126– 33. 56. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte, II.3, 551. 57. Ibid., 554. 58. Ibid., 558. 59. Ibid., 562. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid., 563. 62. Ibid., 571. 63. Ibid. 64. Deussen, Die Philosophie der Bibel (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1913): ix. This text is vol. II.2 of Allgemeine Geschichte. 65. Ibid., v. 66. Ibid., 4–5. 67. Von Schroeder, Arische Religion, v. 68. Ibid., 6. 69. Ibid., 9. Notes 237

70. Ibid., 8–9. Aridsson argues in Aryan Idols (162) that von Schroeder is less anti-Jewish than either Chamberlain or Wagner, yet I would suggest that this is more a question of degree rather than substance. 71. Von Schroeder, Arische Religion, 24. Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930) was a prominent Liberal theologian in Germany. 72. Moral can be more closely associated with individual behavior, at least in the sense that von Schroeder employs the term, while Sitten are more explicitly linked with social conventions. 73. Von Schroeder, Arische Religion, 30– 31. 74. Ibid., 32. 75. Ibid., 35. 76. Ibid., 36. 77. Ibid., 113 (italics in original). 78. Ibid., 122. 79. Ibid., 124. Von Schroeder’s expression here refers undeniably to Nietzche’s polemical work published in two volumes (1878– 80), Menschliches, Allzumenschliches. 80. Von Schroeder, Arische Religion, 130. 81. Ibid., 131–32. 82. Arvidsson, Aryan Idols, 164. 83. Ibid., 163. 84. Von Schroeder, Arische Religion, 139– 69. 85. Ibid., 164. 86. Ibid., 169. 87. Ibid., 178. 88. Ibid. 89. Ibid., 179. 90. Ibid., 189. 91. Ibid. 92. Ibid., 191. 93. Ibid., 192. 94. Ibid., 198–99. 95. Ibid., 205. 96. Ibid., 206. 97. Ibid., 213 (italics in original). 98. Ibid., 214. 99. Ibid., 215. 100. Von Schroeder, Houston Stewart Chamberlain: Ein Abriß seines Lebens (München: J. F. Lehmanns Verlag, 1918): 90. 101. Ibid. 102. Ibid., 91. 103. Ibid., 93. 104. Chamberlain, British-born but German by circumstance and conviction, is a fascinating intellectual of the era and has received significant attention among scholars. See Arvids- son’s Aryan Idols, especially153– 56; also Marchand’s German Orientalism, especially 311– 21. 105. Marchand in German Orientalism points out that 512 of the 531 pages in the first volume of Chamberlain’s Foundations deal with “events that predated the Resurrection” (311), yet there is virtually no reference to the Vedas or any other aspect of Indian tradi- tion that predated the Christian era. 106. Chamberlain, Arische Weltanschauung, 12. 238 Notes

107. Ibid. 108. Ibid., 13. 109. Ibid., 15. 110. Ibid., 24 (italics in original). 111. Ibid., 25. 112. Ibid., 24. 113. Ibid., 27. 114. Ibid., 28. 115. Ibid., 28, 31. 116. Ibid., 36. 117. Ibid., 38. 118. Ibid., 41. 119. Ibid., 42. 120. Ibid. 121. Ibid., 43. 122. Ibid., 47. 123. Ibid., 48. 124. Ibid., 50. 125. Ibid. 126. Ibid., 54. 127. Ibid., 50. 128. Ibid., 65, 62. 129. Ibid., 65–66. 130. Ibid., 76. 131. Ibid., 80. 132. Ibid., 85. 133. Ibid. See Nietzsche’s essay, “On the Advantage and Disadvantage of History for Life,” in which he laments the preeminence of history for determining human knowledge.

Epilogue

1. Chamberlain, Arische Weltanschauung, 89. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid., 85–86. 4. Ibid., 88. 5. Ibid., 89. 6. Ibid. 7. Berman, Enlightenment or Empire, 17 8. Ibid., 40. 9. The poem’s title is “Deutschlands Beruf,” in Heroldsrufe: ältere und neuere Zeitgedichte (Stuttgart: Cotta, 1871). Geibel’s familiar original reads, “Und es mag am deutschen Wesen / Einmal noch die Welt genesen.” Bibliography

Primary Works

JOURNALS, NEWSPAPERS, REPORTS

Allgemeine Missions- Zeitschrift. Monatshefte für geschichtliche und theoretische Missionskunde Annalen der Verbreitung des Glaubens zum Vortheil der Missionen Allgemeine Zeitung Das Ausland Biblilische Zeitfragen Der Buddhist Buddhistische Warte Buddhistische Welt Deutsche Zeit-und Streit-fragen. Flugschriften zur Kenntniß der Gegenwart Die Gesellschaft: Monatschrift für Literatur, Kunst und Sozialpolitik Die katholischen Missionen. Illustrirte Monatschrift Lotusblüthen Metaphysische Rundschau Neue buddhistische Hefte Neue metaphysische Rundschau Protestantische Flugblätter Sphinx Stimmen aus Maria- Laach. Katholische Monatschrift Stimmen der Zeit Theosophische Kultur. Sonderheft 2

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Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations.

Africa, 3, 6, 72, 125– 26, 167, 228n53, Bagchi, Kaushik 232n23 “Orientalism without Colonialism?,” 8 afterlife, 181 Baumgarten, Michael, 27– 28, 31 ahistoricity, Indian, 128– 29 Bazain, 70, 73– 74 Alexander the Great, 129 Beethoven, Ludwig van, 197 Allgemeine Missions- Zeitschrift, 149, 152, Benes, Tuska, 131 207n78 In Babel’s Shadow, 9 American theosophical society, 105 Bengal Social Science Association, 153 Ames, Eric, 6 Berger, Peter, 14 Anglican Church, 71– 72 Berlin Conference (1884), 166, 228n53 anthroposophy, 14, 85, 206n62, 222n13, Berlin- Frohnau Buddhist center, 97 227n43 Berman, Nina, 6 anti- Catholicism, 11– 13, 27, 36– 39, 41– 42, Berman, Russell, 167 53, 59, 62– 64, 73, 78, 88, 120, 141, Enlightenment or Empire, 200 213n58, 213n63, 216n7 Bertholet, Alfred, 207n78 anti- Protestantism, 56– 58, 60– 62, 64, 72, Besant, Annie, 19, 206n62, 208n85, 221n6, 76, 123– 24 222n20 anti- Semitism, 92– 93, 171 Bhagavad Gita, 6 See also racism Bhikschu, Subhara Anz, Thomas, 14, 170 Buddhistischer Katechismus, 93– 94 Apollonian- Dionysian debate, 135, 188 Bible, 5, 12, 30, 89, 99, 151 Aristotle, 136, 137 Gospels, 116, 137 Arnold, Edwin New Testament, 36, 47, 48, 116, 132, The Light of Asia, 17, 114– 19, 121 173– 74, 177– 78, 214n96, 215n96 Arumugan, Indian prince, 74, 76 Old Testament, 128– 29, 173 Arvidsson, Stefan Bildungsbürger, defined, 222n16 Aryan Idols, 9, 187, 236n70 Bismarck, Otto von, 5, 11– 12, 27, 32, 38, Aryanism, 2, 8– 9, 20– 21, 32, 45, 48, 53, 53, 56, 169, 197, 204n43, 213n62, 105, 128– 29, 142, 146, 204n34, 213n63 232n23 assassination attempt on, 12 radical, 171, 176, 181, 184– 200 fall from power, 125 theosophy and, 157, 159, 162– 63, 166 Blackbourn, David, 12, 14, 34, 211n41 asceticism (self- control), 91– 96, 97, 101, Blavatsky, Madam, 165, 197, 206n62, 103, 108 208n85 atheism, 124 Isis Unveiled, 105 252 Index body- soul relationship, 179, 181– 84 Protestant sympathizers and, 25– 51 body- spirit integration, 100, 102, 160 Schopenhauer and, 183– 84 Böhtlingk, Otto, 128, 228n60 Buddhist art, 117, 119– 21 Bombay- Poona area, 56, 60– 62, 75 Bühler, Georg, 28 Bopp, Franz, 1, 45 Bülow Bloc, 13, 205n55 Bourdieu, Pierre, 2– 4, 6, 10, 16, 82, Burnouf, Eugène, 209n5 202n10, 202n15, 203n16, 203n24 Introduction à l’histoire du Buddhisme Brahmentum, 161 indien, 26 Brahminism Catholics and, 58– 61, 119– 20 Calvinism, 83, 88, 108 elite thinkers and, 141, 158– 61, 163, 186 caste system, 32– 33, 59– 60, 74, 130, 151, Oldenberg on, 129 161– 67, 197 “original” Christianity and, 164 Catholicism, 5, 11– 13, 15– 17, 31, 34, 50, Protestants and, 26, 30– 31, 33– 34, 39, 53– 79, 145 44, 46, 143– 44 anti- Buddhism and, 114– 18, 121– 24, Schopenhauer and, 183– 84 195 Brahmin priests, 26, 31, 34, 46, 119– 20, British Raj and, 71– 78 120, 143, 145, 150, 195, 197 Buddhist alms and, 141 Brahmo Samaj, 149– 53, 231n5 church vs. state and, 37– 38 British colonialism, 3, 19, 35, 126, 142, comparative religion and, 40– 41, 48 173– 74, 212n46, 220n70, 221n6, education and, 12, 75– 78 233n31 fringe religions and, 16– 17, 105 Catholics and, 58– 59, 61– 62, 65, 67, hierarchies and, 46, 65 71– 78 Indian caste system and, 161 education and, 58– 59, 75– 77, 162– 63 Indian conversion stories and, 57– 58, German competition with, 146, 166– 67, 74– 76 232n14 India mission of, 54– 62, 119, 124– 25 Protestants and, 46, 149– 67 Indian vicarages map, 68 British culture, 131– 33, 138, 164, 179, Portugal and, 67– 71 204n34, 209n6 Protestants vs., 11– 13, 26, 37– 39, 121 Brockhaus, Hermann, 28 Prussian laws limiting, 11– 12 brotherly love, 139, 141, 178 solidarity of, 62– 64 Buddha, Guatamo, 26– 27, 30, 35– 36, universal mission of, 13, 17, 51, 54, 56, 47– 49, 113, 115– 17, 119, 121, 123, 62– 69, 76, 121– 25, 200 109, 129– 33, 141, 143– 44, 195– 96, See also anti- Catholicism 215n105 Catholic Missions, The, 55 Buddhism, 7– 8, 14, 16– 17, 25, 141, Catholic Zentrumspartei, 12 207n78 Ceylon, 64, 97 Catholic detractors and, 113– 25 Chadwick, Owen, 14 Chamberlain and, 195 Chakrabarty, Dipesh, 46 Christianity compared with, 39, 44– 50, Chamberlain, Houston Stewart, 1– 2, 8– 9, 113– 16, 126, 129, 139– 46 28, 53, 169– 73, 176, 178, 184, 189– European discovery of, 26– 27 200, 237n104 fringe religions and, 14, 17, 78, 81– 82, Arische Weltanschauung, 1, 171– 72, 185, 84– 100, 139, 171, 174, 195, 200 191– 93, 196, 199, 235n17 Greek civilization and, 132– 39 Deussen’s influence on, 21, 178, 185, priestly authority vs., 150 191– 96 Protestant detractors and, 48– 49, 125– 46 The Foundations of the Nineteenth Cen- Protestant shift in attitude toward, 125– tury, 19– 20, 169, 186, 192, 237n105 26, 113, 185– 86, 188 von Schroeder’s biography of, 190– 91 Index 253

Chatterjee, Partha, 232n18 Christian apologetics and, 125 China, 45, 64, 172, 173, 202n7 Darwinism and, 86 Chomskyian linguistics, 3, 203n16 Freemasonry vs. Catholicism and, 37– 38 Christian apologetics, 17, 111, 125, 133, fringe religions and, 82, 84, 86, 92– 97, 139, 142– 46, 172, 175, 200 102– 3, 106, 108– 10 Christianity Greeks and, 137 Aryan, 142, 171, 181, 184– 91, 199 intellectual elite and, 161 Buddhism compared with, 9, 17– 18, 37, Protestants and, 26– 27 39– 41, 44– 50, 96, 121, 124, 129– 33 radical prescriptive history and, 169–98 Catholics defend, vs. Buddhism, 114– 22 comparative religion German Buddhists and, 87– 90, 92– 93, Catholics and, 113– 25 98– 100, 102 colonial mind- set and, 125– 26 Germanocentric, 184, 190– 91 global links and, 169 India- Greek link as precursor to, 135, 137 Oldenberg and, 127– 33, 138– 42 “muscular,” 212n46 Schultze and, 90 Schopenhauerian, 21, 172– 84, 193– 95, Seydel and, 39– 50 209n92 von Schroeder and, 170, 173– 78 Semitic influence on, 92– 93 See also historicism; spirituality; and universal mandate and, 121 specific individuals and religions von Schroeder’s about- faces on Buddhism Conference of Berlin (1884), 18 and, 29– 30, 113 Confucianism, 172 See also Bible; Catholicism; Protestantism; Congo, 167, 219n50 Protestant Reformation; and specific Cowan, Robert individuals and works The Indo- German Identification, 8 Christianization of India, 25, 150– 53 Christian Philosopher King, 199 Dahlke, Paul, 16, 82, 86, 91, 93, 97– 103, Christlieb, D. Theodor, 149, 153, 231n2 106, 113, 122, 169– 71, 222n17 church-state relationship, 11– 12, 37, 64, 70, Buddhism as Worldview, 81, 85, 98– 103, 75– 77 224, n70 civilizing mission, 66– 67, 125, 139– 40, 142, 144– 46, 150, 152, 162– 64, 166– The Meaning of Buddhism, 97, 169 67, 218n50 Dahlmann, Joseph, 65– 66, 218n45, 218n48 class structure, 3– 4, 83, 96, 159, 161– 67, Buddha, 117– 22 203n18 India Travels, 121 colonial consciousness, 111, 125– 27, 129, Damen, Frans, 152 141– 46, 156, 167, 175 Darwin, Charles, 14– 15, 40 colonialism, 5– 6, 17– 19, 125– 26, 162– 67, Lamarck vs., 160, 233n37 169, 232n23 Origin of Species, 15 fringe religions and, 18– 19, 146, 154– 57 Darwinism, 5, 12, 19, 55, 78, 178, 183, German Catholics and, 54, 65– 67, 70– 73 206n69, 220n86 German, vs. British, 72– 73, 132, 149– 67 colonialism and, 110, 167 German, vs. French, 132, 164, 166, German Buddhists and, 84, 86– 87, 96, 219n50 99– 100 commandeering, 4, 191– 94 metaphysical, 149, 154– 67, 155, 157 community consensus, 4– 5, 20– 22, 36, See also survival of the fittest 222n15 Delplace, Edmund, 57– 58, 66 Buddhism vs. Protestantism and, 40, 42, denominational conflict, 5, 10– 13, 41– 44 47– 50 See also anti- Catholicism; anti- Catholics vs. Buddhism and, 118– 19 Protestantism; and specific Catholics vs. Protestants and, 57 denominations 254 Index

Deussen, Paul, 9, 17, 20– 21, 171– 85, 187– Figuiera, Dorothy, 202n12 88, 200, 208n92, 229n89 Aryans, Jews, Brahmins, 8 influence of, 21, 178, 185, 191– 96, form vs. essence, 135– 36, 175 235n16, 236n35 Foucault, Michel, 3 General History, 134– 38, 172– 81, Franciscans, 70, 74 183– 84 Franco- Prussian War, 1, 11, 25, 27, 31– 32, The Philosophy of the Bible, 183– 84 43 Sechzig Upanishad, 174 Franz Xavier College, 55, 75, 216n4, Deutsche Kolonialgeselschaft, 18 219n51 Deutsche Protestantenverein, 27, 39– 43, Frederick the Great, 197, 229n76 45– 46 Free Church, 43– 44, 47, 50 Deutsche Rundschau, 127 Freemasonry, 13, 35– 39, 69, 106– 7, 213n56 Deutsche Zeit- und Streit- Fragen, 25, 207n78, French, 3, 131– 33, 138, 164, 166, 219n50, 210n16, 213n58 229n76 distinction, 3, 6, 21, 83 Revolution, 56, 190– 91 divine Freud, Sigmund, 224n70 humans as (Gott- Menschen), 195, 197, Friedman, Thomas, 169 199 Friedrichsmeyer, Sara, 6 human spirit and, 104, 107– 8 fringe religious innovators, 14– 19, 21, 50, Droit, Roger- Pol, 19, 208n86 78, 81– 111, 113, 118– 19, 122, 158, duality, 91, 98– 99, 101, 104, 174, 178 171 See also German Buddhists; theosophy; early Christian era, 117, 130 and specific individuals earthly rejection, 94– 95, 133– 34, 141, 195 egoism, 183– 83 Gall, Lothar, 213n62 Egypt, 128, 173 Gama, Vasco da, 67, 219n53 Einbeck, Walter, 105 Gandhi, 233n50 Elias, Norbert, 203n22 Garbe, Richard, 162– 64, 167, 234n54 elite thinkers, 109– 11, 159– 63, 181– 82, India and Christianity, 139– 40, 163, 189, 193– 200 empiricism, 5, 16, 84, 86, 87, 96, 98– 99, 230n113 103, 170, 174, 175, 183, 190 Geibel, Emanuel energia, 156 Heroldsrufe, 200, 238n9 Engels, Friedrich, 84 Gellner, Ernst, 141, 213n60, 230n125 Enlightenment, 1, 11, 15, 32, 36, 39, 45, Germana, Nicholas 56, 94, 132, 138, 150, 167, 179, 200 The Orient of Europe, 6 Esleben, Jörg German Brahminism, 161, 166, 199– 200 Mapping Channels, 7 German Buddhists, 84– 100, 174, 176, 195, ethics, 27, 181– 85, 187– 88, 190, 192, 196 221n13, 222n17 ethnographic discourse, 3, 18 German language, 1, 2, 9, 92, 129– 30, 132, Eurocentrism, 199 146, 164, 173, 189, 214n73 evolutionary pyramid, 154– 56, 155, 157, Germann, W., 152– 53 159– 61 German nationhood, 205n45 See also Darwinism See also nationalism Germanocentricism, 131– 33, 137– 38, 146, Fabri, Friedrich 154, 158– 60, 184– 85, 187, 190– 92, Does Germany Need Colonies?, 18, 153 195, 200 Fascism, 10, 16, 21 globalization, 169, 234n3 Feuerbach, Ludwig, 39, 48, 207n72 Goa Catholic mission, 57, 67, 69, 75, Fichte, Johann G., 229n76 216n4 Index 255

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 1, 131, 197, Oldenberg and Germanocentric, 129– 33, 229n76 137– 39 Grass, Günter, 1 prescriptive, 135– 39, 170– 84, 192 Greeks, ancient, 117, 127, 129– 39, 164, radical prescriptive, 170– 73, 184– 200 172, 175, 178, 179, 183, 186, 188, Seydel and comparative model of, 36, 40, 192, 194– 95, 197, 199– 200 45– 50 Gregor XVI, 68, 69 See also specific individuals, religions, and Greyerz, Kaspar von, 83 works Grimm, Eduard Hoffmann, Stefan- Ludwig, 213n56 “The Teachings about the Buddha,” 44, Holland, 72 215n90 Holy Ganges, 1, 10, 158, 162, 201n2, Grimm brothers, 128 217n11 Homer, 133 habitus, defined, 203n21 Hönes, Christian, 25, 149– 53, 209n3 Haeckel, Ernst, 18, 20, 40, 149, 154, Hönig, W., 50 206n62, 231n3 Hübbe- Schleiden, Wilhelm, 18– 20, 40, Die Welträtsel, 99 85, 110, 114, 146, 149, 154– 67, 195, Halbfass, Wilhelm 222n17, 227n43, 232n23 India and Europe, 6 Being as Lust, 154– 56, 155, 157, 166 “happy” native, 162, 164 India and the Indians, 154, 158– 65 Harnack, Adolf von, 185, 207n72, 237n71 human will, 177– 84 Hartmann, Eduard von, 206n61, 210n16, Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 156 212n47 Hartmann, Franz, 16, 25, 82, 85, 86, 104– identity, 5, 16, 35, 78, 82– 84, 93, 103– 4, 10, 113– 14, 222n19, 225n99, 227n43 108– 11, 171, 189– 90 Hastings, Adrian, 38, 213n60 “Indian Castes and their Meaning for the Hauer, J. W., 20 Mission” (anonymous essay), 58– 60 Hauptmann, Gerhart, 223n29 Indian independence movement, 233n50 Hauser, Th. Indian mutiny (1857), 76, 77, 220n70 “Bombay,” 70, 73– 75 Hegel, G. W. F., 6, 26, 36, 40, 42, 95, 101, individual 128, 129, 132, 161, 164, 183, 185, German Buddhists and, 87, 91, 93, 94, 197, 212n50, 214n73, 234n54 95, 100– 104 Heraclitus, 134 Protestantism and, 26– 28, 42, 46, 83, 94 Herder, J. G., 1, 8, 36, 40, 137, 197, radicals and, 190, 199 212n50, 214n73 theosophy and, 104– 6, 108– 11 Herero, 167 world shaped by, 161 Herling, Bradley Indo- Aryan heritage, 44– 46, 132, 179, 183, The German Gī- tā, 6 195, 199 Hesse, Hermann, 1, 209n3 Indo- European languages, 1, 45, 92 Hindus, 61, 74, 77, 126, 140, 158– 59, Indogermanen, 157 161– 63, 165– 66, 211n24, 234n54 Indo- Germanic nation, 1, 6, 130, 132, 134, historical- critical method, 170, 186, 214n75 135, 137, 164, 173, 189, 204n29 historicism, 21 Indologists and India experts, defined, Buddhism vs. Christianity and, 47– 48, 202n9 144– 45 industrial capitalism, 16, 22, 56, 83– 85, 94, Catholics and, 67– 71, 73, 116– 18, 123 96, 207n75, 223n29 emancipatory reason and, 200 introspection, 87, 90– 91, 93, 95, 101– 3, German Buddhists and, 91, 97, 99– 100 107, 109– 10, 118 Hegel and, 212n50 “iron cage,” 205n57, 223n37 256 Index

Jain temple, 65– 66 Macaulay, Lord, 58– 59 Japan, 45, 119, 172 Maillard, Christine Jesuits, 11, 13, 17, 50, 53– 57, 62, 65, 67, L’Inde vue d’Europe, 7 70, 72, 74– 76, 116– 19, 122, 195, Maitri, 139, 230n111 213n58, 216n4, 217n9 Mann, Thomas, 1, 223n38 Jesus Christ, 15, 26– 27, 35– 36, 47– 49, 96, Mannhardt, Wilhelm, 130 109, 113, 115– 17, 119, 121, 129– 30, Mara, 143 141, 143– 44, 162, 199 Marchand, Suzanne, 2– 4, 18, 20, 47, 171, Jews and Judaism, 143– 44, 186, 189 202n7, 212n47 See also anti- Semitism; Semites; racism German Orientalism, 9– 10, 14, 201n5, Jones, William, 127– 28, 214n73, 228n55 201n6, 208 n92, 211 n19, 215n96, 215n109, 224n44, 237n105 Kaiserreich, defined, 201n3 Marx, Karl, 84, 85 Kamma, 101, 103, 225n84 master- slave dialectic, 234n54 Kant, Immanuel, 101– 2, 104, 134, 136, Masuzawa, Tomoka, 26 172, 175– 78, 180, 190– 91, 197, materialism, 5, 16, 22, 81– 86, 91– 92, 94– 214n73, 235n33 97, 99, 100, 102– 7, 146, 163– 65, 183, Critique of Pure Reason, 11, 175– 76, 197, 205n57 235n26 material- spiritual split, 83, 92, 96, 98, 149, Katholischen Missionen, Die, 58, 61– 64, 68, 153, 158, 160, 163– 64, 174 69, 71, 75, 77, 216n5 May Laws (1872), 11 Kellog, Samuel H., 116 McGetchin, Douglas, 84 Ketteler, W. E. F. von, 39, 43 Indology, 7– 8 Freedom, Authority, and Church, 36 metaphysical realm, 90, 174– 75, 179– 80 Kuhn, Ernst, 28 Moghuls, 234n54 Kulturkampf, 11– 13, 31– 32, 36, 41– 42, Moltke, Helmuth von, 32 38, 54, 56, 58– 62, 70, 77, 83, 120, monism, 14, 18, 20, 149, 154, 158, 206n62 140, 143, 204n43, 204n44, 218n45, morals, ethics vs., 237n72 220n76 Mueller, Max, 90 Müller, Adolph, 67 Lacan, Jacques, 6 Müller, Friedrich Max, 8, 25, 26, 193 Lagarde, Paul de, 20, 206n61 Multa praeclare (1838), 66, 68, 69 Lalita Vistara, 26, 47, 209n8 Murti, Kamakshi Lamarck, Jean- Baptiste, 160, 233n37 India, 8 Langewiesche, Dieter, 11, 18, 37, 213n63 Lasalle, Ferdinand, 36 nationalism, 3, 5, 13, 17– 19, 31– 34, 43, 64– Lassen, Christian, 1 67, 69, 70, 73, 75, 105, 139, 143– 44, Latin, 127, 130– 32, 138, 164 166, 190, 213n56, 230n120, 230n125 See also Rome, ancient National Socialism, 7, 8, 16, 20– 21, 28, Laws of Manu, 127 171, 189– 90, 200 Leifer, Walter Neoplatonists, 178 India and the Germans, 7 Neumann, Karl Eugen, 8, 16, 95– 97, 103, Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 131 108, 113, 223n38 Liberalism, 11, 16, 18, 31– 32, 37– 38, 56, Dhammapada, 90– 91, 223n34 58, 73, 213n63 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 8, 20, 131, 134, 135, Lill, Rudolf, 11 159, 161, 188, 189, 198, 237n79, Lotusblüthen, 104, 108 238n133 Lovejoy, A. O., 178 The Genealogy of Morals, 92 Luther, Martin, 26, 27, 41, 88, 191 Nipperdey, Thomas, 13– 14, 213n63 95 Theses, 141 Nirvana, 94– 95, 118, 141 Index 257 nonduality, 174, 175 Buddhism and, 25– 51, 114, 120, 123, Notovich, Nicholas, 129– 30, 228n66 125– 29, 139– 42, 145 noumena, 11, 101, 104, 134, 177, 178 caste system and, 162 Catholics and, 11– 13, 17, 34, 36– 37, 57– Olcott, Henry Steel, 105, 206n62, 222n13, 65, 70– 71, 76, 78, 120, 123, 131, 145 225n97 colonial mind- set and, 126– 29, 133, 167 Oldenberg, Hermann, 19, 111, 126– 46, fringe religions and, 16– 17, 82, 84 150, 230n107 German Buddhists and, 87– 94, 96, 102– 3 Buddha, 17, 126– 27 German nation and, 39, 41– 50, 131 “Buddhism and Christian Love,” 139– 42 Greek culture and, 131, 138 “The Religion of the Veda,” 129– 34, See also anti- Protestantism; Christianity; 137– 38 and specific individuals “On Sanskrit Research,” 127– 29 Protestant League, 230n120 Oncken, Wilhelm, 37 Protestant Reformation, 11, 42, 46, 54, 83, Orientalism, 1– 3, 8, 9, 201n6, 202n11, 202n12 93, 102, 120, 145 Oriental Renaissance, 2, 7, 131 Protestant work ethic, 181 first vs. second, 2, 7, 201n5, 201n6 Pythagoras, 134, 137

Pali, 97, 140 Quingdao, 6 Pan- Germanic League, 13 papal infallibility, 11, 37, 56, 218n37 Rabault- Feuerhahn, Pascale Paracelsus, 82, 108 L’archive des Origines, 9 Parmenides, 180 racism, 9, 20, 28, 58, 93, 159, 163, 171, Peace Laws (Friedensgesetze, 1886– 87), 12, 188– 91, 194– 98, 208n92, 233n32 62, 205n52 rationalization, 14, 16, 92, 106 Pesch, Christian, 17, 56– 58, 63– 64, 69, Reichsgründung, 11, 42, 204n43, 211n30 114– 22, 124, 217n8 revolutions of 1848, 11, 26, 37, 216n7 “The Buddha Legend,” 115– 16 Rig Veda, 174 “The Light of Asia,” 115, 226n4 Romanticism, 6, 7, 31, 34, 109 “The Moral Successes of Buddhism,” Rome, ancient, 117, 128, 188 118– 19, 227n36 Rorty, Richard, 110 Peters, Carl, 167 Rosenberg, Alfred, 8 Pfülf, Otto, 72– 74, 77, 219n64, 220n83 Roth, Rudolf, 28, 128, 139, 214n68, 228n60 Pfungst, Arthur, 86– 88, 88, 113– 14 Roy, Rammohan, 8 Piscalar, Fridolin, 53– 54, 58– 62, 216n1 Russification movement, 28 “Indisches,” 53, 54, 60– 61 Pischel, Richard, 143 Said, Edward, 3– 4, 6, 8– 9, 202n11, Life and Teachings of the Buddha, 139 202n12, 203n28 Pius IX, 56 Orientalism, 3 Plato, 134– 37, 178, 180 Sakuntala, 127 Pollock, Sheldon, 34 salvation, 95, 102– 3, 108, 118– 19, 122, “Deep Orientalism,” 8, 204n39 143, 145– 46, 178, 183– 84 Portuguese, 67– 71, 73, 75, 219n51, Sanskrit, 2, 6– 7, 26, 28– 29, 35, 39, 117, 219n53, 220n74 126– 30, 132, 146, 164, 172, 173, Pratt, Mary Louise, 6 193– 94, 209n5, 209n8, 214n68, Protestant ethic, 83, 162 214n73, 218n45 Protestant identity paradigm, 83– 84, 91 Saussurian linguistics, 3, 203n16 Protestantische Flugblätter, 50 Schiller, 131, 197 Protestantism, 5, 11– 15 Schlegel, Friedrich, 9, 131, 214n73 British Raj critiqued by, 149– 67 Schlegel brothers, 1, 6, 45, 227n36 258 Index

Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 83, 95, 185 Seidenstücker, Karl, 8, 222n17 Schneemann, Gerhard, 218n37 self, inner, 100– 104, 107– 10 “Our Successes in the Culture Wars,” self- consciousness, 107, 110, 234n54 62– 63 Seminar für Orientalische Sprachen, 18 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 6, 7, 17, 25, 90, 135, Semites, 20, 116– 17, 173, 185, 199 172– 84, 212n47 Sen, Keshab Chandra, 150– 53, 232n18 The World as Will, 178– 80 Sengupta, Indra, 8 Schopenhauerian Christianity, 21, 172– 84, Seung, T. K., 177 193– 95, 208n92, 235n13 Seydel, Rudolf, 13, 17, 27, 30– 31, 35– 50, Schroeder, Felix von, 29 57, 69, 84, 93– 94, 106, 119, 120, 127, Schroeder, Leopold von, 9, 13, 17, 19, 129, 139, 141, 144– 45, 176, 212n47, 21, 29, 37, 50, 84, 93, 96, 111, 119, 215n95, 215n109, 230n107 120, 126, 139, 150, 159, 171, 173, Buddha and Christ, 36, 47 176, 180, 196, 200, 210n11, 210n17, “Christianity,” 41, 43 210n19, 211n32, 233n32 The Gospels, 35, 44– 45, 47– 48 Arische Religion, 20, 28, 35, 170, 184– 91, Katholicismus, 36– 37 236, 236n70, 237n72, 237n79 Protestantenverein lectures, 27, 39– 46 “Buddhism and Christianity,” 113, 142– Shankara, 174, 177, 235n23 46, 231n39 Shiva, 186 Houston Stewart Chamberlain, 190– 91 Sinthern, Peter “India’s Spiritual Meaning,” 142 Buddhism and Buddhist Currents, 122– 25, König Sundara, 27– 35, 39, 42, 44, 49, 208n78 58, 82, 113, 142– 45, 211n24, 211n38, Smith, Helmut Walser, 12– 13, 205n55 211n41, 211n42 Smith, Woodruff, 6 Lebenserinnerungen, 29, 210n17, 211n32, “social entropy,” 141 231n139 “social magic,” 4 Reden und Aufsätze, 31 Socrates, 135, 136 Schultze, Theodor, 16, 27, 82, 85– 97, 101, soul, 101, 181, 186 103, 106, 113– 14, 222n18 Spencer, Herbert, 100 Christ, the World Reconciler, 86– 87 The Christianity of Christ, 87– 89, 92, 223n27 Spinoza, Baruch, 178 Das Dhammapada, 81, 85, 90– 93, spirituality, 5, 9, 10, 13– 16, 19– 22, 129 221n3, 223n34 British vs. German colonialism and, 165– 66 Pfungst biography of, 86– 88 Deussen on Schopenhauer and, 174– 75, The Rolling Wheel of Life, 92– 93, 224n45 179, 181 Schwab, Raymond German Buddhists and, 81– 83, 86– 88, The Oriental Renaissance, 7, 201n4 90– 99, 102– 3 science- spiritual divide, 2– 3, 5, 10, 14– 15, German nation and, 22 32, 81– 87, 91– 92, 96– 100, 103, 106, metaphysical Darwinism and, 158– 61 108, 136, 170, 174, 181, 197 religious innovators and, 84, 86 reuniting, 19, 154– 57, 160– 61, 166– 67 search for unity and, 158, 188, 191 See also materialism; spirituality Seydel and, 28– 30, 32, 37– 39, 42– 43, Secord, James 46, 49 Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, theosophy and, 104– 7, 109– 10 14– 15 von Schroeder and, 28– 30, 32– 35 “secret doctrine,” 82, 105, 107– 10, 165, See also science- spiritual divide; spiritual 197, 200, 208n85 rejuvenation; and specific individuals secularization, 5, 11, 14– 16, 22 and religions Sedlar, Jean spiritual rejuvenation, 26– 27, 121 India in the Mind of Germany, 6 colonial agenda and, 146, 154–57, 162–66 Index 259

Deussen on Schopenhauer and, 174–75, Upanishads, 93, 172, 174, 177, 188, 198, 181– 84, 188 235n20 radical prescriptive historicism and, 169– Ur- Religion, 45– 46, 227n36 72, 185, 188, 192, 197, 199– 200 Stanley, Henry Morton, 167 Väth, Alfons, 55, 57, 60, 69– 70, 75, 216n4, Steiner, Rudolf, 85, 206n62, 228n43 219n49 Steinmetz, George, 3– 4, 18, 203n18 Vatican Council, First (1870), 56 The Devil’s Handwriting, 6 Vedanta, 172– 75, 177, 235n20 Stern, Fritz, 206n61 Vedas, 9, 46, 48, 49, 93, 126, 128– 31, 135– The Politics of Cultural Despair, 16, 37, 141, 159, 172, 177– 78, 184, 186, 207n76 209n5 Stimmen aus Maria- Laach (journal), 53, Victoria, Queen, 233n31 61, 64, 72, 114, 115, 208n78, 216n5, Virchow, Rudolf, 204n44 217n9, 218n37, 219n64 Vivekananda, Swami, 8 St. Mary’s Institution, 61, 75 Strauss, David Frierich, 39, 48, 183– 84, völkisch movements, 20, 28 207n72 Voltaire, 39 Das Leben Jesu, 15 The Old and the New Belief, 184 Wagner, Richard, 7, 17, 20, 28, 197 subjective idealism, 95, 224n54 Weber, Max, 14, 21, 82, 83, 90– 92, 126– subject- object link, 177, 181– 82 27, 181, 205n57, 221n4, 221n11, survival of the fittest, 94, 99, 100, 160, 167, 222n15, 223n37, 236n55 183 Websky, J., 83 symbolic capital, 3– 4, 6, 10, 16, 21, 51, 67, Weniger, Georg, 72– 74 82– 85, 90, 94, 102– 3, 106, 110, 131, Wildenthal, Lora, 6 132, 190, 191, 202n10, 202n15 Wilhelm I, Kaiser, 32, 43 Williamson, George, 9 theosophy, 8, 14, 16– 20, 50, 78, 82, 84– 86, The Longing for Myth, 9 104– 11, 114, 120, 122– 24, 146, 149, Willson, Leslie 154– 67, 171, 174, 176, 197, 200, A Mythical Image, 6 206n62, 208n85, 221n6, 221n13, Winckelmann, Johann, 131 222n17, 222n20, 227n43 Windisch, Ernst, 210n17 Thomas Christians, 117 workers, 86, 94, 162– 63 Tönnies, Ferdinand, 222n15 world historical spirit, 26, 128, 131– 32, “transcendental illusion,” 177, 179 161, 197 transition narratives, 46, 59, 61, 131, 133, world soul, 177– 78 138, 141, 175, 177, 196, 215n101 trinity, 186 World War I, 19, 114, 170, 184, 190 Troeltsch, Ernst, 21, 207n72 Wurm, Paul, 25, 39, 44, 209n3, 209n4 The Social Teachings, 83 Trotha, Lothar von, 167 Xavier, Franz, 67, 219n51 Tyler, 130 Young, 130 Übermensch, 20, 159, 161, 189 ultramontanism, 12, 37 Zantop, Suzanne, 6 universalism, 37, 45, 142, 161, 165– 67, Zimmermann, Friedrich. See Bhikschu, 175, 179– 84, 186– 88, 190– 91, Subhara 213n56 Ziolkowski, Theodore See also Catholicism Modes of Faith, 9