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(Psammechinus Miliaris) and Their Response to Phenanthrene Exposure

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(Psammechinus Miliaris) and Their Response to Phenanthrene Exposure Marine Environmental Research xxx (2010) 1e9 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Marine Environmental Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marenvrev Sex-specific biochemical and histological differences in gonads of sea urchins (Psammechinus miliaris) and their response to phenanthrene exposure Sabine Schäfer*,1, Doris Abele, Ellen Weihe, Angela Köhler Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research within the Helmholtz Association, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany article info abstract Article history: Female and male individuals of the same species often differ with respect to their susceptibility to Received 16 August 2010 toxicant stress. In the present study, sea urchins (Psammechinus miliaris) of both sexes were exposed to À À Received in revised form high (150 mgL 1) and environmentally relevant (5 mgL 1) concentrations of phenanthrene over 10 days. 14 October 2010 À While food intake was significantly decreased following exposure to 150 mgL 1 phenanthrene, histo- Accepted 19 October 2010 logical indices (lipofuscin accumulation, fibrosis, oocyte atresia), energetic status (energy charge, sum adenylates, AMP/ATP ratio) as well as ascorbate levels in the gonads showed either little or no effect upon Keywords: phenanthrene exposure. However, most parameters (vitamin C, energy charge, sum adenylates, AMP/ATP Sea urchin fi fi Gonad ratio, ATP and ADP concentrations, lipofuscin content, brosis) signi cantly differed between male and fi Lipofuscin female animals. This study illustrates the dif culties to identify toxic injury in reproductive tissue as it Energy charge may be superimposed by gametogenesis and spawning of gametes. Phenanthrene Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Ascorbate Sex-specific differences ATP ATP/AMP ratio Gametogenesis 1. Introduction decadienal, whereas the effect was negligible after preincubation of eggs. Another example is the blue mussel Mytilus trossulus with It is now well appreciated that female and male fish of the same significantly reduced fertilization rates after exposure of sperm to À species can differ with respect to their susceptibility to environ- 100 mgL 1 copper but not after exposure of eggs (Fitzpatrick et al., mental contaminants (Afonso et al., 2003; Vega-Lopez et al., 2007). 2008). Examples are seen in female flounder (Platichthys flesus L.), where To explore the differential toxicity of female and male germ cells higher incidence of liver cancer is associated with sex-specific reproductive tissue of adults can be used. Histopathological differences in NADPH metabolism important for xenobiotic biomarkers in gonads can help to understand the mode of action of biotransformation (Köhler and Van Noorden, 2003). Interestingly, chemicals on processes related to reproduction (Au et al., 2001; in invertebrates male gametes often appear more susceptible to Dietrich et al., 2009). In a recent study, severe histopathological chemical stress than eggs (Au et al., 2001; Caldwell et al., 2004; alterations were observed in gonads of female Psammechinus mil- Fitzpatrick et al., 2008). In the sea urchin, Anthocidaris crassipina, iaris following exposure to phenanthrene (Schäfer and Köhler, a higher sensitivity of males, assessed by reduced sperm motility 2009), a low molecular weight, 3-ring polycyclic aromatic hydro- þ and fertilization success of offspring was found after chronic Cd2 carbon (PAH), and a major component of total PAH compounds in exposure (Au et al., 2001). In different invertebrate species, marine waters (Law et al., 1997). PAHs are lipophilic organic Caldwell et al. (2004) observed a reduced fertilization success after compounds and widespread in the marine environment. They preincubation of sperm with the diatom-derived aldehyde 2E,4E- are considered hazardous substances by several European and regional directives aiming at protecting aquatic environments from anthropogenic impact (HELCOM, 2009; OSPAR, 2007; European Commission, 2008). Following exposure to 500 mg À * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 261 1306 5375; fax: þ49 261 1306 5363. phenanthrene L 1 for 20 days, disorganisation of the gonadal E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Schäfer), [email protected] structure, fibrosis, aggregates of degenerating oocytes, as well as (D. Abele), [email protected] (E. Weihe), [email protected] (A. Köhler). 1 Present address: Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068 high numbers of atretic oocytes were found in female sea urchins Koblenz, Germany. (Schäfer and Köhler, 2009). However, background concentrations of 0141-1136/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2010.10.004 Please cite this article in press as: Schäfer, S., et al., Sex-specific biochemical and histological differences in gonads of sea urchins (Psammechinus miliaris) and their response to..., Marine Environmental Research (2010), doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2010.10.004 2 S. Schäfer et al. / Marine Environmental Research xxx (2010) 1e9 À PAHs in seawater amount to only maximally 10.7 mgL 1 total PAHs 2. Materials and methods (Law et al., 1997) and thus range at least 50-times lower than the test concentration in our previous study. Moreover, several coun- 2.1. Animal collection, acclimation and experimental set up tries set phenanthrene ‘safe’ levels for aquatic organisms equal or À less than 4.6 mgL 1 (Law et al., 1997). Adult P. miliaris were collected with a beam trawl in the List Tidal Histochemical and histological changes in gonadal tissues, Basin in the northern Wadden Sea (Germany) at 5502040N and which may be indicative for reproductive impairment, include 0827025E in December 2006. They were sorted by sex according to increased lipofuscin accumulation, fibrosis, as well as oocyte the appearance of their gonadopores following Uhlig (1979) and atresia. Lipofuscin, also known as fluorescent age pigment, is an transported to the laboratory in Bremerhaven. Sea urchins were kept end product of protein and lipid peroxidation which accumulates in aquaria in a small recirculation system at a water temperature of as an ultimate consequence of oxidative stress (Au et al., 1999; Au, 6 CandfedwithFucus sp. Kelly (2001) has shown that changing 2004; Terman and Brunk, 2004). In mussels and fish, contamina- photoperiod and temperature are important triggers for gameto- tion with PAHs has been associated with a more pronounced genesis. Therefore, gametogenesis was artificially induced by simu- accumulation of lipofuscin in polluted groups compared to control lating winter conditions of the natural habitat with gradually groups (Krishnakumar et al., 1994, 1997; Au et al., 1999; Au, 2004). decreasing water temperatures as well as photoperiod to 3 Cand À Nevertheless, even 500 mgL 1 phenanthrene did not accelerate 8.8:15.2 h light:dark cycle, respectively, and increasing again to 6 C lipofuscin deposition in ovaries of the sea urchin P. miliaris and 11.7:12.3 light:dark in March 2007. Prior to the start of the (Schäfer and Köhler, 2009). The second histopathological para- experiment, sea urchins were transferred to flasks containing 1.5 L meter, fibrosis, is often described to occur in reproductive tissues seawater (4 test animals per flask) and acclimated for 3e4 days. Sea of fish after exposure to environmental contaminants (Dietrich urchins were exposed in these flasks (4 animals in 1.5 L sea water) to À À et al., 2009). Fibrosis involves augmentation of collagen and either 5 mgL 1 phenanthrene, 150 mgL 1 phenanthrene (in each case more massive appearance of the connective tissue (Dietrich et al., phenanthrene was predissolved in acetone), to seawater plus 3 ppm 2009), and phenanthrene exposure increases fibrosis in sea urchin acetone as solvent control, or to seawater only (8.6 Æ 0.6 C,32.5 Æ 0.1 gonads (Schäfer and Köhler, 2009). Another histopathological PSU, pH 8.1 Æ0.1, continuous aeration). Each treatment consisted of parameter, easy to record in females, is the percentage of atretic three replicate flasks per sex (12 animals  sex  treatment). Sea oocytes in the ovaries. Atresia is a degenerative and resorptive urchins were fed once at the beginning of the experiment with fresh process of oocytes which may become pathologic after chemical macroalgae (Fucus serratus). Wet weight of F. serratus leftovers at the exposure (Blazer, 2002; Dietrich et al., 2009; Schäfer and Köhler, end of the experiment was recorded in each flask to calculate the net À À 2009). food intake as mg 1 day 1. Water was renewed daily and phenan- Before histopathological manifestations occur in a tissue, threne or solvent only added at the respective concentrations. biochemical modulations generally precede. One of the key responses of tissues or cells to toxicant exposure is a decrease of 2.2. Sampling available energy and reducing power due to energy dependent protective mechanisms against xenobiotics and chemical detoxifi- Samples were taken after ten days of exposure. Animals were cation. A measure for the energetic state of an organism, a tissue or weighed (Æ0.01 g) and horizontal test diameters (HTD) (Æ1 cm) a cell is the adenylate energy charge (EC) which is calculated as were measured using callipers. The animals were dissected; the EC ¼ (ATP þ ADP/2)/(ATP þ ADP þ AMP). Theoretically, EC varies gonads were removed and weighed (Æ1 mg). The gonads were from 0 to 1, but in natural systems maximal values of 0.8e0.95 are immediately either fixed for histopathology or frozen in liquid recorded. The energy charge is stabilized by adjusting the rate of
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