CONTESTED IDENTITIES: TUAN GURU AND AHMADIYAH IN THE REDRAWING OF POST-1998 SASAK-MUSLIM BOUNDARY LINES IN LOMBOK BY SITTI SANI NURHAYATI A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington 2020 i Abstract This study examines what drives the increasing hostility towards Ahmadiyah in post- Suharto Lombok. Fieldwork was undertaken in three villages – Pemongkong, Pancor and Ketapang – where Ahmadiyah communities lived and experienced violent attacks from 1998 to 2010. The stories from these villages are analysed within the context of a revival of local religious authority and the redefinition of the paradigm of ethno-religious identity. Furthermore, this thesis contends that the redrawing of identity in Lombok generates a new interdependency of different religious authorities, as well as novel political possibilities following the regime change. Finally, the thesis concludes there is a need to understand intercommunal religious violence by reference to specific local realities. Concomitantly, there is a need for greater caution in offering sweeping universal Indonesia-wide explanations that need to be qualified in terms of local contexts. ii iii Acknowledgements Alhamdulillah. I would especially like to express my sincere gratitude and heartfelt appreciation to my primary supervisor, Professor Paul Morris. As my supervisor and mentor, Paul has taught me more than I could ever give him credit for here. My immense gratitude also goes to my secondary supervisors, Drs Geoff Troughton and Eva Nisa, for their thoughtful guidance and endless support, which enabled me, from the initial to the final stages of my doctoral study, to meaningfully engage in the whole thesis writing process. This work would not have been possible without the financial support of the New Zealand Aid Scholarships. I truly appreciate the support from the scholarship team, Lin, Clemmie, Ryan and Vivian – thank you. To Sally Jackman and Helen Greatrex, thank you for valuable comments and professional assistance in proofreading my thesis. I would also like to thank Aliki Kalliabetsos who keeps reminding me to be grateful for having a sweet little family. Together with Hanlie, you both make me realise that “a home is not a place, home is with the person who shares in your grief and helps you carry the burden of loss”. I would further like to thank Margaret Speirs and Brooklynne Mitchell of the Wellington Women House (WWH) for their enormous support during a critical period of my study. Also, to WWH alumnis, Donna and Inge, I will miss you all. Nobody has been more important to me in the pursuit of this project than the members of my family. I would like to thank my parents, Aminah and Khalid Putraslam, whose love and guidance are with me in whatever I pursue. I am also grateful for the endless support of my in-laws, Lalu Marzuki and Muiyah. Most importantly, I wish to thank my loving and supportive hubby, Mmq, and my three wonderful children, Luqi, Dudi, Mukti, who came with laughter when there was none and brought joy to my life once more. iv v Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... v List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................ viiii Glossary ..................................................................................................................... ixx Chapter 1. The Paradox of Democratic Indonesia ........................................................ 1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 1 Research Question ..................................................................................................... 5 Research Design ........................................................................................................ 6 Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 9 (1) Inter-religious conflicts during 1998-2004 ..................................................... 10 (2) Intra-religious conflicts from 2005 onwards .................................................. 12 Significance of Study .............................................................................................. 24 Scope of Study ........................................................................................................ 26 Analytical Rubric .................................................................................................... 27 1. Three sources of religious authority in Islam ................................................... 27 2. Discourse ........................................................................................................ 31 Organisation of the Thesis ....................................................................................... 31 Chapter 2. Tuan Guru and Religious Authority in Lombok ........................................ 35 Introduction............................................................................................................. 35 Topography and Demography of Lombok ............................................................... 35 Islam and the Religion of the Sasak ......................................................................... 38 Decentralisation and Local Identities ....................................................................... 45 Nahdlatul Wathan (NW), Tuan Guru and Religious Authority ................................ 50 1. Tuan Guru.................................................................................................. 50 2. NW and The Seat of Tuan Guru Belek ........................................................ 55 Paramilitia in Post-1998 Lombok ........................................................................... 59 vi Satgas Hamzanwadi, Amphibi and Hizbullah .......................................................... 61 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 63 Chapter 3. The National Context of Opposition Against Ahmadiyah ........................ 66 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 66 Ahmadiyah in India................................................................................................ 66 Ahmadiyah in Indonesia......................................................................................... 68 1. Pre-Independence: Muhammadiyah and Persis Responses ......................... 72 2. Post-Independence ..................................................................................... 77 Government response and the “big tent” ................................................................ 90 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 95 Chapter 4. Contestation of Identity in Post-1998 Lombok ......................................... 98 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 98 Ahmadiyah in Lombok .......................................................................................... 98 Attacks in Post-1998 Lombok ................................................................................. 99 Local Explanations............................................................................................... 105 1. The Elites (MUI and Religious Leaders) on the Prophethood Issue ........... 105 2. A Contrasting Identity: Villagers vs. Ahmadis .......................................... 108 Sub-Local Explanations: Tuan Guru’s Revival ..................................................... 130 1. Amphibi: A Challenge from Tuan Guru Sibawaih Mutawalli.................... 132 2. Attacks in Pancor, 2002: Killing Two Birds with One Stone .................... 135 3. Ketapang Case: No-Proselytisation .......................................................... 138 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 140 Chapter 5. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 143 Sunni-Indonesian-Sasak-Muslims: Necessary Elements vs. Explanatory Variables 144 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 155 Appendix A …………………………………………………………………………..177 vii List of Abbreviations Gafatar Gerakan Fajar Nusantara (Fajar Nusantara Movement) GAI Gerakan Ahmadiyah Indonesia JAI Jemaah Ahmadiyah Indonesia KTP Kartu Tanda Penduduk or the national ID card LPPI Lembaga Penelitian dan Pengkajian Islam (Institute for Islamic Study and Research) MKI National Council for Islamic Religious Affairs of Malaysia MUI The Indonesian Ulama Council MUNAS National Deliberative Council NASAKOM Nasionalis Agama Komunis (Nationalism Religion and Communism) NTB Nusa Tenggara Barat NU Nahdlatul Ulama NW Nahdlatul Wathan OIC Organisation of