N U M B E R 5 4 WINTER 2013

Andy Hyde Charpentiers Sans Frontières at The Château de Gaillon Dimitri Malko Restoration Work in Japan Joe Thompson The Chappell Rebecca Yahr and Christopher Ellis Lichens in the Attic Elizabeth Cunningham Handheld Conspiracy Remembering Ed Levin At Play Frame 2013. Cressing Temple, Essex

Photos by Fleur Hall

Picture call… Show us what you do and how you do it [email protected]

 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 The Carpenters‘ Fellowship Promoting the study and practice of timber frame

I s s u e 5 4 C O N T E N T S Autumn 2014 Carpenters’ Fellowship 2 At Play Photos by Fleur Hall Membership fees include subscription to the M&T. Find out more at 4 In Site David Leviatin www.carpentersfellowship.co.uk 6 Andy Hyde Charpentiers Sans Frontières Subscriptions CF Membership is available at The Château de Gaillon throughout the world. Please contact the Editor 12 Dimitri Malko for more details. Restoration Work in Japan Back numbers Please contact the Editor. 20 Joe Thompson The Chappell Framing Square Contributions The M&T welcomes contributions. If you have anything that you would like 23 Rebecca Yahr and Christopher Ellis to share with our readers Lichens in the Attic please contact the Editor.

Copy deadlines 26 Elizabeth Cunningham Spring issue January 14 Handheld Conspiracy Summer issue April 14 Autumn issue July 14 Winter issue October 14 30 Remembering Ed Levin

C o p y r i g h t Copyright of the Mortice and Tenon is held by The Carpenters’ Fellowship. Copyright of individual articles, illustrations or photographs remains with the authors, illustrators or photographers.

P r i n t e d b y Welshpool Printing Group Severn Farm Enterprise Park Welshpool, Powys SY21 7DF on C o c o o n recycled paper

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E d i t o r D a v i d L e v i a t i n Sub-editing S O S e r v i c e s D e s i g n M a r k C l a y

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 3 In Site

Our annual gathering was a bittersweet former – making things well – involves a affair. The good weather, good beer, good few experienced and skilled people working food and good company were all tempered together on a relatively small scale all of whom by the news of Ed Levin’s death. Fortunately, are practically engaged in and understand all his old friend Steve Chappell was on hand. aspects of the entire manufacturing process Standing within the ancient framework from start to finish. The latter – making of Cressing’s magnificent Barley Barn, in front things profitably – usually takes place on a of hundreds of timber from around larger scale and involves more people with the world, Steve introduced Ed to those who less experience and skill working separately didn’t know him and also managed to conjure from one another, usually for rather than up his spirit for those who did. In addition with machines, in a highly specialised to establishing Ed’s person and presence, and differentiated process of which they Steve’s moving words helped sharpen the have incomplete knowledge, little overall focus of Frame’s theme: Considering the Past understanding and only the most basic and Imagining the Future of Timber Frame interest. Construction. Clearly, there is nothing wrong with Later that night I found myself engaged in machines; it’s the way they are used and discussion about the use of CNC machines misused. The problems I have encountered – an important aspect and recurring theme with CAD drawn, CNC machined frames have of our framing future – with a couple of nothing to do with the technology being used the Hundegger’s leading lights. While my but everything to do with the people using reservations about cutting frames on CNC it. Because many of these people are young machines drawn from CAD designs are no office-bound folks they have never taken an secret, my scepticism, and that of many other old building to bits or used to make and framers, should not be misconstrued. erect a new one; consequently, they know We’re not Luddites. We are well aware of little about the practical aspects of historical how remarkable machines are. A machine design (timber selection, timber conversion, freed slaves from having to gin cotton by timber dimensions, timber placement, joint hand; a machine enabled some women in the detailing) or much about the practical nature world not to have to wash clothes in rivers; of the interrelated processes of workshop two machines: a rocket ship and the television, manufacture and on-site raising. Amazingly, took all of us to the Moon. Bravo! given the state of technology and the Seriously… efficiency of transport networks, a frame can The point to consider, however, is the knock be designed in one place, cut in another and on effect, culturally, of our increasingreliance shipped to site without ever having been put on labour saving devices. Machines designed together. At the moment this is a curse, but it to save labour can in fact do so literally, making could very easily become a blessing. the work of those who have laboured for a living much safer (saving the lives of labourers) Recently I returned from Moscow where and generally making the lives of everyone my team and I put up and closed in two CAD else in society healthier as well. When the designed, CNC cut frames. We had nothing primary purpose of using machines is to to do with the design or manufacture of make things more cheaply, in an effort to sell the frames. Despite being CAD designed in those things more profitably, thesaving of one place, cut on a CNC machine in another labour becomes more problematic because and never put together before leaving the it results in the employment of unskilled workshop, the frames weren’t all that bad. and inexperienced workers who simply feed If, however, they had been designed by machines. someone familiar with the do’s and dont’s of Because the making of things well generally historical framing and put together by framers takes more time and costs more money who knew what they were doing before the than the making of things profitably, the frames left the shop, they would have been

 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 much better to look at, more srtucturally sound and designed, machine made, remotely operated … much easier to put together. Listening to all of this theoretical chatter, especially after The trick is for craftsmen to begin to do again what seeing the way in which McLaren’s humble hands-on until very recently they had always been doing: Know mechanical heritage was celebrated at the front door their business inside and out and work with their tools was getting me depressed. instead of for them. And then we met Dave. Dave is a McLaren race team mechanic, part of A few weeks ago, I found myself in the McLaren the travelling pit crew. Because he had a bad back Technology Centre in Woking, Surrey with an astro- he was taking time off the road and working in the physicist friend of mine. Forget about how I got there; Technology Centre. He was fiddling with an engine what I learned about what they do with carbon fibre and a gearbox when we were given permission by our and how they do it is something all of us who make host to approach and ask a few questions. Unlike some things, in whatever material, should consider. The first craftsmen who can be cranky and difficult, Dave was thing you see when you walk into the sinewy glass easy going and keen to talk with us. and steel Norman Foster structure is a row of cars. The When asked to describe the most memorable mishap, one in front of them all was the oldest: Bruce McLaren’s Dave paused and said that each and every race throws 1929 Austin 7. The red beauty, its bonnet held in place up something that they had never anticipated. The with a thick brown leather belt that would look great physicist looked perplexed. I went for his jugular and running through the loops of my Levi’s, was purchased asked Dave, “do you mean that with all this hi-falutin’ in bits by Bruce’s dad Les. Father and son put the car technology at your fingertips you still can’t get a good together and Bruce won his first race driving it in 1954. idea of what is going to happen on race day?” “Not really,” The other cars on display, the actual machines driven to he said. “There are the crazy things like when a crsip victory by the likes of Hunt, Lauda, Fittipaldi, Prost, Senna packet or a bird gets sucked up into the car and blows and Hamilton, chart the history and the evolution of the engine. Or,” he said as he motioned for us to come Formula 1 racing. closer as he separated the gearbox from the engine. All of these vintage cars work and are occasionally “You see that,” he said pointing to a piece of the gearbox driven. that he then pinched between his thumb and forefinger. As we made our way past this impressive row of “You hear that,” he then said as he gently began wiggling glistening driving machines (a display of racing history the piece back and forth: clink-clink, clink-clink. “What’s placed front and centre to inspire McLaren’s craftsmen that?” I asked. “That’s the Wiggle,” Dave replied. “The and engineers) and on our way to the state-of-the-art Wiggle?” “Yeah . By the end of the race, that piece will be wind tunnel, we could look through floor to ceiling tight; if it starts out too tight before the race, it can get sheets of glass and watch a small number of smartly over tight during the race and ruin the gearbox and end dressed technicians overseeing the operation of a large our race.” “Is the Wiggle something you can measure?” I herd of CNC machines, all of which were quietly cutting asked. “No, it’s just something you learn to know the feel titanium in a stunning production facility. of after years of taking these things to bits and putting In the wind tunnel, our host, a guy from marketing, them back together again.” explained how everything was tested and re-tested What makes McLaren’s method of production special and how McLaren’s engineers could predict a car’s and one that despite their vast oceans of money we performance before it whipped around the track. The can learn something from is their understanding that theoretical mind of my physicist friend was tickled to making things exceptionally well requires the seamless see how everything could be measured, how patterns integration of people, machines and materials; of could be discovered and how risk could be minimised historical knowledge, innovative theory and practical and performance more or less assured through the experience all ideally humming along together under use of complex equations run by powerful machines. one roof, where everyone and everything involved Having spent a good part of my life on building sites, I knows how the entire manufacturing process works have grown tired of coming up short trying to predict (and has worked and evolved over time) from start to outcomes. finish. When machines are used simply as a short-cut, as Leaving the wind tunnel, the talk was about F1 cars a way in which to eliminate parts of the making process being fabricated without people and being run around (either skilled people and/or quality materials) in an the track without drivers … Light, strong, fast, computer effort to cut costs, we all lose out. David Leviatin

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 5 Andy Hyde All photos Charpentiers Sans Frontières at The Château de Gaillon Andy Hyde

The Château de Gaillon is perched above one of the then in the first years of the 16th century, it became the great meanders of the Seine as it winds its way towards first example of the new Renaissance style in France as the sea through the Upper Normandy countryside. It has sculptors and masons were brought from Italy to re-style probably been a stronghold in the territory for millennia. the château to the new taste. When the Vikings first sailed up the river in the later years The antipathy of the French Revolution to the church of the 9th century, they almost certainly recognised brought about a long period of destruction which was the strategic importance of its position immediately. exacerbated as the château was used successively as a It was once held by Richard the Lionheart during the prison, lunatic asylum and barracks and during which, its Plantagenet wars against the kings of France. architectural treasures were systematically looted. In its chequered history, it came close to destruction A few decades ago, the roof structure of one of the many times. During the Hundred Years War it was Château’s towers, the Tour de la Sirène collapsed. Enter

captured by the English and its destruction ordered, Charpentiers Sans Frontières and the assembled talents M Pommier but later spared. Towards the end of its military period it of about forty carpenters and blacksmiths from nine passed into the possession of the Bishops of Rouen and countries! was redeveloped as their summer palace. The missing part of the roof carpentry was a ‘cart- The buildings were transformed according to one wheel truss’ or enrayure which dated from 1822. The Technical illustration contemporary account into The most beautiful and tower had originally been taller but then reduced by the finest place in the whole of France. The fortress was one storey. The framework of the conical roof is quite Andy Hyde

reworked first into the flamboyant Gothic style and complex. The 12 principal rafters radiating from the apex All photos

 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 7  THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 Above and left: Historic tools and traditional methods were used to convert the timber.

Right: Scribing a joint. Notice the strings radiating from beneath the timber. These were used as datum in the same way in which a chalked up floor would have been used to layout and mark the timbers .

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 9 Above: The bell tower . were originally framed into the enrayure with a similar frame above and braced radially to a central kingpost. The structure is bound together by curved purlins which ring the entire framework on four levels. was soon under way to produce the components of the enrayure. The biggest was the 8.2 metre tie-beam which spans the entire frame. Finding the trees for some of the timbers had been complicated by the need for several with particularly shaped bends. This was to accommodate the eccentric joint at the centre of the enrayure around the king post where the joints are displaced to avoid excessively weakening the Below: In addition to the main structural repairs missing or tie-beam. The half-ties had to be carefully marked out damaged timbers were restored using joinery repairs. and hewn to follow these shapes. The timbers had all been hand-felled by and extracted by a horse-team from a nearby forest about six months previously. There were no records of the truss before its collapse, so our reconstruction was conjectural. It was based however on the construction of the remaining structure and comparable contemporary carpentry. Its precise form was influenced by the necessity to lift the tie-beam into position through a quite narrow hole in the roof where rafters had rotted around a recently and badly installed roof light. The project lead Florian Carpentier from Picardy, had constructed a model of the frame. He had discovered that the bends in the half-ties needed to be reversed with respect to those of the existing upper frame, if the tie-beam was to be successfully lifted into position.

10 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 A full-size ground plan of the enrayure was set out timbers such as the purlins and rafters were indeed in the courtyard below the tower using string to mark hoisted by rope and pulley. the centre lines. Once the hewing of the ties and the The interest in the week was enhanced by the diagonals had been completed, the laying up and presence of a large group of historians and archaeologists of the frame began. who were attending a parallel series of seminars and The geometry of the curved purlins was an interesting observing the carpentry in action to see ‘how it was problem for anyone unfamiliar with complex geometry. done’. Several of them gave evening presentations on an The solution was explained and demonstrated by Jean- aspect of traditional craft or architecture. One of the most Noël Gascher, carpentry instructor of the Lycée des Métiers interesting was given by Marcin Gładki from Poland. He in Evreux. Using the trait de charpente as practiced by has developed a highly sophisticated computerised laser carpenters all over France, a full size plan and elevation of scanning system and is collaborating with the Museum the roof through the level of the purlins was drawn up. Centre of Hordaland (MUHO) in Norway in recording From this, the true shape of the purlins was developed a wide variety of traditional buildings. The scanner is and templates made. capable of resolving detail to a remarkable degree of The most exciting event of the week was the transport accuracy and the method is proving to be a valuable by horse team of the main timbers of the enrayure in the interpretation and analysis of traditional buildings, through the town to the lower courtyard of the château. even to the level of details such as tool-marks. The only practical route was via a substantial detour. The Château de Gaillon was reacquired by the French Horse-logger Bruno Buttard drove his pair of Ardennais state in 1975 and restoration has been under way ever heavy horses to pull the heavy load, making quite a since. There is still much work to do before it regains spectacle as we negotiated our way through the narrow anything like its former splendour. Our international streets of Gaillon, the traffic having been stopped meeting of Charpentiers Sans Frontières has made a to allow us to pass. We had hoped to do the raising small contribution to that restoration which is a great by traditional methods but the scaffold was judged monument to the skill of the Renaissance craftsmen of unsuitable for this and a modern crane hoisted the the 16th century. timbers into the roof very efficiently. Some of the lighter Andy Hyde is a furniture maker currently retraining as a timber .

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 11 12 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 Restoration Work in Japan Dimitri Malko

Japan has a very long history of building with was involved in taught me a great deal about Japanese timber. Relying almost exclusively on the use of carpentry in general and about a specific joint in timber for its architecture, Japanese carpenters have particular. The first project was the restoration of part had to find ways of connecting timbers without of an altar in a Buddhist Temple; the second was the the use of expensive steel nails and straps. Many restoration of a Bell Tower that was part of a Buddhist dozens of different timber joints were invented and compound. In both projects we relied on the use of then combined together to create a vast catalog of two very impressive traditional joints: the shiachi-sen connections designed to suit a variety of different and its mitered cousin: the shiachi-sen-dome. situations. Many observers believe that the craft of the Japanese carpenter reached its peak in the 19th century The Restoration Projects toward the end of the Edo Period (1615-1868). During The shumidan these years, the innovation and ingenuity of the temple We first encountered the shiachi-sen joint while carpenters (Mia-daikku-san) brought carpentry to its restoring a shumidan, the elaborate raised timber highest level. Elaborate techniques of drawing along platform found in the centre of Buddhist temples. with the perfection of complicated joinery, made it Composed of many layers of delicately carved and possible for beautifully carved buildings with complex intricately joined Kiya-ki (a Japanese that is red roofs to flourish throughout the country. in color, dense in weight and smells awful when not Recently, I had the opportunity to work as an seasoned) the shumidan is a tremendous work of art apprentice for a traditional carpentry company in and craft with an important purpose. The temple’s Japan. The company specializes in the restoration of priest sits on the shumidan while chanting the historic timber frame structures. Two of the projects I ceremonial prayers and beating out a rhythmic pace

Left: The Bell Tower restored. Below: View of the shumidan before the restoration. Dimitri Malko Images

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 13 Above: Cross cut view of the shumidan, showing the build-up of mouldings.

Left: The shumidan, stripped of ceremonial objects, shortly before the repair work commenced on a delicately carved traditional drum. The shumidan to try and gently pull the structure back together by we were going to restore was originally made in the reinserting all of its many layers snugly back into the 19th century in the Zenshu-yo style of architecture grooves carved into its posts. Up for the challenge, our that came to Japan from China at the end of the 12th team, a Japanese Shokunin – highly skilled tradesman century along with Zen-Buddhism. After many years – and I, set off in our little truck on an early morning of use (according to the temple’s current priest, his for the four-hundred kilometer journey south, through grandfather, who had also been a priest in the same the valleys and the mountains, to a small village in temple, had reached the State of Buddha while sitting the prefecture of Saitama. We lived at the temple in meditation on the very shumidan we were meant to throughout our time working on the shumidan. be restoring) the shumidan was beginning to collapse Once we arrived on the site and had a good look inwards – the two posts that maintained its overall at the shumidan we realised that our work would not structure had moved over time and resulted in the be as straightforward as we originally thought. The weakening of the entire ensemble. elm layers of the shumidan had not just slipped from The company for which I worked was asked to the grooves in the posts, the entire structure had also restore the shumidan so that it would be stable and moved significantly to the right; we would not be able safe for the priest to sit on while conducting the to simply pull the ensemble back together as we had prayer ceremony. After looking at pictures of the job, thought. we realised that it would be tricky work requiring us

14 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 Above: As the shumidan collapsed inward, its many different layers moved sideways and drifted out of their grooves.

When viewed as a timber frame structure, a shumidan is essentially a stack of timber composed of many different sized pieces, or layers, of cleverly joined and finely carved and bevelled elm. Each of the layers is composed of three pieces of elm all of which are brought together using shiachi-sen joints to form a U shape. Theoretically, a shumidan holds itself together without any nails as each layer is set above the previous one, all of which maintain their positions by resting on each other. Only the last layer is fixed into the posts using two hand-made square nails. A very large overhang, at a ratio of 1:2, meant that each time there was any movement from the posts or the flooring, the entire shumidan with all its elaborate layering moved as well. Thus, over time, as all the many interdependent layers moved slightly in different directions they each began to eventually disassociate themselves from their places in the grooves carved into the posts. We could not just pull back the parts in-situ as we had originally hoped, we had to very carefully disassemble the whole shumidan to readjust the layers between them and then fit them back into their original places. The elm being very heavy, we decided to suspend the upper part of the altar from the ceiling above with the help of two great chain-blocks – in this way, we didn’t have to move the upper part of the altar too far

Dimitri Malko away from the lower part of the altar, the shumidan, on Above: Once the plateau has been removed, the interior structure

Images which we were working. To have removed the upper reveals itself

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 15 The Joints The Shiachi-sen Traditional Japanese timber frame construction did not use nails for connecting the many different pieces of a timber building. Therefore, a very large range of wooden-joints were invented by Japanese carpenters, some of whom knew and were capable of using more than a hundred different joints. Most of these joint connections were hidden, and generally the connecting system can only be understood once all of the pieces have been taken apart. The shiachi-sen is one of these secret joints. The joint first appeared in Japan in the late 6th century, as Buddhism became the dominant religion in Japan. The joint was imported by Korean and Chinese builders who were spreading Buddhist culture throughout the country by building Buddhist Temples. The shiachi is a variety of Japanese joint, connecting pieces not at 45 degrees along their length. The joint is held together by pegs in or in bamboo called sen. The two very short tenons on the female part of the joint are used to hold Above: A shiachi-sen joint showing the component parts. the joint tight, so it will not split open and loosen the hard- pegs. Through its composition the shiachi-sen is made to prevent the two parts from twisting. This wooden-joint is used to connect two Below: A shiachi-sen joint in elevation and plan. This example is used pieces together in length, for example it on wall plates in the Horyû-Ji temple complex in the city of Nara. would be used to connect wall-plates. The earliest examples of this assembly are in the 7th century buildings of the Horyû-Ji temple in Nara. The visible faces are connected by a long almost diagonal- shaped cut to minimize the gap that will appear after the shrinkage of the wood.

The Shiachi-sen-dome In addition to being able to connect timbers together along their lengths, the shiachi-sen can also be used to connect timbers at 45 degrees angles. When it is used in this way, it is called a shiachi-sen- dome. Dom means miter. This type of joint is used almost exclusively for connecting the different parts that compose the layers of shumidans. It allows the connection of

16 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 Above: A new shiachi-sen joint cut for a Buddhist temple near Fukushima. part of the altar, as opposed to simply lifting it out of the way to give us access to the shumidan, would have been very complicated and risky. With the upper part of the altar secure and out of the way, we began to dismantle the shumidan layer by layer. On the first layer, we added some wood in the to create a level base for the next ones. Then, after repairing all of the shiachi-sen-dome joints, we refit each of the shumidan’s many layers back into the grooves in the posts in which they were meant to rest. The last and most delicate step was to lower the upper part of the altar back into place. Fortunately it went back into its original position very smoothly. Our work on the shumidan enabled our team to better understand old building techniques, especially the use of the shiachi-sen-dome joint. The experience and the knowledge gained from that experience proved particularly useful later that year when we wound up recreating a version of the joint we discovered on the shumidan job to connect the sole plates of a Buddhist compound’s bell tower.

The Bell Tower Soon after completing work on the shumidan we began the restoration of the base structure in a Above: We found two types of mitred shiachi-sen-dome joints Shiô-ro; a Buddhist compound’s bell-tower, near the while repairing the shumidan. One using two tongues or sen city of Fukushima. The overhang of the roof’s eaves to lock the joint together and another that used only one sen. was not large enough, and the rain dripping off the roof kept the sole plates damp. After more than twenty years, the structure had been very severely damaged two pieces of timber at 45 degrees by using only by rot. To connect the sole plates we decided to wood and with the visible face of the joint showing recreate the wooden joints we encountered in the no apparent connection. This joint was characteristic shumidan. We had to connect four pieces of timber of the skill and craftsmanship of carpenters working together to form a square and naturally we did not during the Edo period. The joint was, and is, quite want any visible joints. difficult to realise, because it demands very sharp As an apprentice in a traditional Japanese carpentry , concentration and the finest precision. company, I thought I had absolutely no chance of We came across two types of shiachi-sen-dome in doing these joints: only my elderly co-workers could

Dimitri Malko the shumidan: one with the peg in the center of the do them, as they worked better and faster than I did. Dimitri Malko

Images joint and one with two pegs off-center. As the five day winter holiday approached, one of

Images the older carpenters had only traced the joints on the

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 17 Left: The Shô-Ro during the restoration; At exactly 8 o’clock every morning, the head priest of the temple rang the massive bronze bell several times.

Hinoki sole-plates. Hinoki is a kind of Japanese cypress, carpenters) were capable of doing. Their work demands with a distinctive scent. I asked him if it was possible concentration, humility and many late night hours for me to stay in the workshop during the holidays and spent carefully sharpening blades that will assist spend my time making the complicated shiachi-sen- them in realizing the precise execution of their vision. dome joints. He agreed, but under certain conditions: Despite, or perhaps because of all this attention to I would not be paid for the five days; all the joints detail and focused effort, seeing the result of one’s must be finished and ready to be loaded on the truck, work is the best reward a carpenter can have. stacked neatly in front of the gates. The challenge was achieved. In January, we put the different elements Dimitri Malko trained in France at the “Compagnons together and by early February the Shiô-ro was du Devoir” (AOCDTF), working on different restoration completed. sites in France and Russia. He spent a further two years in Having participated in these two restoration Yamagata, Japan as a master’s apprentice. projects and a few others, I had the chance to have [email protected]

a small glimpse of what the Mia-daikku-san (temple

18 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 Dimitri Malko Top: The sole-plates with the shiachi-sen-dome before assembling

Images Bottom: The wood-joint after assembly, held tight by two wooden sen tongues made from Japanese .

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 19 The Chappell Universal Framing Square Joe Thompson

To many carpenters, learning how to cut rafters to the correct lengths and is one of those aspects of the craft that you “either love or hate!” If like me you are fascinated by the many different ways there are to solve the problem then the arrival of a rafter square that the inventor of which claims to be “the best square in the universe”is going to be of considerable interest. Squares have been used to calculate the bevels and lengths of roof timbers since the late 16th century in Chappell Universal Square & Rule Co England. The use of the square to line out the lengths and bevels gradually became the dominant method during Images the 18th century. This carried on for spans up to seven meters or so to the 1970’s in the UK, until the widespread pattern, adopted by both Eagle which later became adoption of the pre-fabricated North American roof truss. Stanley in the USA and Smallwood from Birmingham, The early squares were made out of two pieces of England. wrought iron, fire-welded together, into an “L” by a Historically there have always been differences blacksmith. These often had blades of 18" or 24" by 1¼" between the US and the UK in the use of the square. with a tongue of 12" by 1" and divided off into inches and On the most basic level, there is a difference in the eighths. The 19th century the introduction, from the terminology used. For example, the Side Cut in the US is United States, of the , with its 24" by 2" wide known as the Edge Cut in the UK. While there are a few blade and 16" or 18" by 1½" wide tongue, divided off into other linguistic wrinkles, there is a more fundamental inches and eighths, tenths, twelfths and sixteenths. These difference between how the square was read and used steel squares soon came with ready reckoners engraved by English and American carpenters that reflects the very on them, such as Essex Board measure, Brace measure different on-site experiences and challenges they were and the Octagon Scale. most likely to encounter. The first rafter tables that were engraved onto the steel These different experiences and challenges can be square were patented by J.Howard in 1881. These gave gleaned from the pages of old English and American you the rafter lengths in feet and inches or inches and carpentry books. twelfths, for the run of the roof, for the three most popular 19th and 20th century pitches, viz quarter, third and half pitch. This pattern of rafter table, based on simple whole number ratios, was expanded to seven pitches and used by firms such as Sargent and Craftsman in the USA, in the 20th century. Then in 1901 Moses Nichols patented his new rafter tables that were not restricted to the rafter lengths for a few standard pitches but were based on “rise per foot of run” Example of the Sargent square and gave you rafter lengths and bevels for 17 different roof pitches. American books focus heavily on the framing of Seven lines of figures were given, these were: rafter unequal pitch roofs but they pay very little attention length per foot run, hip rafter length per foot run, jack to framing roofs irregular in plan. English books cover rafter edge , hip rafter edge bevel, jack rafter length unequal pitch roofs but they also spend a great deal of at 16" and 24" centres (the rafter length per foot run times time discussing the framing of irregular plan roofs. 16/12 and 24/12) and sheathing face bevel (the reverse This may have something to do with the fact that of the jack rafter edge bevel). This pattern of rafter table, American carpenters, beginning in the 17th century, usually with just the first six lines became the dominant were working almost exclusively on new builds in which

20 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 the plan of the building was made as regular as possible to facilitate the more straightforward framing of regularized timbers. Standardizing and regularizing the building process made it easier for young carpenters of different backgrounds and modest skills to make the business of house construction a profitable enterprise Example of the Nichols square patented in 1901. This square increased the number of for developers who were in a rush possible roof pitch calculations from 7 to 17. to knock out buildings that were very much in demand to house the huge numbers of What follows below, is a line by line breakdown of the European immigrants moving to America’s cities and equal pitch rafter table found on the blade of the Square’s also to make it possible for the same developers to face. The table covers equal pitch roofs from 15 degrees stake valuable claims in the sparsely populated western to 50 degrees in increments of 2.5 degrees. To follow territories by building geometrically regular towns of along, you will need a calculator and a pencil and paper geometrically regular stud frames almost overnight. in addition to the Square. We will be cutting a 40 degree The more skilled English carpenters, on the other hand, pitch roof. who were trained in a tradition of scribing were working less on stand-alone regular plan new-builds but rather Line 1 gives us the rise per 1mm of run. on the head-scratching challenge of stitching additions For a 40 degree pitch roof there will be 0.8391mm of onto the already existing irregular plan of centuries old- rafter rise for every 1mm of rafter run. To get the correct buildings that not only may have moved out of regular rafter on your timber angle use 10 on the Square’s blade shape over time but that were originally framed to and 8.391 on its tongue. You can also multiply both follow the irregular lines and angles, dips and rises – so figures by 30 and then mark the correct rafter angle on characteristic of English and European cities, towns and the timber by using 30 on the blade and 25.173 on the villages – that were drawn up in an effort to maximize tongue. every inch of a very limited amount of valuable space. Essentially a way to convert the given angular pitch to a So, what’s so special about this square? rise you can use on the tongue to partner the run you already What can it do that others can’t? And how useful will it have for your blade (all th e figures are given to 4 decimal be for English carpenters? points and the graduations are in 1/10ths). The Chappell Universal Metric Traveller Framing Squares were released in 2012. Developed by Steve Line 2 gives us the length of common rafter per 1mm of Chappell of Fox from Maine, USA, this is a roofing run. The same figure also is used to give us the difference square with a 10 line set of rafter tables. The Traveller is the in length of jack rafters per 1mm of spacing and the top smaller of the two metric squares available; it has a body cut of jack rafter (edge bevel). (or blade) of 500mm by 50mm with a tongue of 300mm For our 40 degree pitch roof the common rafter length by 40mm and is made from 13 , 304 grade stainless will be 1.305 units of length for every 1 unit of run. This is steel. All the graduations are in centimetres and 1/10th of known as the “unit multiplier”. If the span of our building a centimetre (millimetres) in between. is 8.5m, then the run of the building will be 4.25m, or half When I first acquired the square it did not come with the building’s span. To find our total common rafter length its instruction booklet, so I was quite baffled at first where we multiply the roof’s run of 4.025m by 1.305. The result is to start. Then I downloaded the imperial booklet off 5.738m, the length of the common rafter. the website, and that helped up to a point. The metric If the roof has hips and/or valleys and the hip and valley version of the booklet arrived and I could then get going, jack rafters (nothing more than interrupted common but what really helped most was seeing Steve himself rafters) are going to be set out at 400mm centres, the use the square at Frame 2013. His work features a lot of lengths of the first or shortest jacks, the ones 400mm from open valley roofs with framed purlins, often with unequal the valleys and hips, will be 522mm in length or the result pitches, over rectangular plans. The new rafter tables have of having multiplied 400mm x 1.305. been specifically developed to enable carpenters to solve To line out the jack rafter edge bevel use 10 on the these complex interactions and rotations. These visually Square’s blade and 13.05 on its tongue and mark along stunning and layout challenging roofs are essentially a the tongue. feature of the timber frame revival over the last 40 or so years; there are very few historical precedents. Line 3 is length of hip or valley per 1mm of run. For 40 degrees the figure given is 1.644

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 21 So for our run of 4.25m the hip rafter length is 4.25m x This is the other “new” figure that is required at the 1.644 = 6.987m foot of the hip or valley where it frames into the adjacent Again this is the “unit multiplier” or ratio that generates principal rafter. In an open valley roof this is where the the hip or valley rafter length per unit of run. framing can get busy!

Line 4 is Difference in length of Jack purlin per 1mm of Line 8 is Working top of hip or valley over 1. common rafter length and Top cut layout over Jack purlin For 40 degrees the figure given is 0.8600. (Purlin edge bevel) and sheathing offset per 1 unit. So use 10 on the blade and 8.6 on the tongue and mark For 40 degrees the figure on the table is 0.7660. off by the blade. For purlins at say 2.00m up the common rafter, the In the UK we would tend to call this the hip rafter edge purlin length will be 2 x 0.766m = 1.532m. bevel; The maths teacher would confirm that to calculate the hip length/hip run =16.44/14.14 or 10/8.6 adjacent side length (purlin length) use the cosine of the angle = cos 40 degrees= 0.766 Line 9 is Jack purlin side cut layout angle over 1 and Fascia mitre angle with tail cut at 90 degrees. Line 5 is the depth of backing and bevel cut per 1mm of For 40 degrees the figure given is 0.6428 hip or valley width. So use 10 on the blade and 6.428 on the tongue and For our pitch of 40 degrees the figure on the table is mark off by the tongue. 0.5103. In the UK we would tend to call this the purlin side So for a hip of 50mm width the depth of hip backing bevel; is 50/2 x 0.5103 = 12.75mm. We use half the width of the Common rafter length/rise = 13.05/8.391 or 10/6.428 hip, as we are working off the centre line. This figure is the tangent of the hip rafter backing bevel Line 10 For 40 degree pitch roofs the figures given at So to set up the saw blade bevel = tan¹0.5103 = 27.03 which to set your are: 27.034 and 32.798. degrees (see line 10 below) These first five lines are all pretty standard stuff, giving In addition to the table covered above, there are three us the dimensions and bevels for the common, hip and other tables on the Square: jack rafters and purlin length. Unequal pitched with a 30 degree main pitch. Unequal pitched with a 45 degree main pitch. Line 6 is the housing angle purlin to hip or valley over 1 Hexagon and Octagon rafter tables to match the equal and hip/valley side angle to purlin header. pitch table. For 40 degrees pitch = 0.3482 So use 10 on the blade and 3.482 on the tongue and So all in all a fascinating addition to the pantheon of mark off the bevel by the tongue. squares. Very useful if you want to go down the “open This is the first of the “new” figures that is used when valley roof” or “unequal roof pitch” path or if you are most framing a purlin into a hip or valley. The housing avoids comfortable with seeing roofs in terms of numbers in taking all the shear on the tenon and hides any shoulder base 10. shrinkage. Old English carpenters would know this bevel Once you have tried this approach you will certainly as the “Valley over Purlin side bevel” “never forget it” and as the booklet says “Bastard roofs are a breeze with the Chappell Universal Square”. Line 7 is Housing angle of hip or valley to principal rafter or level plate over 1. Joe Thompson set up Sussex Oak and Iron in 1985 and For 40 degrees the figure given is 0.4195 has been working on building and repairing timber frames, So use 10 on the blade and 4.195 on the tongue and mainly in Sussex, since then. He has also been carpenter-in- mark off by the blade, against a level line not the edge of residence at the Weald and Downland Open Air Museum the timber. since 2002 where alongside his other work he also teaches a

22 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 Lichens in the Attic Rebecca Yahr and Christopher Ellis

Most homeowners and building conservators are Above: Wattles are often completely encrusted with lichens. The RebeccaYahr all too familiar with the issues associated with wasps dust and daub that typically hide the bark easily dissolve in water Image or mice in the attic, or with playing host to a family and lichens are commonly found even on small diameter wattles of bats. While finding lichens in the loft might leave of only a few years old at harvest. building owners or managers wondering where to turn, lichens shouldn’t be a cause for concern. In fact, they could constitute an important archaeological discovery. A team of lichen experts from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh is currently building collaborations across Britain to explore the pre- Victorian landscape using evidence supplied by the lichens preserved in historic buildings. Lichens are largely familiar as the colourful, leafy rosettes that adorn tree trunks or the rich and intricate patterns that encrust old rock walls, gravestones or garden urns. They are also extremely valuable environmental indicators. Because they are very particular about where they grow, lichens can be used to describe and interpret features of their wider context including air quality, local climate, and techniques of woodland management. Oliver David Leviatin Rackham, in The History of the Countryside, claims that Image ‘examining the timber and underwood of a medieval Above: Waney-edged timbers are common in historic buildings, building may bring back to life the trees and the men especially in roofs, and many still have bark attached, as of a long-vanished wood’. Lichens can add other seen on these rafters and collars in the 15th century Lordship Barn dimensions to that reconstruction, too. in Essex..

 O Rackham, The History of the Countryside, Phoenix Press, THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 23 RebeccaYahr Image

Above: Small diameter wood is often covered on two or more sides with bark, as seen in these lichen-encrusted pole rafters from a thatched roof at Cymbeline Cottage, Downton, Wiltshire. A close-up of some of the lichens found is shown inset. They include large leafy types (inset left) and several smaller crusts (inset right).

Left: The community of lichens from well-preserved ash staves like this one from Poplar Cottage, Sussex (now reconstructed at Weald and Downland Open Air Museum) allowed

Christopher Ellis lichenologists to infer that climate has changed in West Sussex. These lichens are more

Image typical of the clean-air regions of Cornwall and Devon.

Lichens in Old Buildings? they might completely cover the bark surfaces of the Lichens are tough. They are fungi that farm their own sticks used to make wattle and daub panels (see food as ‘crops’ of algae or photosynthetic bacteria main illustration). Even relatively high-status buildings housed in their purpose-built bodies. Although frequently include roof timbers with small areas of some lichens are well known for their ability to live bark on them (above). in extreme environments like deserts and polar The odds might seem to be stacked against the mountains, many are unable to tolerate major preservation of bark in old buildings. Historically, the changes in their growing conditions. Lichens on tree value of oak bark to the tanneries and the obvious bark will die when the trees are cut and converted to craftsmanship that went into timber conversion are timber for construction. However, because lichens are among the reasons why bark might not be expected physically durable, they can retain their structures and to survive. Nevertheless, the presence of bark on often remain fully recognisable like miniature dried timber is surprisingly widespread. In a survey of over flowers. And there they stay, sometimes surviving in 40 private buildings all but one had bark and at least the timber for hundreds of years, resisting decay and half contained preserved lichens. The smaller cross the ravages of time (provided they are not obliterated section of rafters and joists in thatched roofs also by , sandblasting or stripping). often means more bark and more lichens (above, The presence of historic lichens may not be top right), and roundwood (wattles or thatching immediately obvious (in some cases a magnifying materials) is often completely covered with lichens. glass is required to spot them), but they can be found Significantly, in old wattles, where the wood has in many different and surprising places on historic turned completely to dust, an outer core of bark, wooden building materials. The lichen resource along with its lichens, can often be salvaged. That fact ranges from the bog-preserved Neolithic hazel makes old wattles very valuable, even when the wood hurdles that made up the trackways of the Somerset is in poor condition. Levels, to the timbers and underwood of historic buildings. Those which grew on big trees might Lichens as Environmental Indicators appear on the bark of large waney-edged timbers, From an archaeological standpoint, lichens are the especially in out-of-the-way places like roof spaces; or premier environmental indicators. Since each species of lichen grows in a specific ‘niche’ or environmental London 2000, p87 24 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 setting, the presence of a particular lichen on historic has all but disappeared in Britain, lichens are only building timber can tell us what kind of location the now recovering. Indeed, it is still possible to explore tree was growing in before the timber was harvested. urban or suburban British woodlands and see only For example, some communities of lichens only grow bare tree trunks which would, historically, have in agricultural settings where there is strong light. been clothed in a rich variety of lichens. Preserved As a preserved archaeological sample, such lichens lichens can therefore provide clues as to the health would suggest that the trees from which that part of of the environment in pre-industrial Britain. That the house was built came from a hedgerow. Other information could also be used to set new targets for species were limited to ancient woodlands and so environmental remediation. provide information about the history of a particular The lichens in Britain are probably the most widely area of woodland and how long it has existed in the studied, and therefore best-known, in the world and landscape. Other lichens are sensitive to different the special requirements of each species are readily forms of pollution, and still others grow in different characterised. A set of historic lichens discovered climates. in an attic can be used to generate a quite specific Finding many different types of lichen in the picture of the type of environment in which those buildings of a particular village allows lichenologists species would be found today. Part of the research to piece together the conditions that would have for the ongoing project at the Royal Botanic Garden been present in the landscape when the trees Edinburgh involves comparing modern lichen were harvested for building, and can shed light on communities sampled from different settings, with woodland structure and management techniques. historic communities from archaeological studies, For example, wooden building materials recovered providing a reliable means of inferring what historic during the dismantling of a 16th century cottage from environments were like. The distribution and Lower Greensand, West Sussex, included wattle, daub abundance of contemporary lichen communities and various timbers. Lichens on these materials were can be used as a yardstick for interpreting historic identifiable to species-level and were remarkably communities. well preserved on ash staves (opposite, top left). Significantly, the preserved set of lichens was absent A Call to Arms from present-day Sussex, and is now more typical Lichens constitute a rich and valuable historical of woodlands in the clean-air environment of West resource. The potential of that resource is a relatively Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. These differences in new discovery, and the lichens in our vernacular the lichens present on the 400 year old preserved buildings have only recently become subject to ash staves and the modern equivalents from detailed investigation. Unfortunately, the value Sussex were tentatively attributed to the effects of and vulnerability of this resource is not yet widely pollution. Pollution accounts for one of the largest appreciated. All too often, we hear of old wattles and most important differences between the British ending up in skips or on bonfires. environment now and in the pre-industrial period. Those involved in working with historic buildings should keep a keen eye out for discarded wattles, for Lichens and Historic Environments example where an infill panel in a half-timbered wall A wealth of historical information can be gleaned has been cut open or a complete panel replaced. from the careful study of preserved lichens in The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh would be very buildings. First, the air was cleaner before the grateful for information about discarded wattles, industrial revolution than it is today. Saxon charters especially if traces of bark are present on them, and frequently noted the presence of ‘hoar trees’: trees will supply the necessary postal materials for samples used as boundary markers that were covered in to be sent in (please use the authors’ contact details bushy, beard-like lichens. In contrast, a survey of supplied below). lichens from the 1970s showed that huge parts of Britain were lichen deserts. Trees in these areas were Rebecca Yahr and Christopher Ellis study lichen completely lichen-free as a consequence of severe diversity at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. air pollution, especially acid rain. Although acid rain More information on the RBGE’s research on lichens and biodiversity can be found on the following web page:  B J Coppins, F J Rose and R M Tittensor, Lichens from a 16th http:// rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/lichen/index.html Century SussexCottage, Lichenologist, Vol 17, 1985, p297

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 25 Handheld Conspiracy Elizabeth Cunningham

The Bridport Conspiracy, a design-build collective based in Dorset that specializes in small-scale projects, is a product not only of its ambitions but also of its environment. We, the two architects Nozomi Nakabayashi and Elizabeth Cunningham, met while attending the Architectural Association School of Architecture’s Design & Make programme in Hooke Park, Dorset during which we met our two other conspirators, timber framer James Stubbs and timber engineer Jack Hawker. During our time in Hooke Park, Nozomi and I found we shared similar frustrations with conventional architectural practice while we were each developing a new passion for making. This combination led to a desire to practice architecture together in a different way and the conviction that the best way to do this was to keep it small and hand made. We each graduated from North American universities several years ago and had worked as architects in a variety of offices all over the world on projects across the spectrum of private and public, from homes to factories and shopping malls, and international design competitions. As we moved through successive projects, various offices and different countries, we both felt an increasing dissatisfaction with the lack of connection to our work, a removal from the artifacts themselves because our knowledge of how they were actually put together was only theoretical. We attempted to address this by burying our heads deeper into construction drawings or working directly with contractors Elizabeth Cunningham

but we both decided that to fully understand Image construction we needed to learn how to do it with our While the framers at Hooke Park laboured for long hours own hands. To this end, we came to Hooke Park and in often miserable weather conditions and were away the Design & Make programme. It was there where we from their homes and families, they were obviously had the privilege to study with great makers such as excited about the project and worked unfailingly Charley Brentnall and Charlie Corry Wright who, through as a harmonious team, addressing their individual their patience and extraordinary skill, transmitted their weaknesses by learning from each other and relying on passion for working with timber and made construction each other’s strengths. And at the end of the day they an approachable undertaking. returned to their digs, made meals together, played In addition to the formal training, we were also music and generally enjoyed one another’s company. introduced to the world of English Around each timber frame structure a temporary but through the professional build team that executed very real community is formed. Their livelihood is, to a the Big Shed. We saw a whole different means of large extent, their lifestyle and yet they seem to find it building delivery that was collective and dynamic. enriching. As architects, our lives have often been totally While architects are often passionate about what they absorbed by our work but more to the tune of sleep- do, they are also fiercely competitive, over-worked and deprivation and carpal tunnel syndrome. suffer from the effects of terribly unbalanced lifestyles.

26 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 But there were voices imaginations as they are of discontent from the of ours. framers’ side as well with A somewhat surprising regard to how late in the development is that design process fabricators we are benefiting are generally brought enormously from on board. While they volunteers and we think feel an enormous sense this has something to do of responsibility for and with the compactness authorship of the projects of the projects. Building they make, greater them ourselves creates a involvement at an earlier certain level of curiosity stage would undoubtedly in itself and a high level of result in fewer difficulties goodwill. We have relied during construction and heavily on Jack Hawker’s a better design. Often the engineering and tree best design solutions arise surgery skills, without after the question, “what is which neither the design the best way to build it?” nor the execution of has been explored. the treehouse would be As we got to know possible. In addition, the each other the more production of a 1:1 model excited we became of the treehouse attracted about collaborating. a lot of attention and the It was during these test lift would have been days of conversation Elizabeth Cunningham impossible without the and speculation that Image people who thought it James Stubbs added his own enthusiasms to the looked like so much fun that they were eager to help. mix and we began to formulate what became the In the case of the London project, many of the client’s Bridport Conspiracy. We started with a basic premise: a friends have promised to lend a hand which will be collaborative, hands-on process would result in better, invaluable. The small but traditional timber frame will more joyful buildings. have to be raised using manpower and the more hands Fortunately, almost as soon as we articulated we have the easier that will be. Again, the modest the desire to work together on small projects, we dimensions mean that people are not intimidated and were offered the opportunity to walk the talk. The want to get involved in what they see as a fun day. photographer who recorded the construction of the Our practice began with a polemic critique of the Big Shed asked us for a small pavilion for her garden in profession of architecture and building delivery and London where she could relax or entertain. Soon after, a is unfolding through the design and construction of writer who lives near Hooke Park and was interested in diminutive structures. Some of the reasons are obvious what has been happening there asked us for a treehouse and prosaic: the financial and legal obligations are where he could enjoy his solitude or share some quiet minimal which is crucial when starting out on your time with his wife. From a practical perspective, the scale own. The scale also means that we can prefabricate in of both of these commissions, each approximately 6m², limited space and almost everything can be done with means they can be built by two people in a relatively power and hand tools. But the element of whimsy is short period of time. But the tiny size affords us the what we most enjoy. While we have to address all of luxury of more intimate design. For our clients, these the issues of house-building such as waterproofing are spaces of imagination, objects of desire rather and insulation, we have much more room to play. than necessity. We found design clues through relaxed There is an unexpected element of spectacle: people conversations with the clients such as “I don’t want want to see what we are doing and they want to get the floor to get muddy” or “I want to take a nap in the involved. These tiny buildings are creating their own backyard”. These sometimes offhand comments that communities. happen in a warm kitchen over a cup of tea or while preparing a barbeque in what will be the building site Elizabeth Cunningham, along with her partners provided the essential elements from which to begin. Nozomi Nakabayashi, James Stubbs and Jack Hawker work These projects do not represent the clients’ life-savings; together as The Bridport Conspiracy, an exciting new design they are follies which are as much the products of their and build collective. www.bridportconspiracy.com

THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 27 28 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 Visit www.carpentersfellowship.co.uk for more information on Carpenters Fellowship membership, events and training.

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THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 29 But now I leave my cetological System standing thus unfinished, even as the great Cathedral of Cologne was left, with the crane still standing upon the top of the uncompleted tower. For small erections may be finished by their first architects; grand ones, true ones, ever leave the copestone to posterity. God keep me from ever completing anything. This whole book is but a draught—nay, but the draught of a draught. Oh time, Strength, Cash, and Patience!

Moby Dick or, The Whale Herman Melville 1851

30 THE MORTICE AND TENON 54 WINTER 2013 Richard Starr Image:

Ed Levin 17 March 1947 - 22 August 2013 THE COVER IMAGES The front cover Photograph by David Leviatin The back cover Carved Angel, St Andrew’s Church, North Burlingham, Norfolk Photograph by Michael Rimmer