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Durham E-Theses Animal bones and human society in the late younger stone age of arctic Norway Hodgetts, Lisa Maye How to cite: Hodgetts, Lisa Maye (1999) Animal bones and human society in the late younger stone age of arctic Norway, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/4491/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 ANIMAL BONES AND HUMAN SOCIETY IN THE LATE YOUNGER STONE AGE OF ARCTIC NORWAY VOLUME 2 OF 2 FIGURES, APPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY LISA MA YE HODGETTS Tlie copyright of tliis tliesis rests witli tlie autlior. No quotation from it should be published witliout tlie written consent of tlie author and information derived from it should be acknowledged. Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Durham Department of Archaeology 1999 I TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume 2 page Figures 191 Appendix A: Cutmarks, Marrow Extraction, Carnivore Damage and Fragmentation 289 Appendix B: A Manual for the Identification of Post-Cranial Skeletal Elements of North Atlantic Phocid Seals 296 B.l Introduction 296 B.2 Elements of the skull 299 B.2.1 Cranium 299 B.2.2 Auditory bulla (Pars petrosa) 307 B.2.3 Mandible 310 B.3 Scapula 313 B.3.1 Adult scapula 313 B. 3.2 Juvenile scapula 318 B.4 Humerus 321 B.4.1 Adult humerus 321 B.4.2 Juvenile humerus 330 B.5 Radius 334 B.5.1 Adult radius 334 B.5.2 Juvenile radius 340 B.6 Ulna 343 B.6.1 Adult ulna 343 B.6.2 Juvenile ulna 347 B.7 Femur 352 B.7.1 Adult femur 352 B.7.2 Juvenile femur 356 B.8 Femur 361 B.8.1 Adult femur 361 B.8.2 Juvenile femur 364 B.9 Tibio-fibula 367 B.9.1 Adult tibio-fibula 367 B.9.2 Juvenile tibio-fibula 367 Appendix C: Reindeer Tooth Sections and Season of Death 378 Bibliography 380 190 15 25 35 Barents Sea 15 25 Figure 2.1 Map of Scandinavia showing location of Varangerfjord 191 Varanger Peninsula Varangerbotn 100 km —I Figure 2.2 Map of Varangerfjord 192 Meskljord PRESENT ea. 4500 bp L»g*nd Figure 2.3 Shoreline of Varangerfjord at present and that postulated for 4500 bp (from Renouf 1989: figure 2.6) 193 50' 40' 30° 20° 10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 1.0° 50 60° / ^1 )/0 \ 0 Figure 2.4 Main surface currents of the Norden seas (after Blindheim 1987: figure 3.0-4) Varangerfjord is starred. 194 Arctic Region barcti Boreal ferrous N.E.M.F.R North ean"^ Mixed Forest Region North European Deciduous Forest Region 250 km ' I.' 'l ' 0 150 miles Figure 2.5 Vegetation zones of Norway, Sweden and Finland (from Hustich 1960: figure 5.1) ( The northern pine forest limit divides the Subarctic from the Boreal Coniferous Region. The northern oak forest limit divides the Boreal Coniferous Region from the North European Mixed Forest. The southern spruce forest limit divides the North European Mixed Forest from the North European Deciduous Forest. Stippling indicates alpine areas. 195 50 km Tundra Birch scrub Birch & pine & woodland woods Pine forest 1^ Pine & spruce Fossil remnants forest of pine Figure 2.6 Modern forest limits in northern Fenno-Scandia (after Hustich 1960: figure 5.3; Hyvarinen 1975: figure 1) 196 . ^ ^ I O 1- u M 0) c/1 O C o o a o s: § .a o S ^ — to " " « O ii S ^ ^ 'S I ON ^ O C txO «J o o 0 ci.J= « S -g o lU -CI u. c ffi « ^ § <- c ° S CO o — o r- «^ — Lt—- ' 1 ^ o ^ ft 4) O .E ^ 5-4 "±53 V5 <i>O & c§ -2 So- 9- § J 1, 3 cd Oh H X) o s 197 100 km Winter Summer Winter/Summer Pasture Pasture Pasture Figure 2.8 Migration routes of domestic reindeer in the Varanger region (after Renouf 1989: figure 3.5; Vorren 1951) 198 •S^8'Harn0y * Li lie Ekker0y Ekker0y ;Kjelm0y 'Bird Cliffs hm N Figure 2.9 Location of main sea bird breeding colonies around Varangerfjord (after Renouf 1989: figure 3.2) 199 00 > CO -5 o D 2^ PQ m ID O ~ > CO < o O — CN X C bO c T3 XI <D C c r- OO On c/3 C o CO (DU^ SOT g 55 3; S c c M3 c3 0) 3 WD CN ro 200 °0 D ON c c o 00 , ( 1 0) T3 H T3 O (U < CO cu bX3 c o (D 03 X) Q< O o E c Si cJ5 v u 3 WD 201 o A 0 Figure 3.3 Karlebotn-type house (after Simonsen 1961: figure 55) 202 11 c i ^ 1 in <n Si D 0\ 00 0\ ••.•C5 <5 .'o; D O c e o T3 to 3 -4-* CO 03 > 00 3 O s: o ..vrMO/HjQ:-.: s 203 O C 03 c g w o w 0) 1 0) •D o (aD o O o o Q. DC ^ 3 liJ 0 a ^ 0 0 E H H I 0 On 1) o c x: o CO u t3 CO 3 r- 3 X) (U 3 O (U -4—• C X) CO CO o in 2! s W) 204 WNTE SUMMER 20 km WINTER AUTUMN SPRING 20 km YEAR^«:# ROUN 20 km Figure 3.6 Changing models of seasonal patterns in Younger Stone Age settlement and subsistence. A: Gjessing; B: Simonsen; C: Renouf 205 3 - 10 11-20 21 - 30 o uncertain 20 km Figure 3.7 Distribution of Gressbakken-type houses around Varangerfjord (from Schanche 1994: figure 37) 206 Species Common Name JFMAMJJASOND P. alle Little auk ************ ********* U. lomvia Brunnich's murre ********* ************ S. spectahilis King eider ************ ******* F. glacialis Fulmar *************** ********* L. lagopus Willow grouse ************* ********* U. aalge Guillemot ********************* A. tor da Razorbill ********************* P. impennis Great auk ******************** F. arctica Puffin ************** L. canus Common gull ********************* L. fuscus Lesser black gull ********************* L. marinus Greater black ********************* back gull C. cygnus Whooper swan ********************* P. groenlandica Harp seal ******** P. hispida Ringed seal ************ ********* P. vitiilina Harbour seal ************************ H. grypus Grey seal ************************ E. harbatus Bearded seal ****** L. albirostris White-nosed *************************** dolphin Small game ******** R. tarandus Reindeer ******* % of fish species ********** JFMAMJJASOND Figure 3.8 Seasonal availability of fauna from the northwest midden at Gressbakken House 4 (after Renouf 1989, Figure 8.11) 207 'a, T3 C •s o _o c o O (0 c CS > 3 Oi) 208 fcq ^ (8 ^1 209 o o p <) SUOWEJOHKA/BERGEBY UNjAsaCA CILLDA/MCSSCSrKOnnuHL \ e'. ^ ^ « 2 ^ c , L__ir Q 3 Figure 4.3 Plan of excavations at Bergeby 18 (from Schanche 1994: figure 8) Legend: l=depression; 2=possible post-hole; 3=stone 210 13 1- o W3 O •- lU F 5 aos 2 > X) V 2 II id •t3 u C -a o c T3 O - -c 2^ V ^ :s •d c ^ -a O D o o I- o ^ U II s ON o 13 2 > ca _ o > ^ 2 >^ 'I E —> ON c ago o X) 00 o 03 •a c Si 03 >^ 1) II .x^ : m y T3 CO O M O C o 03 a. 2 S V II (4- lU S (N O . r. ? I 03 00 o S x: rr u a. u c 3 lU o t: 211 00 >^ X) s <u -o T3 3 O o -O > <u X re re O re t- o Q. E > _re Pi IT) 212 100% • Saithe 90% - • Haddockl @Cod 80% - 70% 60% - 50% - 40% 30% 20% + 10% 0% Bergeby 18, L2 Bergeby 18, L3 Karlebotn 1 Gressbakken 3 Figure 4.6 Relative importance of cod, haddock and saithe at Bergeby, Kariebotnbakken and Gressbakken 3 notes: 1) values from Bergeby are for south-east and south-west middens combined 2)Bergeby 18 was the only site where a cod family (Gadidae) category was identified as well as the cod species Gadus morhua. Both taxa are here included in the "cod" categon,' to make the values from Bergeby more comparable to those from the other sites. Tliis may mean tliat tlie Bergeby cod are slightly over-represented in the figure. 2i: O 1 O 3 4 CiH 5 1 2m \ (Si A' Figure 4.7 Plan of excavations at Karlebotn 1 (from Schanche 1994: figure 22) Legend: l=modern disturbance; 2=depression; 3=stone; 4=stone set on edge; 5=concentration of cooking stones 214 Figure 4.8 Section drawing of seaward mound at Karlebotn 1 (from Schanche 1986: figure 2) Legend: l=peat; 2=grey-brown sandy gravel; 3=dark brown gravelly cultural layer with some bone; 4=light brown gravelly cultural layer; 5=midden rich in bone, shell and cooking stones; 6=ash; 7=cooking stones; 8=stone; 9=sterile gravel substrate 215 Figure 4.9 Antler figurines from Karlebotn 1 (from B. Olsen 1994: figure 53) 216 00 3 c <0 <yi C O E E o > < 03 00 o 2J 3 217 YxOnrniiiiiiiiifiiTi nrnrnr 8^^ 218 T3 C re 5 Co o o C c c c re o 5U re ilg ^ 2 1^ > (J ^- o 2 S •§ 2^ ^ 2 = ^ E §f I 00 E § S ^ o i 1) O c re .2 »0O ,s C II re -^i qj re o^i 3 C ^ WO re c fa H XI 219 C3 3 CI, C c3 S C5 3 O — U O ^ ^ o c 03 Q IT 1/3 3 II ^ • - c t/3 c o X) c 3 E T3 13 > 5E E 03 • = M (U II in ^ II S So < C 3 o t_ o .s ^ Co P3 u c II > o 00 in C .
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  • Examining the Impacts of Oil Palm Expansion Upon Food System Vulnerability in the Lachuá Ecoregion, Guatemala

    Examining the Impacts of Oil Palm Expansion Upon Food System Vulnerability in the Lachuá Ecoregion, Guatemala

    The Socio-Ecological Ramifications of Boom Crops: Examining the Impacts of Oil Palm Expansion upon Food System Vulnerability in the Lachuá Ecoregion, Guatemala by Anastasia Hervas A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Geography & Planning and School of Environment University of Toronto © Copyright by Anastasia Hervas 2019 The Socio-Ecological Ramifications of Boom Crops: Examining the Implications of Oil Palm Expansion upon Food System Vulnerability in the Lachuá Ecoregion, Guatemala Anastasia Hervas Doctor of Philosophy Geography & Planning and School of Environment University of Toronto 2018 Abstract Integration of contract farmers into oil palm production schemes has been advocated as a strategy for spurring rural development and improving food security in the global South. In Guatemala, oil palm contract farming has been promoted through a contentions government program, which has led to rapid expansion of the crop in the country’s northern lowlands, including the Lachuá Ecoregion where this study is set. In this thesis, the socio-ecological food systems framework is used to demonstrate ways in which oil palm expansion has altered food system vulnerability and adaptation capacity in an oil-palm dominated community in the Lachuá Ecoregion, as compared to a neighbouring community with minimal oil palm presence and prevalent staple maize farming. Effects of oil palm on local land transactions, employment, and household income are examined in relation to cross-scalar dynamics of self-provisioning and market-provisioning of food. Ecological variables including the conditions ii of forests, water, and soil nutrient cycling are also considered as they lead to changes in local food access and consumption patterns, notably the reduced consumption of fresh vegetables, fruits, and herbs.