Protected Areas and Overuse in the Context of Socio-Natural Changes: An Interdisciplinary French Case Study Cécilia Claeys, Carole Barthelemy, Thierry Tatoni, Patrick Bonhomme

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Cécilia Claeys, Carole Barthelemy, Thierry Tatoni, Patrick Bonhomme. Protected Areas and Overuse in the Context of Socio-Natural Changes: An Interdisciplinary French Case Study. International Review of Social Research, 2011. ￿hal-01756438￿

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HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. IRSR INTERNATIONAL REVIEW of SOCIAL RESEARCH Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011, 73-92 International Review of Social Research Protected Areas and Overuse in the Context of Socio-Natural Changes: An Interdisciplinary French Case Study

Cécilia CLAEYS• Aix- University – UMR Espace Carole BARTHELEMY Aix-Marseille University – LPED Thierry TATONI Aix-Marseille University – IMEP Patrick BONHOMME Aix-Marseille University – COM

Abstract: This article provides an interdisciplinary analysis of the notion of overuse in natural areas. Based on the case of the French massif (located along the Mediterranean coast between and ), sociology and biology combine their analyses to examine the social processes behind the increasingly widespread use of natural areas and the ecological consequences thereof. The data are comprised of interdisciplinary research based on eighty semi-structured interviews conducted on-site and 330 telephone survey questionnaires. We critically analyse of the notion of overuse and underscore the socio- economic, cultural and ideological weight it carries in the context of socio-natural change; this calls into question the relevance of the ancient nature/culture dichotomy. Drawing on theoretical tools from environmental sociology, this article also provides some perspectives for natural area managers.

Keywords: nature-society interactions, Mediterranean ecosystems, sociology, ecology interdisciplinarity, overuse, Calanques.

Introduction affecting natural resources, the impact of human activity on such resources In the context of global change is central to environmental rhetoric.

•e-mail: [email protected] Cecilia Claeys is the corresponding author. She is assistant professor of sociology, focusing her researches on environmental conflicts, environmental democracy and risk management. Carole Barthélémy is assistant professor of sociology. Her main research fields are urban biodiversity and nature management. Thierry Tatoni is professor of ecology. He works on biodiversity dynamics and ecological vulnerability. Patrick Bonhomme is engineer in Oceanography, expert in sea environment and professional diver. Acknowledgments: The authors thank Jocelyne Serveau for the English language proofing. We are equally grateful to our anonymous reviewers who provided invaluable constructive feedback and also Lidwine Pecheux and Bertrand Cousin of the Gip-Calanques for their assistance with map design. The article is based on an interdisciplinary research programme funded by the French Ministry of Ecology: FHUVEL - Caractérisation de la fréquentation littorale et détermination d’indicateurs de vulnérabilité écologique pour définir des modes de gestion durable – Cas de la bande littorale du projet de parc national des calanques. Scientific Coordinator:Thierry Tatoni. © University of Bucharest, October 2011 74 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011

Given the abounding examples which the difficulty for biologists – and even exist, the negative impact of ‘mankind’ more so for ecologists – is to shed on nature no longer needs to be proven old anthropophobic beliefs rooted (e.g., the effects of urbanisation, in concepts such as climax (Drouin, intensive farming, etc.). In this context, 1991; Lévêque 2001). In order to the term ‘overuse’ is used to describe avoid such epistemological traps, we natural areas thought to be endangered shall attempt here to follow the lead and in need of protection from what of ‘win-win ecology’, as defined by is considered to be excessive use or biologist Michael Rosenzweig (2003), disrespect for the surrounding fauna which underscores the possible and flora. The notion has emanated complementarity between nature essentially from natural area managers and society, on the one hand; and whose role consists in part in managing that of sociologist Florian Charvolin user flows (managing car parks, (2003), who recommends focusing on marking trails, etc.) and in using their socio-natural processes, applying the abilities to police and control risks framework developed by Bruno Latour (fires, accidents, etc.). and Michel Callon to environmental ddFrom a scientific perspective, sociology, on the other. Our approach overuse is a transversal concept which differs from that of Latour and can be jointly approached from the Callon’s, however, notably with regard social sciences and life sciences. to the role of ‘old’ social structures; Despite increasing popularity in the indeed, we believe that the actor environmental field (Roux, Stirzaker, network theory tends to minimize the Breen, Lefroy and Cresswell, 2010), persistent effects of social inequality. It interdisciplinarity raises similar is as such that concepts like ecological epistemological issues in both inequality and environmental justice disciplines due to their respective help counterbalance the blindness theoretical backgrounds (Ostrom, to social class found in Latour and 2009). Sociology’s Durkheimian Callon’s framework. These analyses legacy and its anthropocentric habit indeed work to point up the social of ‘explaining social facts with social inequalities which exist in access to a facts’ is challenged by the need to quality environment and natural areas examine biological processes in order (Bullard, 1990; Cutter, 1995; Theys, to fully understand environmental 2007; Deboudt, 2010). issues. Conversely, the biocentric ddWe have opted here to engage roots of biology are challenged in interdisciplinary exchange in by the need to include mankind in our fieldwork and in gathering and order to fully understand ecosystem analysing data about the social and dynamics (Jollivet, 1992; Claeys – ecological causes and effects of nature’s Mekdade, 2003; Jetzkowitz and overuse. Previous interdisciplinary Brunzel, 2005; Baerlocher and Burger, research (Claeys-Mekdade, Géniaux 2010). The difficulty for sociologists and Luchini, 1999; Gendron, is thus to contribute to defining an Vaillancourt, Claeys-Mekdade and interdisciplinary approach without Rajotte, 1999; Claeys and Sérandour, losing critical perspective. Meanwhile, 2009; Barthélémy and Souchon, CECILIA CLAEYS et al Protected Areas and Overuse | 75

2009; Bouleau, Argillier, Souchon, ‘exceptional’ site, both in terms of Barthélémy and Babut, 2009; Marco, its biodiversity and also due to the Barthelemy, Dutoit and Bertaudière- specificity of its ecosystems and Montes, 2010) has shown that solid landscape; field surveys provide a stronger and d2)dIts proximity to Marseilles, the richer basis for interdisciplinary second largest French city, with over exchange than abstract debate which 800,000 inhabitants, has made it a often leads simply to ideological peri-urban site; conflict. This position is shared by d3)dFinally, the massif is currently the other researchers such as Jetzkowitz focus of a national park project that has and Brunzel (2005). created several controversies locally, ddIt is as such that we shall take a most of which are related to the issue sociological approach which allows of use. us to forge beyond what occasionally ddThe present article thus aims to seems like an essentially ideological reflect on potential interdisciplinarity invocation: is overuse actually in an area with strong environmental measured and measurable? What and socio-economic stakes. After methodological tools are used to do so? presenting the methodology and Who is advancing the idea and how do data, we shall begin with a quick affected users perceive it? Conversely, overview of how users progressively the life sciences can help create appropriated the massif; then we will measuring tools to understand the take an interdisciplinary look at the impact of use, for example of local flora notion of overuse; finally, we will being tread upon. Between ecological examine the cross-over between nature measures on the one hand and ensuring and culture and the paradoxes inherent critical distance on the other, can to the principles behind the protection the notion of overuse constitute an of nature in the context of socio-natural example of interdisciplinary cross- changes. over between the social sciences and the life sciences in the context of natural area management? Can Data and Methods it provide a textbook example of disciplinary decompartmentalisation Our research is based on a corpus for understanding hybrid, socio- which combines data from a direct natural objects (Charvolin, 2003; observation survey among managers Claeys-Mekdade, 2003) specific to the and stakeholders, a qualitative survey environmental field? (interviews) among users of the ddTo address these questions, we shall Calanques and a questionnaire survey look at the Calanques massif situated of inhabitants of the city of Marseilles. on the French Mediterranean coast. These complementary approaches This massif provides an exemplary allow us to take into consideration case study for how the concept of the discourse, habits and expectations overuse has been dealt with: of site managers, site users and d1)dEcological characteristics inhabitants from the neighbouring have earned it the title of being an agglomeration. The methodological 76 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011 originality of these studies is that almost exclusively to the coast of the they were directly conceived from Marseilles Calanques. It is made up an interdisciplinary perspective. of three ‘key’ protected plant species: As such, the sociological approach Astragalus tragacantha (Fabaceae), was enhanced by contributions from Plantago subulata (Plantaginaceae) ecology with regard to the choice of and Thymelaea tartonraira zones surveyed and in the wording (Thymeleaceae), located along a fairly of interview grids and questionnaires narrow coastal strip (generally 20 in order to focus the study on zones to 80 meters from the sea). It adapts and objects where ecological factors remarkably to extreme environmental (endangered endemic species) and conditions (e.g. drought, salinity, sociological factors (the entrance mainly bedrock) (Rotondi, Rossi, points to the massif closest to the Asunis and Cesaraccio, 2003; Munns city of Marseilles) converge. Finally, and Tester, 2008). ecology assessed the vulnerability of ddWe also analysed two sea areas. The coastal ecosystems in terms of use and first is a popular diving location called human traffic in these areas. the Farillons. It is of great ecological ddOur participatory approach is based interest due to the presence of a specific on regular contact between sociologists, type of coralligenous fauna. The managers and stakeholders during coralligenous wall is known, among scientific committees and consultation other things, for its large invertebrates meetings. These opportunities pro- (gorgonians, bryozoa and sponges). vided a means to study how site These underwater landscapes have management policies are designed an important function value in the and implemented, as well as study the ecological makeup and landscape debate over the creation of a national diversity. The Farillons site has a large park through direct observation and a array of species and an architecturally participatory approach. The qualitative impressive sea floor; it is very popular approach is based on a survey using amongst divers. Signs of deterioration semi-structured interviews with eighty were detected as early as 1996 and land- and sea-users in the Calanques. It were blamed on both pollutant releases focuses on three areas characterised by from the Cortiou outfall which admits three specific ecological interests: one treated sewage from the treatment land and two sea areas. plant for the city of Marseilles and on ddThe chosen land area – the increased use, including anchoring, Marseilleveyre massif between the fishing, underwater fishing and scuba Mont-Rose and Marseilleveyre diving (Harmelin, Sartoretto and Calanques – is one of the entry Francour, 1996). This type of site is points to the Calanques closest to thus particularly vulnerable. Marseilles. It is also one of the main dd The second sea area is the Sormiou Mediterranean hotspots for endemic , famous for yachting flora, especially phrygana. Phrygana and whose sea floor is covered by is a spatially fragmented bushy Posidonia oceanica, a protected thermo-Mediterranean sclerophyll sea grass especially vulnerable to plant formation that is confined anchoring. Posidonia oceanica is a CECILIA CLAEYS et al Protected Areas and Overuse | 77 species endemic to the Mediterranean 2006). The Sormiou Calanque is the region. It is one of the most important largest Calanque of the entire massif. ecosystems in the Mediterranean for Prospecting done in 2004 whilst several reasons, most notably due mapping marine biocoenosis for a to the diversity of fauna and flora it Natura 2000 project underscored the contains, for its role in maintaining the growing number of anchor marks, coast’s sediment balance and for its particularly starting at 10m in depth role as a spawning grounds and nursery (Bonhomme et al., 2005); Posidonia for numerous fish and crustaceans sea grass grows only in depths ranging (Boudouresque, Mayot and Pergent, from 1 to 29 metres.

Figure 1. The Calanques of Marseilles areas studied. Source: GIP-Calanques. ddAll interviews were conducted on- little time outside the water; the latter site, except with scuba divers who provided no opportunity to interview use the area only for diving and spend them on-site and we therefore 78 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011 interviewed them at their dive clubs. same topics as the qualitative survey, To ensure that a variety of uses and notably regarding inhabitants’ thoughts users were covered, the land and and activities about the Calanques and yachting interviews were conducted their awareness of the planned national at different times of the year (spring, park. The data were analysed using a summer and autumn), on different days descriptive statistics approach based of the week (weekdays and weekends) on three main actions: frequency and at different times of day (morning, distribution, cross-tabulations and chi- afternoon and evening). The three square testing. types of users were asked similar questions about their thoughts on and uses of the Calanques, their awareness The Calanques. From Invisible of the planned national park and their Territory to Overused Territory? perception of the area’s ‘overuse’. Some more specific questions were Located between Marseilles and also targeted at each type of user Cassis, the limestone Calanques and their awareness about endemic massif, from the Provençal ‘calanca’, plants characteristic of the area. This meaning ‘sharp incline’, is a semiarid approach allowed us to consult users environment. Until the 19th century, the in context and let them speak about the massif was an aesthetically, socially surrounding nature and their activities and economically marginal territory. while doing so. It further took into Difficult to access, there was little to no consideration all users regardless of development in the massif. There were where they were from. All interviews only a few fishing cabins belonging to were recorded and fully transcribed. small-scale fishermen nestled in the They were analysed following crannies of the Calanques. From the sociology’s classical content analysis 19th century onwards, this territory and method. its uses began to change substantially ddA telephone survey with inhabitants according to two antithetical axes of Marseilles was also conducted. characteristic of burgeoning modernity This approach provided a general and its critics. One is related to the overview of the relationship between industrial exploitation of the site and the inhabitants of the nearest and the other to the premise of protecting largest city and the Calanques, nature. As such, the implantation of including both users and non-users of industrial lime-burning kilns was the area. We focused on Marseilles for accompanied by the creation of lead, demographic reasons and because it lye and acid producing factories. is a major focus of managers for this Downwind from the city of Marseilles, same reason. Quota sampling was smokestacks ran along the edge of the used (gender, age and profession), massif and released their fumes full of gathering 330 questionnaires from heavy metals. And yet the flourishing people representative of the inhabitants activity of these industries was not of three districts of Marseilles (south, long lived (Goiffon and Consalès, centre and west). This survey used 2005); even before their decline, other multiple-choice questions about the activities and eyes were looking to CECILIA CLAEYS et al Protected Areas and Overuse | 79 the slopes of Marseilles’ massif and it founded in 1934 and where Comex, was taken almost without a transition the world leader in manned and robotic period from industrial production to underwater engineering, technology protection for recreational purposes. As and interventions, was founded in part of the French Alpine Club (C.A.F.) 1961. In addition, Marseilles was one movement and with the application of of Jean-Jacques Cousteau’s favourite the first legal texts explicitly in favour of bases and many members of his dive protecting the environment, notably the team were natives of the city. The 4 April 1882 Restoration of Mountain numerous old and modern-day wrecks, Lands law, the Calanques massif was the limestone sea arches and drop- redefined as an important natural area. offs and, more recently, discovery As such, through the Marseilles section of a prehistoric cave by diver Henri of the C.A.F. and its local renegade, Cosquer have made the Marseilles the Association of Marseilles Hikers, Calanques and waterfront a world- the urban bourgeoisie quickly found renowned dive site. the Calanques massif well suited for ddYachting is also a major sport the projection of a new aesthetic vision around Marseilles. The legend of the promoted at the national and European city’s founding recounts that in 600 level by an intellectual elite inspired by BC, Gyptis, Princess of the inland- naturalist and public health discourse dwelling Ligurians, chose Protis as her which advocated fresh air and sport husband, the chief sailor from Phocaea (Massena-Gourc, 1994; van Koppen who had come to conquer new and Markham, 2007). Following a colonies. Marseilles was an extremely classic process known as the first and prosperous port city in the colonial second green waves (Spaargaren and period and it is still very tied to the sea. Mol, 1992), continuity with the activism According to iconographic resources, of these local elites – the pioneers of the first pleasure boats – meaning nature protection – was pursued by the devoted strictly to recreational use – intellectual middle classes and their appeared in the 18th century (Poilroux, contemporary environmental concerns. 1982). Small crafts shifted slowly from ddA similar situation occurred among business purposes to recreational use sea users. Scuba-diving equipment, and at some stages were multi-purpose, which had been restricted to professional used for fishing in the morning and for and military use, underwent a complete family outings in the afternoon. Some technological revolution in the 1950s, cabin dwellers continue to perpetuate thanks notably to the impetus of Jean- this tradition today. The first official Jacques Cousteau. The French Diving regatta was inaugurated by the Mayor Federation had 2,376 members in 1955; of Marseilles in 1846 and the tradition in 2004, there were 150,000 members, still lives on (Poilroux, 1982). Like representing 47 per cent of all French walking and diving, yachting has since divers (for details: http://www.ffessm. become increasingly popular. There fr/). The history of contemporary French are currently four million recreational diving is intricately tied to Marseilles, boaters in France (for details: www. where the Beuchat Company, developpement-durable.gouv). specialized in diving equipment, was ddLike many other natural areas, the 80 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011 increased amount of free time over were the most controversial subject. the past few years (Dumazedier, 1974; Representatives for the different types Corbin, 1995; Roberts, 2006) has of users all argued that their activity meant that the Calanques have become had little impact on the ecosystem and a showcase for the rise of outdoor they tended to openly challenge the leisure activities and a show ring for opinions of managers, pointing to a the diversification and intensification lack of scientific research on the topic. of such activities. Conceptualised ddUsers of the Calanques are by Dunlap et al. (2000) as the rise of particularly hard to quantify, however, a New Ecological Paradigm and by since the number of entry points to Wilson (1993) and van der Born et al. the massif and their geographical (2006) as the spread of biophilia, the distribution, the diversity of uses, relative generalisation of biocentric but also the diversity of institutions environmental values has resulted in a which manage the different areas widespread desire for nature in general of the site and the resulting lack of and for the Calanques in particular as coordinated policy to monitor use an escape from city life. In this context, encourage ideological speculation people are aware of the project to create rather than founded knowledge about a national park and most of the people and an objective quantification of we met during the qualitative and use. Disparate data exist, but the quantitative surveys accepted the idea diversity of observation protocols (seventy-two per cent of inhabitants from which they come limit the ability contacted and sixty-six per cent of to compare across space and time. users interviewed). Such heterogeneous sources make it ddWhen we moved beyond the possible to identify the diverse ways basic idea and began to discuss the Calanques are used and to suggest the actual consequences of such a an overall hierarchy, yet they do not project, however, users became more allow for a solid general quantification reserved and even expressed their and even less so for a quantification opposition to the project. The main of how use has evolved over time. fear was that a national park would The quantification of information lead to an increase in regulations and and awareness-raising campaigns bans, including restricted access. held during the summer season by Apprehension over restricted access ‘green patrols’ do provide some to national parks has been widely idea (Figure 2); however the annual discussed in research by authors such variation observed is due to numerous as Bauer, Wallner and Hunziker (2010) uncontrolled variables such as the with regard to Switzerland where weather, number of days the massif is they highlighted a cultural effect closed due to fire risks and, above all, among French speakers who tend to the number of patrollers working and be less open to restrictions and bans the variety of jobs assigned to them. than other groups in the population. ddOur questionnaire allowed us to Indeed, during the consultation process assess the portion of inhabitants in around the national park project in Marseilles that use the Calanques. the Calanques, restrictions and bans While forty per cent of our sample CECILIA CLAEYS et al Protected Areas and Overuse | 81 described the Calanques as their of the nearest neighbouring town tend favourite natural area in the region, to visit the Calanques somewhat more nineteen per cent had never been to the regularly (twenty-nine per cent of Calanques; sixty-three per cent visit the inhabitants). Calanques occasionally and eighteen ddAnd yet, this information alone is per cent go regularly. Although well- not sufficient to address the issue of known and respected, the Calanques defining levels of overuse. Indeed, remain an occasional destination for what defines a situation of overuse? most inhabitants. There is, however, a Based on what criteria? But also geographical effect since inhabitants according to whom?

Figure 2. Evolution in the number of people touched by green and blue patrols since 2004 Source: Authors’ computation based on GipCalanques (2010).

Overuse. Ecological Consequences ddAs mentioned above, hikers and and Social Stakes climbers were the first to voice their demands for protection of the Beyond their heterogeneity, the Calanques site; however the breadth different attempts to observe use of these activities, especially hiking have nonetheless identified walking which now spans from multi-day (from hiking to leisurely strolls) and trekking to digestive strolling also swimming as the two most prominent begs the question of how these activities in the Calanques. While pioneering activities have impacted the former is practised year round, nature. Indeed, paradoxically, hiking the latter remains tied to the summer and climbing are often thought of as season; several other activities are environmentally friendly activities also practised on-site such as running, and yet they clearly have an impact on cycling (especially mountain biking), natural areas: treading on plant cover, rock climbing, fishing, sailing, hunting, the erosion of paths and even illegal paragliding, scuba diving, kayaking, behaviour such as removing fauna rowing and jet-skiing, to name a few and flora or fires started by cigarette (Massena-Gourc, 1994, GipCalanques, butts and campfires, as well as the 2010). deterioration caused by motor vehicles 82 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011

(cars, motorbikes, off-road vehicles, has been heterogeneous and has varied etc.) and their disorderly parking in greatly from one social stakeholder to coastal areas directly next to roads another. Overuse is a primary concern and trails (McKinney, 2002; Pauchard, for the different site managers and Aguayo, Peña and Urrutia, 2006), for those who support the creation particularly harmful to the phrygana of a national park. As such, it was at which is located along a coastal strip the centre of heated debate in 2010 that is directly adjacent to urban zones. during consultation over the park’s These zones are the starting point for creation. Whilst local elected officials most coastal human activity: e.g. walks, involved in the consultation, well fishing and swimming spots, roads and aware of their electorate’s interests, car parks. And yet, the phrygana plant tried to defend the consensual image formations are fragile, with very low of the Calanques massif as an area natural recruitment rates, and are very of freedom, managers with scientific sensitive to climatic variation, which research to back-up their claims can lead to major germination loss. quickly advocated restricting use. The Like many continental, coastal and representatives of different user groups insular plant formations, the phrygana tended to promote the environmentally is spatially dispersed and limited, friendly nature of their respective with very few areas of abundance activities, calling unfair and abusive all and very disturbed population proposals to limit their activities; they trends. It has to contend with organic did not hesitate to initiate petitions and pollutants (surface active agents and street demonstrations alongside the hydrocarbons) in the urban effluents of consultation to make their demands Marseille which lead to major necrosis, heard. In this context, the positions as well as the complete desiccation of the most radical naturalists which of some plants, the harmful effects of contributed to the initial national inorganic pollutants in the ground from park project and who dreamed of a the former industrial activities and the massif mainly cut-off from users are repeated effect of being trodden on, now nuanced by a new generation of particularly during the reproduction scientists and managers who would period (May to June). like to find an approach which is ddSimilarly, yachting – and sai- more inclusive of social demand. It ling in particular – is seen as an is in this spirit that the national park environmentally friendly activity and initiative chose ‘Sharing Nature’ as yet anchoring can damage the fragile its slogan. Categorising overuse as a Posidonia oceanica meadows (Leriche, danger could lead to the exclusion of Pasqualini, Boudouresque, Bernard, human populations from the territory Bonhomme, Clabaut and Denis, 2006). and might create or accentuate Scuba divers, too, whose sport aims environmental inequality (Wilks, to observe underwater landscapes, 2008; Larrère, 2009; Deboubt, 2010). may also disturb sea life and damage Further, the potentially overused area coralligenous communities with their does not cover the entire massif since fins or by directly touching the flora. its particularly steep nature means that ddIn this context, the focus on overuse access is difficult if not impossible to a CECILIA CLAEYS et al Protected Areas and Overuse | 83 large part of the area. historical retrospective studies are ddGiven this, and without waiting extremely revealing in this respect. As for the creation of a national park, the historical and ethnographic research managers have focused their attention of C. Gontier (1991) shows, the on information campaigns about the overuse of some Calanques, especially fragility of ecosystems alongside those first accessible by water taxi and strategies to channel and redirect shuttle, was already decried by the the public towards areas with a less most critical protagonists at the very vulnerable ecosystem. beginning of 20th century. ddThe overuse deemed worrisome by ddWhile we cannot yet quantify scientists and managers is perceived users, it is nonetheless obvious that very differently by users. During our their diversity encourages conflicts of on-site research, only a minority of use and representation. Each person those interviewed believed that the quenches their desire for nature Calanques were overused. As such, of according to their class habitus, but the eighty people interviewed, fifty per also to generational habitus, and the cent did not believe that the Calanques ambivalence between what is ordinary, were overused; thirty-three per cent familiar and remarkable unites as much believed that use was concentrated as it divides site users who symbolically in time and space; and, finally, only and/or physically appropriate the eleven per cent believed that the site area for themselves. In this respect, was overused. Even amongst the most the definition of the Calanques as critical individuals, their reasoning an area of freedom is a leitmotif, but tended to advocate a certain form of its meaning and application take on egalitarian tolerance or strategies for different forms which are sometimes spatiotemporal isolation by avoiding incompatible and which oppose the some seasons or the busiest areas. One individual and the group, what is user from Marseilles, for example, intellectualised from what is fun, noise who admitted to being bothered by and silence, isolation (alone or with the number of people, added: ‘Yes, it’s a chosen group) and gregariousness, crowded. But one can’t forbid people relaxation and physical effort, but also from coming to see such a beautiful more widely physical versus symbolic place’. This walker described his appropriation. avoidance strategy: ‘There are plenty ddMany walkers who express concern of people. But the secret is to walk 15 for the environment – the heirs to the minutes more than the others and it’s 19th century hikers – favour erudite quiet again!’. Another person joked contemplation as a means of symbolic about it: ‘Well, let’s forbid access to the appropriation; they challenge any Calanques to everybody but me!’. form of physical appropriation of ddFinally, criticism of modern the Calanques, criticising those who society as the cause of overuse and its disturb nature (e.g., hunting, fishing corollary, idealisation of the past, are and picking) and their traditional recurrent in environmental discourse habitat, the cabin. And yet, just as and they lead us to question the novelty a deep and lasting divide is drawn of the phenomenon. The few existing between the two main types of site 84 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011 users (Massena-Gourc, 1994), the main and climbing routes. Conversely, the point that opposes them, contemplating sedentary lifestyle of a (seasonal or versus disturbing nature, has been permanent) home is fully part of the attenuated. Indeed, former hunting and legal – or illegal but tolerated – physical fishing cabins have progressively been appropriation of nature which has in the transformed into holiday homes; others face of criticism also developed types have been built directly for this purpose of symbolic appropriation, drawing (Gontier, 1991). ‘Cabin parties’ – the on arguments about environmentally popular male activity during which friendly cultural heritage. In this the catch from hunting and fishing respect, and despite their hunting and was consumed – have now become fishing heritage, cabin dwellers tend to family events. The proportion of food share this new biophilic perspective. hunted, fished and consumed at cabins ddBeyond the diversity of leisure has declined and virtually disappeared activities, a single activity may take a altogether in favour of store-bought very different shape and have different goods easily transported on-site by car, meaning for different individuals. far from the picturesque expeditions of Walking, the main land-based activity, centuries past, in clogs or espadrilles, is a particularly good example of walking alongside a donkey with a this. Groups of turbulent youth from packsaddle. working class districts, extended ddSlowly other local families joined families out for an after-lunch walk, those who inherited the first cabins and strolling lovers or swingers on the a gentrification process began. Whilst prowl (this activity is mainly limited some cabins initially made of scrap to a Calanque called Mont-Rose), materials were turned into small neo- amateur walkers and experienced Provençal style houses (e.g., Sormiou hikers all share as well as fight over the and Morgiou Calanques), others in the entrance points to the massif. Calanques closer to the city, almost ddAlthough particularly exacerbated surrounded by the urban environment, during the consultation process were turned into primary residences conducted around the national park or holiday homes (La Madrague, project, such conflicts of use and Les Goudes and, to a lesser extent, representation should not shadow the Callelongue). As such, the opposition social and cultural homogeneity of is no longer between contemplating site users. As such, the most visible versus disturbing nature, but rather conflicts actually involve those most between being itinerant or sedentary. present in public debate but who Itinerant use of the Calanques better are in reality demographically quite lends itself to symbolic appropriation insignificant (hunters, fishermen (defining a point of view and activities and cabin dwellers). Such distortion as the only legitimate ones and between political and cultural visibility implicit or explicit disqualification and demographic weight is due to local, of other uses), but it also involves national and international political some physical appropriation, albeit stakes surrounding these specific light but not insignificant, through activities and the ever-increasing the landscaping and marking of trails restrictions imposed in the name of CECILIA CLAEYS et al Protected Areas and Overuse | 85 protecting nature. strongly tied to high cultural capital, ddIndeed, the survey questionnaire we regardless of the district where people administered to a sample of Marseilles live and whether it is near or far from inhabitants revealed that massif use is the Calanques (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The use of the Calanques by inhabitants of Marseilles depending on their cultural capital Source: Our data. ddThe qualitative survey we are also amongst the wealthiest in the conducted on-site also corroborated city of Marseilles whereas the working the predominance of individuals class districts are the furthest away. with high cultural capital amongst As such, use or overuse of the massif users of the Calanques. As such, reveals that a certain type of aesthetic, whilst some managers tend to use sporty and naturalist appropriation dramatic discourse based on fear of of nature is extremely present in the overuse and urban hordes invading Calanques. Rather than revealing the endangered wilderness, some a democratisation of nature-based journalists (wee notably the thematic leisure activities in the sense of ‘open issue of Géo magazine, March 2011) to all, tied to urbanisation’, use of the idealise nature without social barriers Calanques is the result of an increased in which even the poorest Marseilles interest in being in contact with nature inhabitants have equal access to this and this is something which is not exceptional natural area. And yet the equal throughout the population. urban districts closest to the Calanques 86 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011

Remarkable Nature. Consensus and ddYet at the same time, the massif’s Dissension semiarid landscape tends to be associated with an abnormal lack of Beyond user conflicts and social vegetation which needs to be rectified. inequality in terms of access to the As such, recurrent (re)afforestation site, inhabitants of Marseilles and activities have been undertaken since massif users all underscored the the end of the 19th century (Massena- beauty of the Calanques. In our Gourc, 1994) by institutional research questionnaire, ninety-six per stakeholders, particularly the ONF cent of the inhabitants of Marseilles (French National Forest Office), but questioned found that the Calanques also user associations and the Boy were a remarkable landscape. Such Scouts of France. The effects of such is the originality of Marseilles: there voluntary (re)afforestation and, even is an incredible natural space within more so, the decline and disappearance eyesight which, through its physical of lime-burning kilns, charcoal kilns location and importance for identity, is and urban firewood collection have both an ordinary area which is familiar contributed to the revegetation of and common, but also extraordinary the Calanques massif; paradoxically, in its spectacular and monumental this has happened alongside media aspects. coverage and rising environmental ddNaturalists’ and environmentalists’ discourse about the endangering of aesthetic reclassification of the nature’s green spaces due to recurrent Calanques starting in the 19th century forest fires (Massena-Gourc, 1994; was quickly torn between the Chalvet 2011). sublimation of stone and the desire ddIn addition to organised (re) for green space. The Calanques have afforestation policies, the desire for been described as a natural limestone greenery has also taken the form of monument with which climbers are isolated individual initiatives which one. The steep cliffs which plunge have nonetheless visibly impacted the into the azure Mediterranean are now ecosystem. The desire for greenery internationally renowned and relished and revegetation activities, as well by the best climbers as well as by rock as the related (re)afforestation, can climbing schools. Within our corpus of be explained by a cosmogony of interviews, the words used to describe nature largely imported from the the Calanques were distributed as north of France and Europe more follows: thirty-three per cent of widely. Indeed, dominant social references used qualifiers related to representations of nature at the national ‘magnificent’; thirty per cent to ‘wild’; and international levels promote the twenty-seven per cent to ‘natural’, and image of green landscapes and high twenty-five per cent to ‘beauty’. For forests (Eizner, 1994; Claeys-Mekdade instance, this user explained: ‘What and Jacqué, 2000). The representations I really like is the mineral aspect. It’s of local users and decision-makers are so different and so quiet’. Another one as such torn between their empirical added that ‘the wildness of the rock experience with stone-based nature and face is simply majestic’. ideals of green nature revisited through CECILIA CLAEYS et al Protected Areas and Overuse | 87 the current trend of Mediterranean scuba divers tend to focus more on fish gardens happily liberated from than on flora. They appreciate dive botanical taxonomies in favour of sites for the size and the quantity of fish exotic species from semiarid or sub- they expect to see. The Mediterranean tropical environments (Claeys, 2010). grouper is particularly sought-after as a ddThe planting of such exotic plant spectacular endemic species and divers species and attempts to green and also underscore the increasing presence reforest the environment pose different of exotic species such as barracuda; ecological problems and put resistant their familiarity with aquatic flora, cultivated species in competition with however, is more general and vague. vulnerable endemic species (Gritti, They are not familiar with the word Smith and Sykes, 2006; Affre, Suehs, ‘coralligenous’. Aquatic flora is seen as Charpentier, Vilà, Brundu, Lambdon, part of the seascape, like the cliffs and Traveset and Hulme, 2010). The most wrecks. Such a weak perception of the remarkable continental ecosystems flora in general and of coralligenous in the Calanques are located in areas communities in particular lead them largely dominated by stone: from the to underestimate the environmental lapis balconies along the crests to the impact that diving can have. Boaters, coastal rocks to the talus deposits. It on the other hand, are more aware of is indeed in these highly constrained flora, especially Posidonia oceanica. areas that we can see nature which Fifty eight per cent of them have heard is particularly adapted to the drastic about it, either through the local and environmental conditions and which national media or via information bestows its ecological originality on campaigns lead by environmental the entire Calanques massif; they also associations and institutions which contain most of the endangered species target them specifically. In this case, and largely contribute to the area’s vast biocentrism and anthropocentrism biodiversity (Dumas, Affre and Tatoni, share a common interest: indeed, for 2007; Crouzet, Pavon and Michaud, safety reasons, most of the boaters 2009). In this context, attempts to interviewed preferred anchoring in modify the plant cover and especially sandy areas since their anchors do not to ‘green’ the environment have led hold well in sea grass. to the trivialisation of specific suites, ddThere is no correlation, however, loss of ecological uniqueness (acquired between believing the natural over a very long period, through rare environment is polluted and knowledge and complex evolutionary processes) about local fauna and flora. It is actually and, ultimately, have introduced a quite the opposite: yachters, who were non-negligible risk to endemic species best informed about local species, (Médail and Verlaque, 1997; Blondel talked about the improving marine and Médail, 2009; Amm, Boissy, Brest, environment whilst land users, the least Di Liello, Dumas, Affre, Baumel, informed, were the most pessimistic. Roche, Tatoni, Torre, Delauge and This discrepancy is interesting since it Patrick, 2009). is likely due to greater communication ddRegarding sea users, their perception about Posidonia sea grass, emblematic of flora is related to their activity. Thus, of the marine environment, whilst very 88 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011 little is known about phrygana. It is of re-appropriation free from naturalist also related to the need to understand taxonomies (typically endemic versus the marine environment when exotic species, visible aridity versus involved in a marine activity, whereas remarkable biodiversity), which have walking requires only a contemplative produced increasing social demand relationship with nature. for ‘landscaped wilderness’ (Kalaora, ddThe general public’s complete 2001; Cordell et al. 2003). ignorance of phrygana raises questions ddSuch demand for ‘landscaped about the delay between the scientific wilderness’, the ultimate insult to the construction of an environmental most purist naturalists, is nonetheless problem and its dissemination to users. practically inevitable for several An ecological interpretation focused reasons. Firstly, there are currently few on protecting a plant species does places on earth free from some form not encourage the species to be taken of anthropic influence (Swyngedow, into account in primarily aesthetic 2006). Secondly, the closing of an interpretations. Users are often asked environment to the public in order to know about endangered species, but to protect it goes against increasing managers should also make an effort concern about limiting environmental to provide a more comprehensive inequality (Wilks, 2008). Thirdly, reading of nature in which phrygana the very concept of managing the would occupy a key place. The divide environment generates a paradoxical between comprehensive and specific situation in which the manager, by approaches to nature is still very real. intervening in the environment for its protection, actually becomes nature’s gardener (Claeys, 2010). Conclusions ddThe interdisciplinary approach taken here is an attempt to move The Calanques Massif case shows that beyond the environmental order which practices meant to be environmentally rests on a paradoxical representation friendly can actually have an in which mankind is both a destroyer unwittingly destructive effect on and protector of natural areas. In the ecosystem when they become order to move beyond this dichotomy, generalised. The ‘over’-use of natural dialogue between disciplines is a first areas is a perfect example of this and it step in deconstructing the notion of is increasingly preoccupying naturalists overuse and its impact on nature. now caught in the trap of their own While the social sciences frequently urbanophobic exhortations (Claeys and rely on a quantitative approach, Sirost, 2010). They were indeed the this provides only partial results; a first to decry the ravages of modernity qualitative approach can better reveal and the damage caused by urbanity, the diversity of viewpoints towards boasting the beneficial virtues of nature activities. Research in ecology nature (Cadoret, 1985, van Koppen and is also limited in scale to the plant Markham, 2007); and yet although this species studied and does not produce vision of nature is now the ideological quantitatively proven measures. Such reference, it has been exposed to forms deadlock is evidence of the need to CECILIA CLAEYS et al Protected Areas and Overuse | 89 challenge the very notion of overuse: measuring the degree of resilience is it a relevant concept in working and compatibility, whilst sociologists towards the concerted management of could work to find a common basis nature or is it ultimately too limited to for potential understanding amidst make sense of accepted or acceptable the diversity of practices. As such, management practices? It seems best to protecting the environment could be move away from an analysis based on understood as a social and physical mankind’s impact on nature and to try reality under construction, where to understand the two as interactions the obsolete barrier between natural which may sometimes be harmful but and artificial could leave way for an which are also sometimes compatible. ‘accepted’ socio-natural system. Ecologists could thus focus on

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