Non-Monetary Motivation of Professional Football

國立中山大學管理學院國際經營管理碩士學程碩士論文

Master of Business Administration Program in International Business National Sun Yat-sen University Master Thesis

非金錢動機的奧地利職業足球員

NON-MONETARY MOTIVATION OF PROFESSIONAL

FOOTBALL PLAYERS IN AUSTRIA

研究生：辛柏纳

Bernhard Schnederle

指導教授：韋岱思博士

Dr. Thijs Velema

中華民國107年12月

December 2018

Abstract Chinese 中文摘要

在足球金錢化和來自球迷、媒體、同儕和教練對足球員源源不絕的壓力情況下，在球隊內保持高昂的士氣對足球俱樂部來說是至關重要的。畢竟，較高的動機可以導致更好的績效，進而提升俱樂部收入和增加球員職業晉升的機會。當球員的動機對雙方都產生關鍵性的影響時，研究球員和俱樂部在僱傭角色上的關係，對於了解導致較高的動機和較佳表現因素具有重要性。更甚一層，基於球隊的規模，大多數的球員不具備可競爭性。本文主旨在確定球員本身的動機以及俱樂部採取什麼措施來保持隊內平衡和積極的氣氛，也包含對於自身角色不確定及在場上表現不佳的球員。通過訪問奧地利聯賽的球員與代表，本文揭示了職業足球的一些做法以及球員的價值觀，期望，規範和心態，發現利益衝突、球員及教練之間缺乏溝通、團隊建立活動、教練的角色、非金錢性的利益和社會融合都是具有討論性的議題。

關鍵字：動機、組織行為、職業足球、運動心理學、競爭行為、團體動力學、領導力

Abstract English

In times of monetization of football and constant pressure on players from fans, media, peers and coaches, maintaining a high morale within squads is essential for professional football clubs. After all, higher motivation leads to higher performance, which consequently leads to higher revenues for clubs and career advancement for players. As players’ motivation is essential for both sides, looking at measures taken by players and clubs in the role of employees and employers, is important to learn what may lead to higher motivation and better performance. Furthermore, given squad sizes, a large number of players hardly features in competitive action on a regular basis due to the rules of the game. This paper aims to identify what players themselves do to be motivated and what measures clubs undertake to keep a balanced and positive atmosphere among the squad, including those who struggle with their role and playing time. Through interviews with players and club representatives in the Austrian Bundesliga, this paper uncovered some practices in professional football as well as values, expectations, norms and mentalities of players. Conflicts of interest, lack of communication between players and coaches, team-building exercises, the roles of coaches, non-monetary benefits and social integration were among the most discussed topics.

Keywords: Motivation, organizational behaviour, professional football, sports psychology, group dynamics

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Table of Contents

Thesis Validation Letter i Abstract (Chinese) ii Abstract (English) iii 1. Introduction 1 2. Literature Review 8 2.1. Football 8 2.1.1. Football in Austria 8 2.1.2. Licensing in Austria 9 2.1.3. Recent Bundesliga Reform 10 2.1.4. Player Development 10 2.1.5. Football as Business 10 2.1.6. Football as Business in Austria 11 2.2. Motivation 12 2.2.1. Jung’s 3 Categories 13 2.2.2. Non-motivation 14 2.2.3. Fringe Benefits and Motivation 14 2.2.4. Fringe Benefits in Sports 15 2.3. Self-Initiatives 16 2.4. External Influences 18 2.5. Group Dynamics 20 2.5.1. Team Cohesion 20 2.5.2. Group Properties 22 2.5.3. Leadership in Football 23 3. Methodology 25 3.1. Sample, Method & Demographics 25 3.2. Austria as Data Pool 38 3.3. Cultural and Performance-related Similarities 28 4. Data Analysis 31 4.1. Squads and Regular Players 31 4.2. Core Statements 32 4.3. Analysis of Core Statements 41 5. Discussion and Conclusion 45 6. References 49 7. Appendix 57

Table of Figures

Figure 1: Hofstede’s Cultural Framework Comparison 57

Table of Tables

Table 1: Interviewed Players 26 Table 2: Interviewed Club Representatives 27 Table 3: Squad comparison of Austrian Bundesliga squads 2017/18 32 Table 4: Summary of Core Statements 44 Table 5: Comparison of League Size and UEFA coefficient (AT, GE, CZ, CH) 58

1. Introduction

Nowadays, in an ever-increasingly complex business environment, more and more success factors for monetary and non-monetary success of organizations evolve. While success can be defined in different ways, employees continuously play the most significant role in organizations. After all, an organization’s competitiveness heavily depends on the performance of its employees (Sikyr, 2011). According to Jung (2011), employee performance in turn, is strongly linked to intrinsic and extrinsic motives, with monetary compensation being the most common extrinsic motive. However, intrinsic motives also play a significant role, one that in most cases cannot be measured in numbers easily. This thesis will look at intrinsic motivation within organizations in practice, in the case of non-monetary motivation in Austrian professional football1 clubs.

Given that one of the main ambitions of every organization is to have its employees perform their tasks vigorously and in high spirit (Randhawa, 2007), literature on the motivation of employees does not fall short and has been covered extensively in social sciences. Ranging from established models such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to the influence of modern technology and social media to employees’ motivation, the views, thoughts and attitudes of employees have been researched over the last couple of decades, leaving little to investigate. Furthermore, cooperation, group dynamics and rivalry within teams and organizations, amongst peers and superiors/subordinates has been generously researched, providing a solid understanding of how groups and its members function on individual and collective levels. In regard to sports, attention has been paid to players’ psychology and performance, by researchers, scientists and psychologists thus far. By

1 Note: Although Association football is referred to as soccer in the United States and other parts of the world, this articles uses the more widespread term football given the wider potential readership reach.

looking at research in social sciences it becomes evident that it can be applied to football as well. After all, due to the nature of organizations of being a group of people, striving to achieve a common goal by cooperating, sports clubs and football (soccer) clubs in a narrower sense, symbolize organizations as well. This e.g. shows in the similarity to

Mintzberg’s research (1979), categorizing the structure of organizations into five parts – the operating core, the middle line, the strategic apex and the technostructure and support staff. Applying the framework to football clubs, the parts can be seen as the equivalent to players, coaching staff, top-level executives and infrastructure personnel, respectively.

Combining the basic fields of research that set the foundation for this paper – motivation, groups and sports with the latter containing elements of the former two – it is evident there is a wide spectrum of theory already available. However, there is potential room for in-depth research on several matters.

Sports clubs and football clubs as organizations, as well as sports psychology, organizational behaviour and group dynamics in sports clubs have been subject to research papers in social sciences and economics. Elias and Dunning examined group dynamics in football as early as 1966. Roberts (1995) claimed that in the area of sports, the topic of motivation is less researched and understood than in other areas. Torgler &

Schmidt (2007) discovered a link between individual performance and relative income position within teams; Fransen et al (2015) found a positive correlation between team confidence and perceived performance; Tziner et al (2003) discovered significant correlation between team cohesion and performance and Hall et al (2002) found a Granger causality from higher pay to increased performance. However, not too much literature is available on what specifically motivates professional football players besides monetary compensation, and no literature on the subject is available for professional football in

Austria, a league similar to other small leagues in Central Europe. Especially given the recent times of global monetization in football with money being pumped into the sports, resulting in high player salaries and constantly outmatching record transfer fees, it is important to understand the non-monetary motivating factors. With the ongoing monetization of football and more money being put into the industry in the form of higher transfer fees, advertising deals for clubs and salaries, the bottom line of salaries will inevitably rise. Given that money as compensation alone is only satisfactory to a certain extent, understanding non-monetary factors that might make the difference for a player deciding for a club is relevant.

Furthermore, football clubs display one characteristic that is arguably more distinctly present in sports rather than traditional organizations – the one of rivalry within the team.

Most of the available literature on motivation in sports only looks at teams or players, most of which leaving out the inevitably emerging inequality within said groups. This inequality is formed by the fact that only a limited number of players is allowed to competitively participate on a regular basis due to the very rules of the game. One could assume that players featuring regularly on a competitive level would be more content with their situation than those who are only able to prove their value during training session, thus creating a challenge for clubs to maintain a healthy atmosphere within the team.

Therefore, examining motivational practices within clubs but also measures taken to motivate those not playing on a regular basis seems appealing.

Naturally, one might draw assumptions from TV and newspaper interviews, reports in magazines and players’ social media profiles. It is to be noted though that clubs rarely open up about their internal practices and players may not reveal most of their values and

attitudes in widely publicized interviews. In any case, no academic literature is available on the specific abovementioned matter, indicating a research gap that is to be filled.

This study should not only focus on intrinsic motivation of professional football players in Austria as such but rather on a wider range of factors that may or may not influence a player’s motivation and consequently their performance. These factors could include external influences by clubs (as a whole or on an individual level), peers, fans, the media and others. Furthermore, special attention will be paid to those players not featuring in the teams’ starting line-ups or substitute benches on a regular basis (also referred to as the match day squad).

Derived from the gap in research and the necessity to look into the research topic, the following research question will serve as basic foundation for this research paper:

How do players’ self-initiatives and clubs’ incentives influence the motivation

of Austrian professional football players?

Besides the main research question, a sub-question will serve to specifically examine the situation of irregularly playing squad members and their potential rivalry in addition to regular players.

How do non-regularly playing squad members deal mentally with their

situation and what measures do clubs undertake to support that process?

This sub-question aims to uncover potential differences in the non-monetary motivation of players to maintain their fitness and level of play, improve, and deal mentally with their role as substitutes, sporadic players and squad addition players.

The assumption that non-monetary incentives and external factors, either provided by clubs (as employers) or given through the job environment of a professional footballer, play a vital role in a player’s motivation, his ability to perform at his best and his ethics towards the job and future decisions, will serve as theoretical foundation for data gathering. Firstly, this thesis will focus on the self-motivation of players, uncovering their emotions behind the sports, what makes them go the extra mile and keeps them motivated, apart from monetary compensation. Secondly, clubs and their measures to ensure players the feeling of being in an environment that enables them to do their best, will be looked at. Furthermore, by looking closer at the two sides (employer and employee), the situation of players not featuring in competitive settings regularly will be observed. For the latter part, the hypothesis that the bottom third of squads, i.e. those rarely being in match day squads, are harder to motivate than the starting XI and substitutes (and vice versa), will serve as guideline to provide insights into practices of professional football.

Throughout these areas, the individual player and his relation to the whole team will be taken into account, reflecting on internal dynamics and cohesion within the team. Given that football is a team sports, the incentive for a player to perform for both his own benefit and the team’s sake, this mix of dependence and independence creates an interesting combination to look at. The aim of this research is to determine what motivates players apart from money, what clubs do to improve players’ self-perceived well-being and how the bottom third of squads deals with and is being dealt with. Ultimately, this paper should

provide a better understanding of professional football clubs from a motivational perspective.

Professional football clubs can be researched all over the world, with more than 900 clubs in 32 leagues across 48 divisions in Europe alone (European Leagues, 2018). For this research paper, Austria has been chosen as the destination to gather information. The underlying reasons for this are mentioned in the methodology part of this paper.

This study has eventually uncovered several interesting insights into practices of clubs, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of players, group dynamics and behaviour, and rivalry.

Amongst others, large spectator crowds, options to make money in short periods of time and several fringe benefits provided by clubs to incentivize players were mentioned as motivators. The latter differ greatly in extent and variety between clubs. Coaches were attributed a major influence into individual motivation, mainly by communicating openly and regularly. The conflict between collective and individual success proved to be a complex issue amongst players while a trend towards flatter hierarchies, non-monetary compensation and informal leadership was identified.

This research should be a useful guidance for a variety of parties. Head coaches and high- level sports club executives such as heads of sports and club managers, not only from

Austria but other leagues and countries, can use the research to understand players’ motives, ethics, thoughts and preferences. Hence, they can use the gained knowledge to improve players’ motivation to increase performance and thus success in competitions and/or possible future transfer revenues.2 Scouts may use this research for acquiring

2 Given that according to Kelly (2008), the role of managers has been rather resistant to the recent

players by understanding what a prospective player might look for in a club. Sports psychologists can get useful insights into the mind sets of potential clients and sports journalists could improve their understanding of the internal processes of players.

Furthermore, those working and researching in the field of behaviour could benefit from this research in a previously unstudied area. Lastly, those enthusiastic for professional football or other sports and an interest in social sciences might find an interesting read.

This thesis will first provide a comprehensive theoretical foundation, looking at various theories in the field of motivation and sports psychology, particularly in professional football. Subsequently, the methodology will be explained and the gathered data will be discussed. The latter discussion includes insights into professional Austrian football, football as business (and its relevance for research in the field of business studies) as well as the contacted clubs and players. Furthermore, the research findings will be analysed and discussed, including a critical reflection on the research process.

professionalization of football, this paper might be of use to young managers and those keen to learn.

2. Literature Review

The following section will provide a thorough literature review, building a solid foundation for the research to be conducted. The literature review will mainly focus on theories in the fields of motivation, organizational theory, organizational behaviour, sports psychology and professional football. It is essential to understand the often overlooked and underestimated complex environment professional football players act in to grasp the purpose of this paper.

2.1. Football

The following section will provide insight into football as business, the growing importance of money in sports and its implications on clubs and players in Austria.

Furthermore, an overview of football in Austria including the Austrian league, its licensing requirements and player development will be presented. This serves the purpose of providing a basic understanding of football in Austria and the setting in which the later interviewed players and club representatives act.

2.1.1. Football in Austria

Nowadays, football is a popular sport in Austria, particularly in regard to media coverage where it tops the advertising value of all sports in Austria (Fessel & Grell, 2017). However, in terms of media popularity and attention for single events, skiing and other winter sports are almost on par (Fessel & Grell, 2017). Austrians prefer to actively do other sports, with football only being ranked 10th in a 2015 study (Statista, 2015). The first official game according to English FA rules was played in 1894 in Graz between two teams of the

Academic-Technological Cycling Society (Kutschera, 2014). After the foundation of the

first worker’s club in 1897 (later named “Sportclub Rapid”), the Austrian Football Union was established as the nation’s FA and joined the 1904 founded FIFA in 1905 (Wien

Geschichte Wiki, 2018). During WWII, Rapid Vienna won the German Championship in

1941. Following the war, Austria’s biggest successes included the National Team reaching the 3rd place in the 1954 World Cup, the “Miracle of Cordoba” in 1978, participation in European club cup finals, and eventually jointly hosting the 2008

European Championship in 2008 together with Switzerland.

The Austrian Bundesliga was founded in 1911 as Viennese competition and was reformed in 1974, reducing the number of participating teams across Austria from 17 to 10

(Bundesliga, 2018). Rapid Vienna has won the most titles (32) followed by Austria

Vienna (21). As of the end of the 2017/18 season, the league consists of Red Bull Salzburg,

Sturm Graz, Rapid Vienna, LASK, FC Admira Wacker, SV Mattersburg, Austria Vienna,

SCR Altach, Wolfsberger AC and SKN St. Pölten. Recent success of Austrian clubs on the international stage include Red Bull Salzburg reaching the Europa League semi-finals in 2018, Austria Vienna reaching the Champions League Group State in 2013, and Rapid

Vienna reaching the Europa League Group Stages six times since 2009.

2.1.2. Licensing in Austria

In order to obtain a license that allows to participate in the Austrian Bundesliga (in addition to competitive qualification), clubs need to fulfill certain requirements.

According to the Austrian Bundesliga (2018), sports, infrastructure, administration, law and finances are being checked annually and classified into three categories (A, B and C according to legal necessity of implementation). Requirements such as undersoil heating,

UEFA coaching licenses and the application of International Financial Reporting

Standards ensure a high standard throughout the league.

2.1.3. Recent Bundesliga Reform

In May of 2016, the Bundesliga agreed on a league reform to be implemented from the

2018/19 season onwards, introducing a playoff system and increasing the number of participating clubs from 10 to 12 (Austrian Bundesliga, 2018). The new system is supposed to boost the clubs’ competitive as well as economic performance, perhaps allowing larger budgets for infrastructure, player retention etc.

2.1.4. Player Development

The Austrian Bundesliga is reputed to be a developmental league for young players. A look at the recent transfer balances underlines this reputation. According to Transfermarkt

(2018), 14 out of 15 clubs have managed to generate surpluses from transfers since the

2010/11 season. This might indicate clubs’ dependence on player sales and thus putting importance on player motivation that is linked to performance and market value of players.

2.1.5. Football as Business

Over the past couple of decades, professional football as it is known today has experienced an ongoing commercialization while considered to be the most popular sports on the planet (Richelieu, 2008). Although this commercialization is necessary for clubs in order to prevail and stay competitive (Krabbenbos, 2013), this trend has been on the receiving end of criticism by fans (Nash, 2000), resulting in movements against modern football across Europe (Gonda, 2013). The previously mentioned Bosman ruling, among others, contributed to the shift of football towards profit maximization (Dejonghe,

2008). Within the first decade of the 21st century, revenues on the European football market almost doubled, a trend that has been ongoing since then (Kennedy & Kennedy,

2012).

Examples for the increasing monetization are the 2017 transfer of Neymar da Silva Santos

Júnior from Barcelona to PSG for € 222 m or the 2016 transfer of Paul Pogba from

Juventus to Manchester United for € 90 m (Transfermarkt, 2018). On a more widespread scale, the transfer of David Beckham to LA Galaxy led to a never before experienced popularity and growth of soccer in the United States (Wahl, 2009). In the Austrian

Bundesliga, transfer revenues have gone up significantly in the last years, with players such as Naby Keïta (€ 33 m) and Sadio Mané (€ 23 m) generating high transfer fees

(Transfermarkt, 2018).

However, it is to be noted that monetization and commercialization of football is not always a negatively associated occurrence as the example of the 2010 World Cup in South

Africa shows. According to Ferreira (2012), the event brought economic stability and infrastructural improvements to the country, from which the population will benefit significantly.

2.1.6. Football as Business in Austria

Although the Austrian Bundesliga is not considered to be among the big 5 leagues (EN,

GE, IT, ESP, FR) and therefore is often overlooked in research, the league has experienced the growing monetization of football. Many argue that commercialization has reached its peak in Austria with energy drink manufacturer Red Bull purchasing 1st division club SV Salzburg in 2005 and renaming it to Red Bull Salzburg (Jensen et al,

2008). However, the Austrian Bundesliga has a long history of allowing corporations and private investors to purchase and manage clubs (e.g. Casino SW Bregenz, FK Austria

Magna, SC cashpoint Altach, FC flyeralarm Admira and others). According to Brand et al (2010), this historic presence of private investors is the reason for several clubs not being heavily dependent on broadcasting presence. With clubs’ participation in European competitions such as UEFA Champions League being rather the exception, Austrian clubs’ financing structures differ from most other European leagues (Brand et al, 2010).

Mostly due to TV broadcasting and sponsorship deals, there has been a growing wealth disparity between big European leagues and the Austrian Bundesliga. Despite measures such as the UEFA Financial Fair Play (FFP), this trend is expected to continue

(McConnell, 2012).

2.2. Motivation

The term motivation originates back to the Latin term “movere” which translates to

“move” in modern day English. Motivation can be seen as the search for a meaningful reason as well as its understanding and purpose. Generally speaking does every goal root in the will and urge to achieve it. This urge can be seen as the actual motivation or motive.

(Müller-Schoppen and Kesper, 2011). According to Turner and Cheng (2017), employee motivation becomes more and more the driving force of business for organization – organizations that professional football clubs also constitute as stated in the introduction of this paper. In a more general sense, Ryan and Deci (2000) characterized intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as followed:

“Intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent

satisfaction rather than for some separable consequence... Extrinsic motivation is a

construct that pertains whether an activity is done in order to attain some separable

outcome. Extrinsic motivation thus contrasts with intrinsic motivation, which refers

to doing an activity simply for the enjoyment of the activity itself, rather than its

instrumental value.”

This is congruent with Jung (2011) who also argues that intrinsic motives differ from extrinsic motives in the way that satisfaction lies within the task itself while extrinsic motives are only satisfied as result of work or accompanying circumstances. It is often argued in literature that extrinsic and intrinsic motivation go hand in hand to some extent, also in sports (Pedersen, 2002). For this research paper, however, primarily intrinsic motivation is of importance. Pedersen (2002) identified 10 extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors in sports, including money, medals, verbal praise, excitement, challenge and accomplishment. According to Sarkar and Fletcher (2014), psychological factors important for football players include confidence, control of anxiety, mental strength, focus and team emphasis.

2.2.1. Jung’s 3 Categories

Jung (2011) classifies individual motives into three categories – physical, psychological and social; primary and secondary, and intrinsic and extrinsic motives. The physical, psychological and social motivates are those including biological needs such as nutrition, shelter, independence, self-actualization, friendship and social contacts. Primary motives symbolize those that every person follows instinctively whereas secondary motives are utilized to satisfy other motives. For professional football players, particularly intrinsic and extrinsic motives serve as incentives for players (Hall et al, 2002).

2.2.2. Non-motivation

According to Laufer (2006), opposite to the motivation to perform, the absence of motivation can lead to negative effects on performance. The so-called phenomenon of internal notice describes an internal resignation without actual resignation from a job.

This is often characterized in the lack of own initiative or frequent absence. In sports literature, this is also known as amotivation, a state in which athletes are neither intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated (Pelletier et al, 1995). For organizations, and in the narrower sense for football clubs, this means a lack in work force and potential contribution to success, while still compensating the employee or players. This can result in a lack of competitiveness for the organization and club. In regard to football, known measures club frequently undertake are first-team bans, making players train with the youth or reserves team, or pre-defined fines.

2.2.3. Fringe Benefits and Motivation

Fringe benefits are defined by Wagner (2015) as all benefits that go beyond direct, monthly payments, either monetary or non-cash benefits. It is to be noted that fringe benefits by definition do not include health-, pension- and accident coverage in Austria, which are provided by law and are clearly to be distinguished from fringe benefits. The main difference between regular salary and fringe benefits is sheer goodwill from the company’s or employer’s side who anticipates an advantage of some kind (Wagner, 2015).

Due to a shift in employees’ values and expectations, mostly due to demographic changes

(DGFP, 2011), offering fringe benefits becomes increasingly important for organizations and companies (Immerschitt and Stumpf, 2014). This is also the case in Austria (Business

Education International Austria, 2014). According to Grätz (2013), the primary aim of

fringe benefits is to ensure a certain lifestyle and to enhance it. While money serves this purpose as well, fringe benefits are targeted to the specific motivation.

2.2.4. Fringe Benefits in Sports

Ever since the Bosman judgement in 1995, a ruling that significantly changed professional football by forcing clubs to value their players, the business of football, transfers and player contracts became more complex (Szymanski, 2010). Nowadays, contracts have to live up to renowned accounting standards such as FRS 10 and IAS 38

(Amir and Livne, 2005). The research of Amir and Livne (2005) on expenditures of clubs across England’s and Scotland’s top four divisions from 1990-2003 has also shown that clubs spent a significant portion of their budgets on wages and fringe benefits, with an increase in player contract costs over time. In professional football player contracts, not only the base salary and the duration of the contract validity are defined. A large number of legal responsibilities and obligations are usually part of contracts.

Furthermore, bonuses according to games played, goals scored, or points achieved as a team per season and others are often agreed upon between players and clubs, with the actual sums varying greatly between clubs and leagues. Such bonuses would theoretically be interesting for football clubs as compared to other industries, performance is rather easy to measure in sports (Heubeck & Scheuer, 2003). Apart from monetary compensation, non-monetary benefits such as cars, flats, clothing and training equipment can be contractually arranged (Buschmann et al, 2016). Literature on the exact contents of professional players’ contracts is quite short. However, this is somewhat logical as contracts are usually signed in confidentiality. In 2015, a website called “Football Leaks”, with a concept similar to WikiLeaks, was launched, providing confidential contract

information and wages to the wide public (Gordon, 2015). Although these documents provide some insight, the validity of the data as well as its academic and moral justification should be questioned.

Wagner (2015) characterizes incentives benefits into those attracting potential employees by raising the attractiveness of the organization or company, and those aiming to retain employees. In regard to football, this can play a significant role in negotiations. A player might sign with club A instead of club B if he deems the provided incentives to be more encouraging. Furthermore, a player might or might not extend his existing contract depending on changes in the incentives. This includes young players as well as more experienced players with families to take into consideration as well.

2.3. Self-Initiatives

Given the previously mentioned distinction of motivation between intrinsic and extrinsic, it becomes evident that motivation works as a two-way street. Both the person themselves and external actors can positively and negatively influence motivation. Self- determination theory according to Ryan and Deci (2000) is a popular theory that aims to understand self-motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. They identified three needs – the need for competence, relatedness and autonomy as essential for constructive social development and personal well-being. Competence is strongly related to receiving feedback (Deci, 1971), which in the case of football translates to feedback given by coaches, peers and the media as well as accepting and implementing this feedback. Positive feedback can lead to a feeling of confidence, hence increasing the intrinsic motivation for a given task (Deci, 1971), making it a powerful tool for improvement and self-assessment. Relatedness refers to being in close and affectionate

relationships with other human beings. In the case of football players, this refers to building trust and friendship with fellow players within the squad. While autonomy does not necessarily mean independence, it refers to free will when carrying out tasks (Ryan and Deci, 2000). In football, this is linked to the leadership style of the coach and hierarchy within the team.

Rotella (2015) strongly emphasized on the importance of having the mind-set of a champion and being optimistic. Rotella claims “Exceptional people, I have found, either start out being optimistic or learn to be optimistic because they realize that they can’t get what they want in life without being optimistic.” (Rotella, 2015). Rotella mentions a virtuous circle of learned effectiveness. According to this circle, optimism inevitable leads to confidence, which by being persistent, leads to success. This success then creates optimism, powering the cycle. Rotella’s Virtuous Circle is linked to the concept of self- efficacy, which stands for individuals’ strong believe in their ability to achieve goals

(Bandura, 1982). Positive self-talk can play an important and effective role to increase performance as studies have shown (Gould & Weiss, 1981).

A powerful and popular tool for mental training, motivation and preparation for competitions is visualization, also referred to as Sport Imagery Training. Visualization has been subject to a large number of research, is recommended by sports psychologists and exercised by athletes for many years (Sheikh & Korn, 1994; Clarey, 2014; Rotella,

2015). By imagining and projecting in-game scenarios, moments of success, and simulating movement sequences, football players can prepare for trainings and competitions, be better prepared and enhance their motivation.

According to Locke’s Goal Setting Theory (1994), goals can help to boost performance.

For the individual football player, constant reflection and self-reflection can be a useful tool for self-assessment and improvement. According to Zimmermann (2002), self- evaluation and comparison with one’s own (past) performance, others’ performance or some standard, can help to learn. The role of reflection has also been researched among young athletes, proving its usefulness (Jonker et al, 2012).

Furthermore, strongly identifying oneself with the goals of an organization can help to be motivated. According to Hall et al (1970), organizational identification is “the process by which the goals of the organization and those of the individual become increasingly integrated and congruent”. In the case of the football player, this may go as far as integrating the club’s values and norms into one’s personality. Many clubs share unique values, with e.g. leftist values at St. Pauli in Hamburg, ethno-nationalist values at FC

Barcelona or fascist values at some Italian clubs (Karen & Washington, 2015) or solidarity, tradition and diversity in the case of Rapid Vienna in Austria (SK Rapid Wien,

2018).

2.4. External Influences

When looking at the typical routine of football players and the environment they act in, it becomes fairly evident that there is a large number of external actors that influence professional football players. Understanding the surroundings of a football player is essential in order to understand their mind set and motivation.

Various tools have been used to look at the external environment of organizations and football clubs as, including e.g. the popular PESTEL framework, consisting of Political,

Economic, Sociological, Technological, Legal, and Environmental factors (CIPD, 2017).

According to the Open University (2018), these factors, applied to football, influence clubs. From a sociological perspective, particularly fan audiences, their values and attributes, including the issue of racism and homophobia as well as the increasing pressure on players, influence clubs. While the environmental issue may not have yet reached professional football, technological advancement is present on the pitch (instant video replay, tracking chips in footballs and performance recording devices) and off the pitch

(internet, social media, television). Political regulations in regard to fan riots and stadium safety and legal frameworks for contracts as well as FIFA and UEFA regulations matter as well.

Furthermore, a large number of stakeholders is in constant interaction with clubs and players (Linton, 2018). These include individual fans and fan groups, sponsors, the league as governing body, the media, competitors, suppliers and partners, staff, residents near club realty and also the players as the club’s stakeholders. As empirical research by

Hoegele et al (2014) has shown, players illustrate a special role for clubs. Their influence on fans is comparable to that of executives of external stakeholders. The emergence of image rights during the 2000/01 season, as part of the transfer of Luis Figo to Real Madrid, has strongly contributed to players being more in the spotlight and acting as commercial stars (Boyle & Hanes, 2004). This has led to an increased possibility of interaction between fans and players and an entirely new industry of interactive football (Boyle &

Hanes, 2004). Research by Lehmann and Schulze (2007) has shown that media presence pays a large role in salaries of German players, a presence from which clubs profit financially as well. Research by Herm et al (2014) has shown that external judgements

(e.g. by journalists) influence market values and actual transfer fees. Some players might

feel pressured because of that or get pressured by agents, sponsors or other parties to serve as source of revenue. Furthermore, the factor of uncertainty, driven by a competitive market, contract duration and injuries, is a constant in football players’ lives (Roderick,

2006).

2.5. Group Dynamics

Being a team sports, professional football offers various opportunities to make use of theoretical frameworks to analyse the proceedings within teams. As mentioned in the introductory part of this paper, football clubs can be seen as organizations and the job of the football players is still a job with the purpose to earn money. This makes it logical to draw assumptions from management theories and apply them to football. However, some characteristics might stand out. The variety in age, nationality, experience, education, skill and personality makes football teams interesting to look at. Other than in traditional groups, where people come together, to achieve particular objectives (Robbins & Judge,

2013), football players also have to keep their own career in mind.

2.5.1. Team Cohesion

According to Forsyth (2009), team cohesion is a complex social process that does not follow typical rules. Different researchers highlight different components as characteristics for cohesion, such as unity, strength of bonds amongst members, retention of members and emotional intensity. Forsyth (2009) identifies social relations, task relations, perceived unity and emotions as key components of team cohesion. According to Gioldasis et al (2016), existing literature provides various insights into the relationship between cohesion and performance, however, study results differ, showing positive, negative or non-significant relationships. Carron and Brawley (2000) claim that cohesion

takes place throughout the stages of team building, which typically occur during a football season. Zaccaro et al (2011) claimed that cohesion is a motivational team process.

According to Pichler (2010), a study conducted in 2010, using a sample of 400 players from the top two divisions in Germany showed that first teams are consisting of 11 differently motivated individuals rather than one unity. The analysis of Steven Reiss’ 16 basic desires concluded that the average player is only moderately loyal and team- oriented. This is in contradiction to football being a team sport and underlines the importance of superiors such as coaches or managers motivating the squad and keeping up high morale and cohesiveness. Especially the latter shows similarities to leadership in more conventional businesses.

However, literature is also critical on the positive effects of team cohesion. Hardy et al

(2005) studied social cohesion and task cohesion and revealed negative consequences of high cohesion. In the study, potential imbalance between social orientation and task orientation, goal-related problems, reduced commitment, perceived pressure and decreased contribution were mentioned (Hardy et al, 2005). This potential for conflict is also reflected in the fact that football teams feature various personality traits. According to Holland (1997), certain personality traits are better suited for certain jobs, creating a person-job fit. In the case of football, athletes only have limited possibilities for significant changes in their jobs. Switching positions within a team is not uncommon, however, only rarely will players choose a different career path, thus creating teams of great diversity in personalities.

The personalities of each individual player strongly contribute to the functionality of the group. According to Lockwood et al (2009), the generations of Xers, entering the work

force between 1985 and 2000 as well as Nexters, entering the work force from 2000 onwards, share different work values than earlier generations. It is to be noted, that most players currently active in Austrian football will have started their professional careers after 2000 and some coaches before 2000. Team-orientation, loyalty to relationships, confidence, financial success and self-reliance yet team-orientation are important to Xers and Nexters, while for Boomers, the previous generation, success, achievement and loyalty to career are more important. This might create different expectations and require both sides, players as employees and coaches as managers, to adapt.

2.5.2. Group Properties

According to Robbins & Judge (2009), there are a number of factors and properties influencing groups, including roles, conformity and status. In groups as well as outside groups, a role translates to a set of expected behaviour. Understanding behaviour is hence relying on understanding rules. Role perceptions and role expectations play an important role for groups as a gap between those two can potentially lead to conflict. In the role of the football player, putting them team ahead of oneself could be a potential role conflict.

Furthermore, potential differences in compensation amongst players could lead to gaps.

Conformity within a group can be defining as research has shown a considerable power of groups on individuals in terms of changing attitudes and behaviour (Kiesler & Kiesler,

1969). Non-conformity can release a chain-reaction within the group that creates collective negative mood and consequently negative performance (Cole et al, 2008).

An individual’s status within a group is an important motivator and strongly influences behaviour in case of gaps between self-perceived status and what others perceive

(Robbins & Judge, 2009). Status within a group can root from the power over others, one’s ability to contribute to collective goals and one’s individual character traits (Berger et al, 1977). Higher status tends to be strongly linked to being more outspoken, criticising and stating commands (Levine & Moreland, 1990), tasks usually performed by a football team’s captain. The way status is distributed and earned within the group has to be perceived as fair by group members as the lack of equilibrium can lead to conflict

(Christie & Barling, 2010).

2.5.3. Leadership in Football

In football teams, mainly two parties usually take leadership. On the one hand, the team’s captain acts as representative for the entire squad and deals with issues between the players and the coaching staff. On the other hand, the coach and his team act as leaders by managing training sessions, selecting players for competitive action and setting tactical directives in games. In addition, one or more players will naturally assume more leadership in teams than others, due to being outspoken or extroverted.

Due to being in a competitive environment, naturally all professional football teams set short- and long-term goals, either outcome, performance or process goals, or a combination of the three. Outcome goals may refer to winning games or competitions, performance goals to the actual performance measured by own standards, and process goals may include improving styles of play. According to Locke’s Goal Setting Theory, goals that are harder to achieve lead to increased performance (Latham & Locke, 1994).

Furthermore, goals should be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timely

(Doran, 1981) as well as evaluated and eventually reviewed (Yemm, 2012). In football,

these goals are usually defined by the club’s management, often together with the coaching staff. Consequently, the desired goals have to be communicated to the players.

According to Chelladurai’s (1978) multidimensional model of leadership, there are three states of leader behaviour – required behaviour, preferred behaviour and actual behaviour.

While required behaviour is dependent on the respective situation and preferred behaviour on the followers’ (players) preferences, actual behaviour depends on the leader’s characteristics. Literature defines various leadership styles, such as autocratic leadership, laissez-faire leadership or transformational leadership, which will not be described further due to the scope of this paper. However, research by Turman (2003) has shown that coaches can influence team cohesion based on their coaching techniques that either deter or promote team cohesion. Furthermore, Smoll and Smith (1989) claim that coaches must understand how athletes respond to their leadership to be efficient. Good leadership might also show in the exit management of players (i.e. players leaving to other teams). Taking transfers into consideration, research by Velema (2018) has shown that managers can profit from active management of exiting players in order to help them in their further career, which can be seen as good management as well.

3. Methodology

As the presented theoretical foundations have to be put into context, relevant data had to be collected. This served the purpose to justify the theoretical relevance for this study and to gain up-to-date insights into the mind set of professional football players in Austria.

The strong focus on the thoughts, attitudes and stimuli of players required a qualitative approach as this allowed for a more in-depth gathering of data and thus resulting in a more detailed analysis. Especially given the strong connection between the researched motivation and the study participants’ individual personality traits, a non-numerical gathering of data was more suitable. According to Given (2008), qualitative research is the most sufficient method to find answers to questions of how and why related to human experiences.

3.1. Sample, Method & Demographics

In the course of this research, a grand total of 46 players and 14 club officials were approached in little over 4 weeks and asked to share their experiences, values and insights.

As pre-requirement for this study, only players currently playing in the Austrian

Bundesliga or former players with recent (maximum 3 years ago) and considerable (min.

2 years) experience were considered. All players were approached using social media in the form of Facebook and Instagram. 42 players were approached via private messages to either their private profiles or their pages, and 4 players were approached on Instagram due to the lack of contact options on Facebook. This method was suggested by club representatives that were contacted in advance via email, and later by players themselves, giving suggestions for colleagues to contact. From 46 contacted players in total, 13 players responded and were willing to give interviews. However, 4 players were eventually unable to do so in the relatively short time frame, due to other commitments,

resulting in 9 player interviews for this research. The following table shows the interviewed player sample.

Table 1: Interviewed Players (Source: Transfermarkt.at)

Overall, the sample is experienced, with an average age of 29.8 years, an average of 7.44 seasons completed in the Austrian Bundesliga per player, and more than 138 games played per player in the league. Due to confidentiality, the exact number of games is not mentioned. Instead, an approximate minimum number of games played is listed to show the experience of the respective players. Affiliated clubs and player nationality are not revealed in this study.

Furthermore, all players have been active at two Bundesliga clubs at least, meaning they all had to transfer to another club at least once and were consequently exposed to a new environment and new group that required integration. Due to players’ transfers, this study is able to cover experiences made at 7 of 10 current Bundesliga clubs (SK Rapid Vienna,

SV Mattersburg, SK Sturm Graz, FC Red Bull Salzburg, FC Admira, LASK, FK Austria

Vienna) and 2 recently relegated former Bundesliga clubs (SV Ried, 2016/17; SC Wiener

Neustadt, 2014/15).

In addition to the 9 interviewed players, information was gathered from 3 club representatives. Out of 14 contacted club officials, 8 responded to requests, with 3 eventually providing insights. It is to be noted that the contacted club representatives included 2 officials from recently relegated teams in Erste Liga, Austria’s second division.

However, no interviews were done. The table below shows the representative sample.

Table 2: Interviewed Club Representatives

Overall, interviews with mostly open questions proved to be an effective method to obtain information. However, it is to be noted that during phone calls and face-to-face meetings, significantly more information could be gathered. Particularly in regard to contractual matters, sensible issues in teams and relationships to former coaches and staff, players and representatives were much more reluctant in emails. Players and club representatives were assured of full confidentiality and anonymity at the beginning of each interview as well as throughout the interview. Face-to-face interviews were recorded, and notes were taken during phone calls, both interview types usually ranging between 20 and 60 minutes.

Calls were done via internet, using the messaging apps WhatsApp and Facebook

Messenger, and conducted in German. The core statements of the interviewees will be mentioned later in this paper.

3.2. Austria as Data Pool

As mentioned in the introduction of this paper, professional football can be researched in a large number of countries around the globe. For this research, Austria and its professional football clubs were chosen as data pool. Apart from not much research on

Austria available, the Austrian Bundesliga (“tipico Bundesliga” as of 2018) enjoys the reputation of being a developmental league for players who see playing in Austria as a stepping stone for a larger club in a more prestigious league. Therefore, identifying the underlying reasons for player motivation might be useful for increasing this reputation by improving individual motivation where possible, or to perhaps retain talented players.

Furthermore, the strictly regulated infrastructure for clubs and the recent league reform, to be enforced from August 2018 onwards, make the Austrian Bundesliga an interesting area to consider for research in the future as well.

Apart from the abovementioned reasons that speak for the Austrian League as reasonable data pool, one can argue that the findings from this paper might prove valuable for interested parties in other central European leagues. There are cultural and linguistic, and performance-related similarities between Austria and its league, Germany, Switzerland, the Czech Republic and Hungary, which are explained below.

3.3. Cultural and Performance-related Similarities

Given the small scale of the Austrian Bundesliga, it is important to justify the relevance of this research for a bigger audience. For this purpose, a thorough analysis of cultural similarities between Austria, Germany, Switzerland and the Czech Republic has been conducted, identifying various similarities in culture that might have significance for football in the respective countries. Furthermore, foreign player percentage amongst the

leagues, league size and performance across European competitions using the UEFA coefficient have been compared, showing a strong transfer relationship between Germany and Austria, and similarities between the Austria, Swiss and Czech league. This indicates a relevance for these country’s leagues and the possibility to project study results from this paper to other leagues. The thorough analysis can be found in the appendix of this paper.

Data for this research was not only gathered from professional football players but also from club officials and representatives, including PR managers, directors of football and others. Most potential study participants stated a preference for conducting interviews in person, via email or on the phone and indicated that this would increase both, their willingness to share and their ability to do so given their tight schedules Therefore, interviews with both sides were conducted. This ensured getting information from the employer and the employees, to get a more in-depth look at the situations at the respective clubs. Furthermore, enquiring about e.g. non-monetary benefits, so-called fringe benefits, granted by the clubs from both sides assured more reliable data as potential contradictions could be eliminated. All interviews with players were conducted via phone call in addition to follow up questions that were answered via email or social networks. Club representatives were met in person and also responded via email.

In qualitative research, understandings and concepts should be derived from patterns in the collected data, following a flexible research approach (Taylor et al, 2015). All perspectives are worth looking at should provide meaningful (also commonly referred to as valid) information (Taylor et al, 2015). This is the case in this research paper.

More information on the data that was eventually gathered will be provided in the next section of this paper. A data reduction and data display will lead to a conclusion and discussion of the findings, followed by a critical reflection of the research process that will also shed light on the potential weaknesses of this study.

4. Data Analysis

Based on the before mentioned literature and theoretical findings, this section will present the results of this research. Before revealing the key statements given by players and representatives, football in Austria will be briefly described. Furthermore, a statistic of playing time will show the issue of athletes lacking competitive action in the Austrian

Bundesliga. This is essential in order to understand the Austrian football environment.

After the sample, method and demographics, the key findings will be presented and analysed. In the end, potential weaknesses of this study and recommendations for future research will be provided.

4.1. Squads and Regular Players

According to the official FIFA Laws of the Game (IFAB, 2018), a football team consists of 11 players plus substitutes. In the Austrian Bundesliga, up to 7 additional players are allowed to be named into the match day squad, with 3 substitutions per game allowed

(ÖFB, 2016). This allows for a maximum number of 14 players featuring in a competitive league game.

Analysing the squads of the 10 teams participating in the Austrian Bundesliga in the

2017/18 season as shown in the table below, the teams have between 12 and 18 players

(mean 15.1) playing at least 1000 minutes per season. 1000 minutes represent 30.86 per cent of the available playing time. This means that on average 43.99 per cent of the squads do not regularly feature in competition games.

Table 3: Squad comparison of Austrian Bundesliga squads 2017/18

Furthermore, between 2 and 7 players have not played at all throughout the season, making up for 15.93 % of the squad on average. However, this comparison should only give a simplified overview as only league competition games have been taken into consideration, leaving out the Austrian cup and European competitions. Furthermore, mid-season transfers have been left out and the presence of cooperation players featuring in the second or third division as well as youth players have been ignored. Overall, the squad comparison shows that a significant part of players in the Austrian Bundesliga does not regularly play and might require more motivational attention.

4.2. Core Statements

The following section will present the core statements made by players and representatives. For more structure and to provide a good flow of reading, the player statements have been categorized into motivation, fringe benefits, group dynamics, clubs’ and coaches’ role as motivators, and irregular playing time. In order to obtain as many insights as possible, the interview guide shown in the appendix only served as rough

outline and pool of questions. The primary aim throughout was to generate a fluid conversation and obtain valid data.

In regard to their motivation to become professional football players, all interviewees claimed that their passion for the game roots in their childhood, with parents being the main influences and enablers. For some players, the step from football as hobby to a profession took place earlier, for some players education played an important role as well.

P1 was already a trained apprentice for another profession when his lifelong dream came true and he was offered a professional contract. P6 described the decision whether to pursue a professional career or to look elsewhere as one of the hardest in his career as many risks and uncertainty are involved. P3 mentioned his strong will as there was never a “left or right” for him, only the “way ahead to become professional”. For P2, football was only about fun for a long time, until he realized that playing in front of large crowds made him enjoy football enough to become a professional. Contrarily, P8 mentioned a very competitive environment in his youth soccer days, forcing him to give it all. He claimed, “If you only gave it 98 %, nobody would pay attention to you.” Only P7 specifically mentioned he was more talented than colleagues, with most others emphasizing that luck, apart from talent alone, is a key factor needed to be successful.

Regarding luck, P1 remarked “I was extremely lucky to get to where I am today”.

When asked about what motivates them in football generally, most athletes gave similar responses. P1, P3, P4, P6 and P7 mentioned big spectator crowds, with P3 claiming he tries to put himself into the position of a fan and imagine what they would like to see, to perform at his best. P1 identified scoring decisive goals as main driver of motivation. He claimed scoring winners is what every football player lives for and these moments make

every sacrifice forgotten. P3 claimed that many players aim to make as little mistakes as possible, an attitude he does not share. Instead, he tries to be the best player on the field, even if it involves risk and, occasionally, not looking good. This risk motivates him the most. P4 mentioned unleashing one’s potential as being rewarding. P5 mentioned music in order to get “heated up” prior to a game and visualizing certain key moments. P8 argued that the feeling of being prepared, i.e. having read up on opponents, and ensuring feedback help him to be on top of his game. P2 feels motivation should be a given and does not require any stimuli from himself or others.

Furthermore, all players also identified money as main motivator, with P1, P3, P5 and P6 specifically calling players claiming otherwise liars. In regard to money, P3 mentioned that his attitude towards money changed throughout his career as he realized that money is never enough as lifestyle changes with income. He claimed, “The more you earn, the more you spend and the more you crave even more money”. P1 shared similar experiences, although citing family reasons as reasons for turning down significantly higher paying contracts. P6 mentioned premiums and bonuses according to points achieved as particularly motivating. P5 and P7 emphasized on young players needing to make as much money as possible in a short time frame, which P1 touched on as well, while P2 reflects to have valued stability and assurance more than money frequently throughout his career.

In terms of fringe benefits, players were asked to share their previous experiences on received benefits and their impact on motivation. All players listed various fringe benefits.

P2, P5 and P9 mentioned apartments owned by clubs as well as a partnership with a local car dealer, providing players with free cars up to a certain value included in the player’s

contract. This helped the players to settle in quickly, focus on getting to know players, get started with preparations for games, and boosted their confidence overall. P5 mentioned that his previous club did not offer accommodation but instead an allocated allowance in his contract. This practice was confirmed for another club by P3. P1 praised the excellent infrastructure at the training ground, allowing him to spend a significant amount of time there, including overnight stays, which was especially beneficial for players living in a nearby larger town. P4, P6 and P8 mentioned the assistance of clubs in terms of finding places to live, furnishing them, getting cars (again with considerable discounts from sponsors), free shirts and suits for public appearances in European competitions. This made the athletes feel valued and proud to play for the club. P4 stated

“They wanted me to feel comfortable and able to deliver right away”. P6 also witnessed his club’s commitment in assisting a foreign player with various administrative issues and by providing German language classes. This helped the player to bond with the rest of the team, with most colleagues being surprised by how quickly the player adapted to the entirely new culture. Furthermore, the player transferred to another club where he could settle in easily mostly due to the assistance provided by his former club. P7 and P9 praised phone contracts paid for by the club and team-building exercises such as regular team dinners.

However, not all provided fringe benefits were seen as entirely positive. P3 referred to being provided with professional, custom-tailored business attire by the club, and being asked to return it after leaving the club one year later in what he describes from his side as professional terms. This, he felt, was confusing, highly impersonal and somewhat inappropriate.

When asked about the importance of fringe benefits for the decision between two clubs, opinions were divided. P5, P7 and P9 deemed fringe benefits as important (yet not as important as monetary compensation), while P1, P2, P3 and P8 only view them as slightly important. P6 referred to a hypothetical decision between club A, paying 10 % less yet featuring in a European competition and club B, offering 10 % more pay. He claimed opting for A would likely be the better decision in the long run as it would provide the opportunity to be in the international spotlight and perhaps secure a transfer to a better paying team from abroad, even if the opportunity would present itself just briefly. P6 stated “Sometimes you have to seize an opportunity, even if some people won’t understand it and say it was the wrong decision”.

When asked about group dynamics, the interviewees’ answers differed. In regard to hierarchy, P1 argued that he does not care about hierarchy as all players are responsible for themselves. However, he claims that younger players’ respect for experienced players is appropriate. P6 also does not value strong hierarchies as he prefers flat hierarchies. Old and young players should be on the same level as e.g. a player aged 21 could theoretically as mature as a player aged 30. However, he tends to be stricter in conversation with younger players as they can sometimes be over-enthusiastic. In his experience, the entire team feels and performs better if everyone has a say – something that has not worked at every club for him. P3 claims hierarchy is important in football squads as players addressing issues are important. Having been a captain himself, he interprets good leadership as being objective and analytical rather than too confrontational as often expected from leaders. His mantra is “Leading by action”. P5 sees no link between hierarchy and age as it depends heavily on individual personalities. In his previous team as well as his current team, hierarchy within the squad is primarily dependent on success

on the pitch and interpersonal skills off the pitch. Differences in payment and compensation have not caused any inter-group frictions. Only P3 gave account of strikers in his former team occasionally bragging about their contractual scoring bonuses, which annoyed particularly the defenders within the squad who did not receive any remuneration for not conceding goals. He stated, “We did not really like that, and it showed within the team – it was us and them”, indicating a split in the group. P5 argued it might be better for everyone to not know about peers’ salary in the first place, while P8 claims a difference in salary is often visible in players’ lifestyle anyways.

Given that all players have been part of at least two clubs during their careers thus far, all players had to deal with integration into the team at some point. When asked about challenges, most players claimed to not having had any. P1 and P3 gave examples of language barriers when joining clubs abroad, calling it challenging yet rewarding. P6, however, looked back on joining one team in Austria, full of what he described as far from pleasant colleagues, calling the atmosphere within the team horrible from the start and unable to adapt to. Said team did not perform well compared to their self-set expectations the following season. Most other challenges named were learning new styles of play, relocating family and finding places to live. P5 argued that nowadays, changing clubs and joining new teams is not a big challenge for players anymore as there are many young players changing clubs at an early stage. Hierarchies, he claims, are flat at most clubs, and due to the Austrian Bundesliga being a small league, most players know each other more or less well. P2 and P8 felt changing an environment after a long time at one club challenging, while P7 referred to it as “part of the game”.

In terms of pressure, most players feel pressure primarily executed by outside parties rather than within the squad. P1, P3, P5, P6, P8 and P9 all see pressure as perfectly normal, with P1 adding that it would be worrisome for his morale if he did not feel pressured. P2 thinks the occasional “kick in the ass” is necessary, particularly in order to get younger players to perform to their best ability. P8 noted that there seems to have been a significant increase in public pressure, not only in Austria but football in general, probably due to social media. Playing on the phone in the dressing room and having to post updates to social media in order to please fans and even the club was unimaginable in the early stages of his career (“Nobody would have dared”).

The subject of clubs’ and coaches’ roles as motivators yet again sparked different opinions, particularly in regard to coaches. P1, P6 and P8 emphasized that players are mostly responsible for themselves, the contracts they sign and the performance they deliver from day to day. Nevertheless, they reported vastly different leadership styles among coaches as all other interviewees did too. P1 and P8 claimed that younger coaches actively try to incorporate flatter hierarchies and a more open dialogue. P3 and P6 shared negative experiences with P3 referring to a past head coach as stoic by labelling him as only suited for a certain playing style. This destroyed his relationship with the coach beyond repair and eventually made him leave the club, even though higher ranked club officials offered him a contract extension. Since then, P3 is confident with playing in his desired role at another club abroad. P6 did not cherish his time under a manager that did not communicate with players at all, used outdated training techniques and “lived in the past”. As example, he mentioned “You would not play on the weekend, ask him for a reason why and if you were lucky, he would just tell you that everything is fine, only to bench you the next game as well”. P4, P6 and P7 and P8 positively remarked on the

availability of mental coaches at their current or former clubs. P5 mentioned a personality coach assisting players with confidence issues and personal development. According to

P5, several players are making use of this offer provided by the club and are benefiting from it. P4 and P8 also mentioned their previous clubs as motivator by emphasizing on the club’s tradition, making it an honor to play for the club. In the case of non-motivation,

P1, P5, P6, P7 and P9 remembered coaches that actively sought an open dialogue if they noticed something was wrong with a player’s motivation over an extended period. They unanimously appreciated this.

When asked about irregular playing time and ways to deal with it, responses were similar.

Every player had been in a situation that hindered them from playing in the first XI or as substitute player for a longer time. P2 referred to this being the status quo throughout his career and hence not bothering him anymore. P4, P5 and P9 emphasized on this being particularly tough after long-time injuries. Furthermore, P5 claimed his way of dealing with the situation almost entirely depends on the coach. If the coach makes a player feel valued and indispensable to the team, and manages to keep one motivated, the situation is not too bad. If the coach, however, gives one the impression he does not have confidence in their skills anymore, it can be very challenging. In the latter case, P5 thinks it is best to move on and focus on preparing for new tasks at another club.

P6 mentioned that in case of not extending his contract, i.e. leaving the club in the upcoming transfer window, coaches have more or less signalled him that his services would no longer be needed. This created a tension between the coach and the player, and

P6 wished the coach would have shown more professionalism. Particularly for young players, he claims, it can be an enormous challenge if coaches do not explain their

decisions as it fosters an uncertain situation, particularly uneasy for the young player. P4 also confirms that not being chosen for the team anymore and not being given a reason for it leads to self-doubt. P3 argues that every coach has to be a mental coach as well and it is their responsibility to keep those not playing in high spirits. At the same time, he reassures that every player still has to deal with difficult situations like any other employee in their day-to-day job (“We are not so different”). P1 also added that it is essential for a football players’ reputation to also give 120 % when things do not work out as planned.

When asked about a potential conflict of interested in the case of not playing yet rooting for the team, the responses of P3, P5 and P6 differed vastly. While P1, P2, P4, P7, P8 and

P9 assured they would support the team, P3, P5 and P5 claimed they would not be able to fully stand behind the team and rather hope for a peer playing in their respective position to produce critical errors, putting themselves in the coach’s favour. P3 went as far as claiming he’d wish for the team to lose, while P5 and P6 would only hope for their inner-team rivals to show a poor display. All three players had been in those situations before.

In addition to the interviewed players, three club representatives were interviewed to confirm the validity of the players’ statements and to provide further insight. While not too much valuable information could be extracted from these interviews, some interesting points are to mention. When asked about motivation for football players, R3 responded that players should not need any additional motivation. Young players are usually perceived as more motivated as they want to prove themselves to be on the same level as their more experienced peers. However, individual personality traits play a big role.

Furthermore, R3 described dissatisfied players as essential to squads as such as squad would have to be “seriously questioned”. In terms of leadership, R3 (who has been a coach for 10+ years) sees himself as authentic and variable in terms of communication style. He refers to his role as “boss and advisor at the right time”. Regular first-team players do not require as much attention as the rest of the squad, which can prove a big challenge.

The responses of R1 and R2 only differed slightly. R1 mentioned the use of a personality coach in his club, a service used by a number of players. Players from overseas receive significant assistance in the first few months, including language coaches, flats, cars and support for family members. According to R2, this is also as foreign players are often seen as investment. R1 mentioned cooking sessions (i.e. 2 players per week preparing breakfast every day) and regular conversations with players.

4.3. Analysis of Core Statements

Analyzing the key player statements mentioned in the previous section, a few interesting points emerge, some of which are congruent with previously mentioned literature while some of which seem contradictory.

The information gathered on the subject of motivation uncovered some key motivational factors for players, some of which are mentioned in literature. Particularly Rotella’s idea of having the optimistic and persistent mind-set of a champions seems to be popular among players. The research showed that tools such as visualization are not a widely used tool in Austria just yet, which indicates there might be room for future coaches and mental

coaches to familiarize players with it. Furthermore, reflection does not seem to be too popular either.

Fringe benefits are indeed being used in Austria to motivate players and to support them in their lives as professionals. However, not many types of fringe benefits were mentioned, as opposed to the literature. Furthermore, some players’ statements reveal that larger clubs in terms of size and revenue act more professional and offer a larger number of benefits. When asked about whether provided fringe benefits would play a significant role in the decision process between two clubs, answers were contradictory, with two players claiming they would certainly take them into consideration, one player being rather uncertain and the remaining five players insisting on money as the only relevant factor. With both players significantly valuing non-monetary compensation more than their older peers, this might indicate a shift in values across generations, confirming recent literature on the matter.

In regard to group dynamics, the perception of hierarchy seems to be different between younger and older players, with the younger athletes preferring flat hierarchies and the older colleague witnessing a slowly occurring shift within recent years. The reported dynamics within teams in terms of the mentioned group properties are congruent with the respective literature. A potential change in locker room behavior might again be a shift in values. The increasing in pressure over the last years can be indirectly attributed to the monetization of football and the rise of social media. However, this might be somewhat contradictory to the mentioning of the value tradition by two players. The two players did in fact play at the same club, however, not at the same time. This indicates that the culture of this club may particularly popular among Austrian players as two others also played at

this club and both mentioned the friendly and professional environment. Both also emphasized on the positive stadium atmosphere during games and interaction with fan groups Player attributing pressure to primarily be put on them by outside parties creates the impression of relatively low pressure within Austrian football squads. Surprisingly, no friction of conflicts because of pay inequalities were mentioned, which might be due to the inappropriateness to talk about salary in Austria.

Out of all revelations, that statement of three players claiming they would put themselves as much before the team as to wish seeing their colleagues fail, strikes as most surprising.

This statement somewhat debunks the illusion of football being a team sports in which team work trumps individual success and money is not important. This clearly is not the case and also sheds new light on the role of cohesion within teams.

As indicated earlier in this paper, the results of this research could also be of use to researchers in the field of business management and managers in the business world.

Particularly in regard to group dynamics, the insights gained in terms of team cohesion and rivalry could be applied to groups in organizations as well. Comparing the prospect of a potential job promotion to gaining a spot in the starting line-up of a football team shows similar rivalries, i.e. performing better than colleagues while being in line with the overall goals of the group. Furthermore, fringe benefits such as phone contracts, corporate clothing, flats, cars and assistance with various administrative tasks are known to be helpful in businesses to help employees focus on their tasks, boost productivity, and attract and retain staff.

To conclude this section of core statements, the following table provides an overview of some of the most important and/or revealing paraphrased statements made by players.

Since the interviews with club representatives did not reveal additional relevant information, these statements are not included in the following table.

Table 4: Summary of Core Statements

Topic Statement Motivation Large spectator crowds significantly contribute to higher motivation Motivation Parents were the main influencers in their early careers (childhood) Motivation Money is always a main motivational factor Motivation Players want to make as much money as possible in as little time as possible Fringe benefits All clubs covered in the research sample offer fringe benefits in some way Fringe benefits Clubs provide thorough assistance for players after transferring to their new club Fringe benefits Fringe benefits do not (yet) seem to play an overly significant role when deciding between two clubs Group dynamics Hierarchies have become flatter and somewhat less important for players Group dynamics Salary is not a popular topic amongst players Group dynamics Integration into a new team is not seen as big challenge by players Pressure Players see pressure as necessary part of their job Coaches as motivators Younger coaches try to incorporate flatter hierarchies and more open communication Coaches as motivators Most coaches approach players to talk if they feel their performance is off Coaches as motivators Lack of communication, especially when correlating with a lack of playing time, is perceived as strongly negative

by players Playing time Players are aware that no player can feature in competitions all the time Playing time Players find dealing with a lack of playing time particularly difficult after injuries Playing time Players wish clearer communication in case of not extended contracts Playing time Some players claim to unconditionally support the team in any situation while others hope for the team and particularly rivals within the squad to perform poorly

5. Discussion and Conclusion

In the last part of this paper, the results of the conducted study will be briefly discussed, summarized and concluded. This will serve as synopsis of the major research findings used to answer the research questions. Furthermore, the limitations of this study will be reflected upon and recommendations will be given.

Discussion

To answer the initial research question “How do players’ self-initiatives and clubs’ incentives influence the motivation of Austrian professional football players?”, it can be said that all players in the research pool differed in their personality, values, career paths, perception of teamwork and team cohesion. Furthermore, clubs showed different approaches in positively influencing their players’ motivation, ranging from almost no measures in predominantly smaller clubs to significant actions in larger clubs.

Summarizing the findings of the research, players on one hand positively influence their own motivation by being persistent and having an optimistic mind-set, providing and benefiting from a good morale within the team, to which they also contribute.

Additionally, they further push themselves if faced with a large crowd at home and away games, and by interaction with fan groups outside of competitive action. Contrarily, negative influence on motivation is mostly created by the absence of the aforementioned factors and a lack of conversation with decision makers.

On the other hand, clubs influence their players’ motivation primarily by providing an environment that allows them to focus on performance. This is amongst other activities done by fringe benefits that vary greatly in their extent between clubs, team building exercises, and regular communication between the staff and players. Particularly a lack of the latter and personal conflicts with managers are frequent reasons for decreasing player motivation and often lead to player transfers.

To answer the sub-question to the primary research question “How do non-regularly playing squad members deal mentally with their situation and what measures to clubs undertake to support that process?”, it is again important to note the different ways both players and clubs cope with the situation, making it difficult to generalize and form a pattern. When not playing on a regular basis, most players tend to fight for their spot in the starting line-up, practice harder and try to convince the coach to select them for the match day squad. Most players understand that only a limited number of squad players can feature in a competition and are aware of their role in the squad, which is usually agreed upon when signing the contract. If the situation changes, players actively seek and appreciate communication with their coaches to identify potential weaknesses which then

depends on the leadership styles of the coaches. If the dissatisfaction persists after consultation, players may lose confidence and/or become upset with the club. In terms of rivalry, a clear majority of players puts themselves ahead of their colleagues, putting less emphasis on team and club goals in order to follow their own goals. This goes as far as hoping for failure of the team and inferior performance of peers.

Despite a research focus on non-monetary motivation, money was frequently mentioned as main driver for motivation by both clubs and players. This confirms that increased money being pumped into football is changing the sports. Overall, it seems the role and power of non-monetary motivation is somewhat known yet still largely underestimated by both sides. However, a noticeable shift in values towards appreciation of motivational factors other than monetary compensation, flatter hierarchies and more open communication may lead to new developments in the future.

Limitations

The results of this research set the foundation for a variety of potential further studies in the field of professional football, yet also show some weaknesses. Given the relatively small research sample, one might argue that Austrian football is not adequately represented. The possibility of gathering more data was constrained by the time limitations imposed on the completion of this research. Furthermore, as data was gathered in spring, most clubs and players were focused on the final fourth of the season and enjoyed holidays afterwards. This made it increasingly complicated to successfully approach players and gather information. In a broader sense, an increased demand for interviews by journalists due to the 2018 World Cup might have decreased particularly former international players’ motivation to be available for research.

Recommendations

Further research could be done on various levels, such as the self-initiatives players undertake to be motivated. Different approaches could be compared to performance indicators, either on individuals’ or clubs’ levels. Moreover, a closer look at clubs’ approaches could reveal the effectiveness of their measures. In this case, a quantitative study identifying correlation between various measures of clubs and success would be thinkable.

The small scale of the research as well as the low number of teams within the league did not allow to create detailed profiles of clubs, their provided fringe benefits and coaches’ leadership styles without compromising the interview players’ anonymity. A research done on larger scale could link these components into a framework while maintaining confidentiality.

The interesting revelation of conflicts of interest between the team and the individual opens up research opportunities in this field as well. Particularly given the money that is involved in football and football transfers, players’ choice between the “I” and “we” might become more complex and require academic attention.

In any case remains the field of professional football a highly diverse and complex environment that offers research opportunities in various areas of study. Due to the ongoing monetization of the sports and dynamic changes in league formats and technology, the development of professional football will be interesting to observe for many years to come.

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Appendix 1

Cultural similarities

With Austria, Germany, Switzerland and the Czech Republic all being Central European countries, some similarities in culture are evident. The respective norms and values symptomatic for each country’s own culture are most likely embedded in the mind sets of players, managers and key decision makers in clubs. Consequently, they are also present in the external environment of a club (media, fans etc.) and might reflect in the ways club do business. Applying Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimension framework to the four countries, it becomes apparent that they share some commonalities (Hofstede, 2018).

Figure 1: Hofstede’s Cultural Framework Comparison (AT, CZ, GE, CH, 2018)

Particularly in regard to uncertainty avoidance, the degree to which individuals feel uncomfortable with uncertainty (Hofstede, 2009), all four countries share a similar score, with only Switzerland diverting slightly. Resent research by Dennehy (2017) has shown that uncertainty avoidance can to some extent be linked to the phenomenon of home advantage. Long term orientation in regard to football might be linked to players’ career and clubs’ overall and squad planning. Individualism, the focus on oneself rather than the

collective “we” (Hofstede, 2009), has also been subject to research in correlation with

Home Advantage amongst other indicators for national culture (Gelade, 2015).

Furthermore, Austria, Germany and Switzerland (partly) share the same language.

Performance and structure similarities

In regard to the performance of the respective league’s teams and the structure of the

Austrian, German, Czech and Swiss leagues, some similarities emerge. Out of the four leagues, Germany differs the most with more teams per league, far more national team players relative to the total number of players, and a higher UEFA coefficient ranking.

However, the German and Austrian professional leagues are connected by many Austrian players earning their pay in Germany. As of 2018, 153 Austrian players representing a total market value of 196.33 million € are actively playing in Germany’s professional leagues as opposed to 147 German players worth 5.70 million € playing in Austria

(Transfermarkt, 2018). Austrian players in Bundesliga (1st division in Germany) have been credited with the second most goals and assists for the past two seasons 2017/18 and

2016/17, and have not been outside the top 10 of this ranking since the 2008/09 season

(Transfermarkt, 2018). In the historic ranking since 1963, Austria is placed 5th

(Transfermarkt, 2018). The comparison with the Czech Republic and Switzerland in terms of success and league size shows similarities as well, as shown below.

Table 5: Comparison of League Size and UEFA coefficient (AT, GE, CZ, CH)

As shown, Austria, Switzerland and the Czech Republic are ranked 11th to 13th on the

UEFA coefficient ranking, indicating similar success of clubs in UEFA Champions

League and Europa League (UEFA, 2018). Furthermore, Austria and Switzerland share the same number of first division teams. As a result, one can argue that any outcomes of this research can, to some extent, be of use to interested parties such as players, managers and club officials, in those countries.

Appendix 2

Rough interview outline/pool of questions for players

2-8 career general

9-16 current club

17-20 self-motivation

21-25 club motivation

26-38 non-regular playing

Note: Most interviews were conducted in German language and translation was done ad hoc. For better structure, the questions were split into contextually related categories.

1) Remarks about confidentiality

2) When did you first think about becoming a professional football player and what

was your motivation behind it?

3) Who and what influenced your decision? Were there any key influencers such as

parents, friends, mentors, managers etc.? Did anyone stand out?

4) What specific events showed a turning point in your career, if any, that shifted

your attitude towards your football career as it is today?

5) What were the biggest challenges you encountered in your career?

6) What do you consider to be your biggest success in your career?

7) What role does monetary compensation play for your decision whether to play for

club A or B?

8) What role does non-monetary compensation play for your decision whether to

play for club A or B?

9) How long have you played for your current club?

10) What were the biggest challenges when relocating/transferring to this club? (if

applicable)

11) (If stayed at club for 2+ years) Why did you stay at this club?

12) What is your overall perception of the club?

13) Do you see any differences between your current club and your former club(s),

and if so, what are they? (infrastructure, personnel, systems, different cultures,

hierarchies etc.)

14) What is your relationship to older and younger colleagues?

15) How do you perceive your role in the team in relation to your compensation?

16) How do you handle pressure within the team/from your manager?

17) What motivates you in football to push yourself to the limit and beyond?

What motivates you the most?

18) How do you motivate yourself on a match day?

19) How do you motivate yourself daily for training sessions?

20) What would you say are non-monetary incentives for you to perform at the top

of your game?

21) What other remuneration do you, apart from your salary, receive from your

club? (car, flat, clothing, equipment, support etc.)

22) Apart from your salary (obviously), what measures is the club taking to

motivate you?

23) How do you think do these non-monetary incentives provided by the club

influence your performance and your motivation to go the extra mile?

24) Do you think a significant difference in salary occasionally cause a

performance friction? Have you experienced this phenomenon?

25) If you were to be paid significantly more money, would you feel more

pressured?

26) Have you been in a situation where you have not been a regular player in the

starting line-up?

27) Have you been told by managers/club representatives that your services would

no longer be required or your contract would not be extended or even

terminated? If so, how did it feel?

28) How did this change your attitude during training sessions?

29) How did this change your attitude during match days?

30) What is the most difficult part of not featuring regularly in a competitive

environment?

31) What did you do to stay motivated during that time?

32) How did you convince the coaching staff of selecting you for first-team action

again?

33) How is in your experiences hierarchy within the squad established?

34) How far does your loyalty go in terms of rooting for the team, hoping for the best

and motivation colleagues in the starting line-up if you are not playing? Is there a

conflict of interest?

35) Have you experienced that one or more players did not perform to their ability

at all, even in training sessions? If so, what did the team do to confront them

with the problem or low performance?

36) Did the club/coaching staff undertake measures to make players perform again?

37) How did the club/coaching staff try to uphold the morale among this

player/these players?

38) Is it common amongst coaches to seek an open dialogue with players?

39) How did the club/coaching staff try to keep the balance within the squad, if

that was necessary in the first place?

40) Do have any advice for young and upcoming players for being

continuously ambitious and to deal with times of missing success? What

advice would you, reflecting on your career, give your younger self?

Appendix 2

Rough interview outline/pool of questions for club representatives

Note: all interviews with club representatives were conducted in German language

1) Remarks about confidentiality

2) What role does motivation of players in your experience play when it comes to

competitive success?

3) Is the motivation of players at your club somehow measures/enquired? Are there

regular conversations between staff and players?

4) Is there, in your experience, a difference in the degree of motivation between

younger and more experiences players?

5) What is the difference between younger and older players in terms of dealing

with sublime performances?

6) What is the difference between younger and older players in terms of dealing

with not playing on a regular basis or not playing at all?

7) How does hierarchy within the squad get created?

8) Assuming a player is, either in his colleagues’ opinion or in the staff’s opinion,

not motivated enough, what measures are being taken? What steps are taken to

resolve problems and/or conflicts and to motivate players?

9) When new players join the club, how are they perceived within the team? Is

there a certain procedure that is followed?

10) What measures, apart from monetary compensation, does your club undertake to

motivate its players (e.g. emotional bond between fans and players, involvement

of fans, charity events etc.)?

11) Apart from monetary compensation, what other benefits does your club provide

the players (e.g. car, flat, equipment, services, personnel)?

12) How do monetary (and non-monetary) compensation in your experience stay in

relation to the expected performance of a player?

13) To what extent are players’ contracts at your club bound to performance

bonuses? How does your club compare to other clubs?

14) Can contracts with strongly performance-based bonuses lead to conflict? Has

this happened in the past?

15) Does your coaching staff regularly hold team building events (e.g. team

dinners)?

16) Assuming that regularly playing squad members (starting XI and regular

substitutes) might be motivated in most cases, one could say that the “last 7” or

so of the squad are more difficult to motivate. What do you think of this

assumption?