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Nikki Coleman Does the Australian Defence Force have a compelling justification for the duty to obey orders? Nikki Coleman UNSW Canberra School of Humanities and Social Sciences A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 2016 Table of Contents Page Originality Statement i Ethics Approval ii Abbreviations and acronyms iv Acknowledgements v Preface vii Chapter 1. Introduction 1 Chapter 2. The Unlimited Liability Contract 1. What is the unlimited liability contract? 21 2. Military culture and obedience 22 3. Requirement to obey orders 27 4. Traditional understandings 31 5. Underlying assumptions regarding military obedience 38 6. Problems with the ULC 43 1. The ULC as an undefined concept 43 2. Problems with the term “unlimited” 45 3. Problems with the term “liability” 46 4. Problems with the term “contract” 47 5. The many names of the ULC 50 6. When the ULC is abused 51 7. An older (outdated) understanding of military obedience 52 6. The unlimited liability contract 57 Chapter 3. Why do soldiers have to obey orders? 1. Introduction 59 2. The relationship between society and the military 60 1. Standing Armies 61 2. Standing Navies 62 3. The basis for obeying orders 63 4. Justification for the requirement for soldiers to obey orders 65 1. Because they “signed up for this" 66 2. Operational effectiveness 68 a. Esprit de corps and horizontal loyalty 69 b. Good order and discipline 70 c. Following orders on the battlefield 72 3. Is obedience in the military the only way for operational 76 effectiveness to be created and maintained? a. Police and the duty to obey orders 76 b. Are police able to be operationally effective 79 c. Are PMCs able to be operationally effective? 81 d. Are PMCs able to be militarily effective? 83 5. Scope of orders 84 6. Why do soldiers have to obey orders? 85 Chapter 4. Citizenship and supra civis 1. Introduction 87 2. Rights and responsibilities of citizenship 87 3. Shift in importance between the state and the individual citizen 90 4. Citizenship in Australia 93 5. Rights and responsibilities of Australian citizenship 94 6. What is a good citizen? 97 7. Who fulfils the responsibilities of citizenship in Australia? 98 8. Are soldiers the only citizens who take on extra responsibilities 102 of citizenship? 9. Supra Civis 103 10. What does Supra Civis mean for individual soldiers? 106 11. What does Supra Civis mean for the military as an organisation? 107 Chapter 5. The Future of Orders for the Australian Defence Force 1. Introduction 109 2. Option One – complete obedience 110 1. Problems 112 a. Only obeying legal orders 112 b. Atrocities by soldiers 114 c. Exploitation of soldiers 116 i. Medical experimentation 117 ii. Non-use of commonly used safety standards 120 iii. Moral injury 122 iv. By individuals within the defence hierarchy 123 v. Complete obedience no longer reflects society’s 124 views on the military 2. Complete obedience 125 3. Option Two – complete obedience by soldiers with the ADF 126 complying with all workplace health and safety laws 1. Problems 127 a. What WHS laws cover ADF personnel? 127 b. Who decides which laws apply to the ADF? 133 c. How are the rights of soldiers respected? 134 2. Complete obedience plus WHS laws obeyed by the ADF 135 4. Option Three – operational and garrison orders 139 1. Problems 141 a. How to determine if an order is operational or 141 garrison b. Who has the authority to decide on the nature 142 of an order c. Command and discipline, and operational capacity 143 2. Operational and garrison orders 144 5. Option Four – standard and life orders 144 1. Problems 146 2. Standard and life orders 148 6. Option Five – no-orders in the ADF 148 1. Problems 149 a. No rules being followed 149 b. Decline of unit cohesion and morale 153 c. Psychological contract/military covenant 153 d. Insubordination 155 e. Military effectiveness and operational capability 155 f. Psychological distress 156 2. No-orders in the ADF 156 7. The future of orders in the ADF 157 Chapter 6. The F-111 deseal/reseal case study analysed 1. Introduction 159 2. The history of the F-111 in Australia and the deseal/reseal case 159 3. F-111 Case study analysis : complete obedience 173 1. Only obeying legal orders 174 2. Non-use of commonly used safety standards 175 3. Complete obedience no longer reflects society’s views 177 on the military 4. The four causal pathways 179 5. Case study analysis – complete obedience 179 4. F-111 Case study analysis : complete obedience with the ADF 180 complying with workplace health and safety laws 1. Which WHS laws cover ADF personnel? 181 2. Are the rights of soldiers respected? 184 3. The four causal pathways 184 4. Case study analysis – complete obedience with the ADF 185 Complying with workplace health and safety laws 5. F-111 Case study analysis : operational and garrison orders 185 1. Delineation between different categories of orders 186 2. The four causal pathways 186 3. Case study analysis - operational and garrison orders 187 6. F-111 case study analysis : standard and life orders 188 1. Delineation between different categories of orders 188 2. The four causal pathways 189 3. Case study analysis - standard and life orders 190 7. F-111 Case study analysis : no-orders in the ADF 191 1. No rules will be obeyed 192 2. Decline of unit cohesion and morale 193 3. Psychological contract/military covenant 193 4. Insubordination 194 5. Military effectiveness and operational capability 194 6. Failure of the Air Force Medical Service 196 7. Relative powerlessness of maintenance workers 196 8. Reliance and failure on personal protective equipment 197 9. Limitations of the chain of command 197 10. Case study analysis : no-orders in the ADF 198 8. F-111 Case study analysis 198 9. Recommendations to the ADF 200 Conclusion 1. Summary of main arguments 205 2. Scope and limitations of this thesis 208 3. Significant contributions 209 4. Future avenues of research 212 5. Final reflection 213 Bibliography 215 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: Coleman First name: Nicole (Nikki) Other name/s: Louise Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD School: Humanities and Social Sciences Faculty: UNSW Canberra Title: Does the Australian Defence Force have a compelling justification for the duty to obey orders? Abstract At the turn of the twentieth century the understanding of society was that the rights of the state to survive outweighed the rights of the individual. This communitarian understanding was reflected in military tactics such as the sacrifice of soldiers through the extensive use of trench warfare in the battle of the Somme in 1916. Over the past century there has been a shift in the understanding of society to the point where there is much more of a focus on the rights of individuals. Trench warfare tactics would be inconceivable for military commanders in 2016, where remote warfare tactics, such as the use of drones, are utilised in an attempt to reduce the number of casualties amongst soldiers. The justification for the duty to obey all orders has previously been that the rights of the state to survive outweigh the rights of individual soldiers. Given the shift in the understanding of society with regards to the importance of the individual vis-à-vis the rights of the state, the question this thesis examines, is “Does the Australian Defence Force (ADF) have a compelling justification for the duty to obey orders”? An examination of the “unlimited liability contract” is conducted in order to discern whether it is an outdated historical understanding of unrestricted service and the duty to obey orders in the ADF. After dismissing the position of Michael Walzer of soldiers as being mere servants of the state, a novel understanding of soldiers as supra civis, that is super citizens, who willingly take on the extra responsibilities of citizenship, is proposed. Further justifications given by the ADF in regards to the duty to obey orders are also examined. Five potential options for how the ADF may understand the duty to obey orders are also analysed. In order to gain a deeper understanding of these options the F-111 deseal/reseal case study is examined in light of each of the five potential options. Finally, a recommendation for how the ADF might understand the doctrine of the duty to obey orders is given. Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). rd 3 November 2016 …………………………………………………………… ……………………………………..……………… ……….……………………...…….… Signature Witness Signature Date The University recognises that there may be exceptional circumstances requiring restrictions on copying or conditions on use. Requests for restriction for a period of up to 2 years must be made in writing. Requests for a longer period of restriction may be considered in exceptional circumstances and require the approval of the Dean of Graduate Research. FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award: ORIGINALITY STATEMENT ‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis.
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