South-East Asia's Forest Fires

South-east Asia’s forest fires: blazing the policy trail

D ING L I Y ONG and K ELVIN S.-H. PEH

Abstract Transboundary haze pollution as a result of indis- burning across the region (Quah, ), which cause signifi- criminate land clearance by fire has significant health and cant damage to peat swamp and lowland dipterocarp forest economic impacts on member states of the Association of ecosystems, including those in protected areas such as South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN). Meanwhile the impact Giam-Siak Kecil (Fardah, ), Gunung Palung (Hiller of the associated carbon emissions, ecological disturbance et al., ) and Kutai National Park (van Nieuwstadt & and biodiversity loss extends well beyond South-east Asia. Sheil, ), with associated biodiversity loss and carbon emis- This is despite the fact there are relatively well-established sions (Cochrane, ;Pageetal.,;Gaveauetal.,). mechanisms to combat forest fires, and policy-level solu- Since the s forest fires and the resultant haze have tions have existed on paper for years. Although the fires served as an annual reminder of the failures of South-east are mostly in Indonesian territory, the involvement of mul- Asian governments and institutions in preventing trans- tiple hierarchies of stakeholders in Indonesia, Malaysia and boundary environmental problems. Monitoring and en- Singapore adds complexity to the quest for lasting solutions. forcement of a blanket ban on burning has proven A more robust approach is required from the region’sgov- difficult for the authorities, given that many forest fires ernments, especially in instilling accountability among large are started in small-scale, slash-and-burn land-clearance ac- companies, and this is feasible without increasing political tivities (Varma, ), and thus the problem continues de- tensions within ASEAN. Indonesia’s ratification of the spite recognition of the damage, improved surveillance Haze Agreement is a significant development but needs to capabilities and fire-control knowledge, and a variety of pol- be complemented with actions at the local (e.g. grassroot in- icy approaches formulated over the decades. Here we review itiatives in forest protection, firefighting, policing of illegal the underlying causes of South-east Asia’s forest fires and clearance practices), national (e.g. centralizing ministry- haze, and discuss policy options that could help to provide level control of forestry resources) and regional levels (e.g. a lasting redress of the problem. implementing compliance mechanisms and legal standards to tackle haze and forest fires). Ultimately, actions to combat forest fires may also help secure the long-term conservation Causes of the haze of biodiversity-rich peat swamps. Rather than being a source of discord, combating haze pollution could become South- Across South-east Asia land clearance using the slash- east Asia’s defining environmental project. and-burn method is common and is a leading cause of forest fires (Varma, ; Lohman et al., ). Much of the blame Keywords Air pollution, biodiversity, fire, haze, peat has been placed on oil palm plantations, including compa- swamp forest, socio-economics, South-east Asia nies registered in Singapore and Malaysia, based on evidence from satellite imagery and ground investigations. Investigations have also increasingly highlighted the role played by mid-level independent plantation owners and Introduction smallholders using similar methods to clear land cheaply   n mid June  a state of emergency was declared (Barber & Schweithelm, ; Quah, ; Ekadinata  Iwhen air pollution in Singapore and Peninsular et al., ). However, the fact that many large plantations Malaysia reached hazardous levels, exceeding  on the also host smallholders makes it difficult to identify whether Pollution Standards Index (Hussain & Teo, ; Sim, resident smallholders or the large corporate plantations are ; National Environment Agency, ). The problem re- directly responsible for these clearance practices (Gaveau  curred, on a smaller scale, in  during the dry period driven et al., ). To add further complexity to the problem the by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (Soeriaatmadja, a). slash-and-burn technique is traditionally used by subsist- The haze is the most visible manifestation of the forest fires ence farmers to clear land in many parts of Indonesia (Varma, ). Murdiyarso & Adiningsih () noted that forestry pol- DING LI YONG Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian icy and practices endorsed by the authorities, especially the National University, Canberra, Australia regulation of logging concessions, were partly to blame for ex- KELVIN S.-H. PEH (Corresponding author) Institute for Life Sciences, University acerbating forest clearance in Indonesian Borneo. Together of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK, and Conservation Science Group, University of Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK. E-mail [email protected] with natural bush fires, anthropogenic fires from land clear- Received  May . Revision requested  August . ance are exacerbated by seasonal drought and the El Niño Accepted  October . First published online  December . phenomenon, which drives dry conditions in the region

Oryx, 2016, 50(2), 207–212 © 2014 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531400088X Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.33.42, on 23 Sep 2021 at 17:42:46, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531400088X 208 D. L. Yong and K. S.-H. Peh

(Heil & Goldammer, ). In areas of peat swamp forest it Glover & Jessup, ) as well as suffering indirect, longer- can take months to extinguish underground fires in the term effects from cancers linked to inhalation of smoke highly combustible peat substrates (Page et al., ; (Johnston et al., ; Marlier et al., ). The haze also Lohman et al., ), releasing significant amounts of carbon has an economic impact on the region. ‘Stay at home’ advi- dioxide into the atmosphere (Gaveau et al., ). sories from national governments in the affected countries lead directly to loss of productivity and shrinking economies (Wong, ). Tourism, a major source of revenue for Impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems Singapore and Malaysia, is among the first industries to suffer; preliminary estimates indicate losses of c. USD  mil- For a region recognized as a biodiversity hotspot (Myers lion in this sector, assuming an –% decline in arrivals et al., ) the loss of biodiversity in lowland dipterocarp (Singh, ). Meanwhile, transport delays, accidents and and peat swamp forest ecosystems across Sumatra and cancellations as a result of poor visibility disrupt the shipping Borneo has received little attention from the media or industry and airlines, leading to cascade effects on logistics for from decision makers at the highest levels of government, industries such as construction. Where areas of production despite the evidence of forest destruction revealed by satel- forests and timber plantations are damaged by fire (Nicolas lite images and on-the-ground surveys. Forest fires destroy &Beebe,) the multi-million dollar logging industry or damage large numbers of trees, impeding natural suc- also suffers from losses. Although there are no rigorous esti- cession and altering the floristic composition of surviving mates of economic losses as a result of recent fire episodes, vegetation in the process (e.g. Slik et al., ), and trigger- those generated during the sindicatethatSingapore ing a positive feedback loop where fire-damaged forests are alone may have suffered losses of up to USD  million rendered more vulnerable to future fire events (Cochrane, from one such episode (Glover & Jessup, ). ). Smoke from forest fires may also cause a reduction in productivity during dipterocarp masting events (Curran et al., ). Moreover, these fires damage and fragment degraded forest patches as well as pristine forests, reducing the What has been done and why it has not worked extent, quality and value of remaining habitat for surviving There is a well-established framework to combat forest fires wildlife. Some species may increase in abundance after fires and it is pursued on multiple fronts to target the diverse sta- but many suffer declines (e.g. Cleary, ), and surviving keholders. In Indonesia, preventive measures have included individuals are likely to perish if they are unable to find incentives for agricultural stakeholders to clear land using food, or fail to re-establish new territories in remnant habi- alternative means instead of burning (Chang, ), disincen- tats (Cochrane, ; Posa et al., ). In Sundaic tives such as fines, and awareness programmes targeting local South-east Asia many species affected already face threats communities. At a bilateral level Singapore and Malaysia, in such as habitat loss and hunting. These include a number collaboration with Indonesia, have coordinated mitigation ef- of ecologically important species such as the orang-utan forts in the form of community outreach, development of a Pongo spp. (Wich et al., ), Asian elephant Elephas max- haze warning system, knowledge-sharing in peatland re- imus, tiger Panthera tigris and various hornbill species habilitation, and capacity building for fire managers and (Bucerotidae). Furthermore, forest primary productivity other grassroot-level personnel (Quah & Varkkey, ). may be affected, at least in the short term, given the reduced The Australian government has helped establish IndoFire, a photosynthetic capacity arising from elevated levels of aero- real-time online tool for monitoring hotspots in Indonesia sol and atmospheric pollutants (Davies & Unam, ; (IndoFire, ). At a regional level countries of the Kobayashi et al., ), with consequences for ecosystem Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN) affected functioning and processes. In the long term an altered land- by the haze have cooperated on fire-fighting and formulating scape configuration resulting from completely burnt-over policies to tackle the haze. For example, ministerial-level forests, with remaining forest patches occurring within a steering committee meetings have reviewed the  heavily degraded landscape matrix, is likely to hinder dis- Regional Haze Action Plan, resulting in the formulation of persal of wildlife. Increased accessibility of isolated wildlife the  ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze populations to poachers further increases the risk of Pollution (Nguitragool, ), a legally binding treaty ratified extirpation. by all South-east Asian nations, most recently Indonesia. A lasting solution to the haze problem remains elusive, Socioeconomic impacts however. The blanket ban on using fires to clear land in Indonesia (Glover & Jessup, ) has limited effectiveness, Haze pollution has affected the health of South-east Asia’s given the deep-rooted nature of clearance practices among human population, with an estimated  million people regu- local farmers and smallholders. Furthermore, bringing re- larly placed at risk of respiratory problems (Sastry, ; calcitrant plantation owners to justice has proved

challenging because political will and enforcement capabili- review its engagement strategy and implement appropriate ties are lacking, and the permitting process is beset by cor- reforms, which we recommend should include the ruption at multiple levels (Hussain, a). following: Another problem lies in divergent policies and actions resulting from the involvement of multiple ministries (Forestry, Agriculture, Home and Environment), and provincial and Local empowerment district governments in tackling Indonesia’s forest fires, each Bottom-up initiatives need to be encouraged through grass- with different agendas and resource limitations (Glover & roots involvement to cultivate local ownership of sustain- Jessup, ;Varkkey,). The situation is further compli- able development and forest protection, especially at the cated by problems with decentralization leading to increased village (desa) and district (kecematan) levels. For example, control of forestry resource regulations by the central within the affected provinces in Sumatra and Kalimantan, government in Jakarta, resulting in district governments local community networks could be formed to disseminate being in conflict with the forestry ministry (Varkkey, ). information on the location of hotspots and coordinate Problems of perception also exist. The fact that forest fires evacuation and fire-fighting efforts. are largely confined to Sumatra, Borneo and remote West Such efforts have been impeded by the lack of public ac- Papua may create a flawed perception among Indonesian leg- cess to complete, up-to-date concession maps, making it dif- islators in Jakarta that these are localized natural disasters ficult for the public to exert pressure on errant companies or (Pereira, ) and the need for regional cooperation through individuals. At the ASEAN sub-regional ministerial meeting ASEAN is an irrelevant constraint. on  July  a conditional agreement was made to share National sovereignty and nationalist sentiments add updated concession maps between governments but not another barrier by limiting cross-border cooperation be- with the public (Hussain, b). Crowd-sourcing by tween Indonesia and neighbouring countries (Varkkey, means of citizen mapping could be a potential solution to ). Despite pressure from other ASEAN governments, the problem, with teams of amateur mappers and volunteers earlier ratification of the Haze Agreement was blocked re- working with simple, open-source tools such as Google Map peatedly by powerful parties in the Indonesian parliament Maker (Google, Mountain View, USA) to chart forest and regional authorities, citing nationalist concerns and a boundaries, hotspots and concessions. Although there perceived lack of credibility (Nguitragool, ). A bilateral may be limitations in the logistics needed to centralize collaboration between Singapore and the provincial govern- and integrate the data collected, such collaboratively com- ment of Jambi (Indonesia) to support fire-fighting and miti- piled maps could be circulated to the wider community, gation efforts was unilaterally terminated by Indonesia in authorities and local NGOs. By linking afflicted areas with , largely based on nationalist considerations (Toh, the plantation companies involved, a higher level of corpor- ). A similar project between Malaysia and the Riau ate accountability could be expected, or at least culprits provincial government also ended in impasse (Quah & could be identified. Varkkey, ). Twelve years after the Transboundary Haze Agreement  was conceived, Indonesia ratified the agreement on National-level consensus and coordination September , the last ASEAN member state to do so (Soeriaatmadja, b). The  ASEAN Cooperation Indonesia remains integral in providing the impetus to Plan on Transboundary Pollution had limited effect in pre- tackle haze pollution. Despite the former Indonesian venting forest fires; it focused on man-made fires but failed President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s unprecedented to make explicit the sensitive domestic issues in Indonesia apology to neighbouring countries during the  haze epi- that cause the fires, particularly illegal logging and unsus- sode (Hussain, c), more needs to be done to impress tainable land use (Nguitragool, ). The continuation of upon Indonesia’s political elite and legislators that a solution the haze crisis is a timely reminder of ASEAN’s weakness to the problem is needed without delay. A number of posi- in finding solutions to cross-border environmental prob- tive steps for forest conservation were pursued during lems, given its style of regional engagement, non- President Yudhoyono’s tenure, in particular a moratorium interference and consensus-building, emphasizing national on deforestation (Murdiyarso et al., ), a national action sovereignty (Nguitragool, ). plan to cut greenhouse gas emissions (MNDP/NDPA, ), and the establishment of a national REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation)   Charting the way ahead plan and agency (Presidential Regulation No. / ). The launch of the One Map initiative in , an on-going Notwithstanding the challenges, a lasting redress is possible. effort to consolidate various maps into a standardized ver- The haze crisis presents an opportunity for ASEAN to sion, will also help synchronize land concession information

between various stakeholder ministries (Samadhi, ) and ecologically significant carbon sinks as protected areas, will facilitate the government’s efforts to tackle forest fires. which could also improve ASEAN’s credibility Indonesia could further take the lead by aligning environ- internationally. mental protection with other high-priority issues such as Singapore’s attempt to adopt extraterritorial regulations trade and foreign affairs; this would remind mid-level de- and explore possibilities for legal action against companies cision makers that environmental problems are serious responsible for environmental pollution (Toh, ) has cul- and need to be tackled, in contrast with the current minated in the Transboundary Haze Pollution Act  ASEAN practice of separating trade from environmental (Chua, ). Although no prosecutions have yet been concerns. made, those responsible for haze-causing fires on their Indonesia is still adapting to a decentralized political land may be subject to lawsuits and loss of investment system, with provincial governments unable to respond (Feng, a). Although there are challenges involved in as swiftly or with adequate resources to tighten enforce- sharing the information needed for prosecutions, parti- ment or deploy fire-fighting resources. Thus, the central cularly concession maps, some progress has been made government in Jakarta would need to exercise greater pol- in the adoption of the ASEAN Sub-Regional Haze itical resolve to ensure that national environmental regula- Monitoring System proposed by Singapore, and more re- tions take precedence over local rules (Ibrahim & Hussain, cently the finalization of a new memorandum of under- ). It remains to be seen how far the administration of standing between Singapore and the Jambi provincial the new president, Joko Widodo, who was inaugurated on government (Feng, b).  October , will take these measures and implement Singapore and Malaysia need to update their in-country tighter regulations to tackle Indonesia’s environmental cost analyses of the haze situation on a regular basis and seek problems in general and the haze and forest fires in compensation from the companies prosecuted by the particular. Indonesian government. Finally, richer member states such as Singapore could invest in better forest protection by supporting REDD+ policies in Indonesia. Regional cooperation

The potential of a fully integrated approach by ASEAN in International outreach tackling transboundary environmental problems cannot be underestimated. Past failures in addressing the haze Besides action at various institutional levels, responsible problem and the recent outrage in the affected countries consumers can influence the behaviour of palm oil compa- could provide the impetus for future institutional reform, nies by demanding environmentally sustainable products and ASEAN will need to review its model of soft engage- (Mahbubani, ). Some of the biggest companies in the ment in tackling transboundary problems, and establish palm oil and paper industries have committed to zero solidarity across member states in addressing these prob- deforestation and sustainable production (e.g. Wilmar lems. Indonesia has made significant progress by ratifying International, ), and other companies operating in the the Haze Agreement and implementing its plan of action region must follow suit. Individuals and international in dealing with forest fires. ASEAN needs to ensure that NGOs can harness the global reach of social media to pub- the agreement is legally binding, with long-term monitoring licize the burning issues underlying the haze and commit to and compliance mechanisms in place. boycotting companies implicated, while ensuring more re- In the interest of better ASEAN integration it is essential sponsible companies have financial incentives to adopt to harmonize legal standards across the region and to best practices and green certification. strengthen legal frameworks for the region. The rule of Applying these recommendations will be challenging and law should be the foundation of a framework for executing will require the collective will of institutions in South-east ASEAN’s environmental projects, guiding the interactions Asia. For the region as a whole, however, this is a crisis between member states when environmental crises with an opportunity: the haze could become an impetus for arise. Under the Rio Declaration on Environment and collaboration within ASEAN to address the challenges of bio- Development, states are responsible for preventing activities diversity loss and environmental protection. Recent political under their jurisdiction from causing damage to the en- movements such as the first Indonesian government audit of vironment of other states (Koh & Ewing-Chow, ). plantation companies in August  (Soeriaatmadja, c) As a last resort, international arbitration, an established ap- and the merging of the Indonesian Forestry and Environment proach to settle disputes among member states in the past, Ministries into one entity in October  (Hussain, ) should be sought. Given that Indonesia and Malaysia hold may be cause for optimism that broader efforts to tackle forest the largest expanses of peat swamp forests in South-east fires in the region are gaining momentum; and the ratifi- Asia, the onus is on both countries to designate these cation of the ASEAN haze pact by Indonesia may indicate

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