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British Newspaper Representations of the Broadcasting Ban Max Petti E The Oxygen of Publicity and the Suffocation of Censorship: British newspaper representations of the broadcasting ban ( 1988 - 1994 ) Max Petti erew School of Journalism. Media and Cultural Studies Cardiff University This thesis is submitted to Cardiff University in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2011 UMI Number: U584575 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U584575 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Declaration This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed Date Statement 1 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, expect where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledges by explicit references. Signed Date Statement 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed Date Acknowledgments First and foremost, I would like to thank my PhD supervisors, Dr Paul Mason and Professor Simon Cottle, for their continual support and feedback. I would also like to thank all the other brilliant members in the School of Journalism, Media and Cultural Studies at Cardiff University who helped me along the way, especially Dr David Machin for sharing his knowledge on analysing linguistics and discourse. There are two scholars outside of Cardiff University that I would also like to acknowledge and thank: Dr John E. Richardson for his kind and encouraging emails when I began to explore Critical Discourse Analysis and Mike Jempson for his useful recollections of the broadcasting ban and resistance to it. I would also like to thank my family, Maggie, Jon and Suzannah Pettigrew, my partner, Victoria Waters, and my great friends. Dr James Rosbrook-Thompson, Alastair Reid and Dr Lucy Bennett for all their encouragement. Abstract This thesis analyses British newspaper representations of the broadcasting ban during the periods the British government introduced and lifted it in 1988 and 1994. The orthodox position promoted by terrorism ‘experts’ in academia is critiqued for its propagandists approach to the political violence of state and non-state combatants and its legacy of normalising media censorship. It is argued here that the position of orthodox scholars on the mass media and ‘terrorism’ is ultimately designed to encourage and legitimise pressure against the mass media during conflicts so as to increase state dominance of public perceptions. By suggesting the problem is the ‘oxygen of publicity’, it follows that the solution is the suffocation of censorship. The role of journalists in the propaganda war during the Northern Ireland conflict is scrutinised in this thesis to discover the extent to which media workers in the British print media supported and resisted British government direct censorship against the British broadcast media. Combining content analysis and critical discourse analysis (CDA), journalistic constructions of the broadcasting ban in British newspaper articles are explored quantitatively and qualitatively. British newspaper articles representing the Northern Ireland conflict during the periods when the British government introduced and lifted the ban are analysed to reveal the newsworthiness of the broadcasting ban in both periods. The discursive composition of broadcasting ban newspaper articles is also analysed to reveal the discourses supporting and opposing the censorship that were circulating in the House of Commons as well as British newspapers and non-elite spheres of society when the British government introduced and lifted the broadcasting ban. A combination of textual analysis techniques are used to explain how these discourses functioned to build support and opposition to the ban, how journalists represented social actors expressing these discourses and how they were refracted by journalists through reported speech. After analysing British newspaper representations of the broadcasting ban, discursive and social practices impacting British journalists during the periods the British government introduced and lifted the ban are considered. An important conclusion of this thesis is that British journalists largely perpetuated discourses supporting the broadcasting ban. However, this is explained by the allegiances of newspaper owners and editors with the Conservative Party, the generic conventions of newspapers and articles, the reliance of journalists on elite sources, the weakness of media workers after Wapping and the decades of pressure on media workers to report the Northern Ireland conflict in line with the British government perspective, rather than because journalists embraced British government censorship of the British broadcast media. List of figures Graph 4.1 - Subjects of Northern Ireland conflict newspaper articles 74 Graph 4.2 - Broadcasting ban newspaper articles in each newspaper 75 Graph 4.3 - Broadcasting ban mentions in each newspaper 75 Graph 4.4 - Broadcasting ban mentions in subject categories 76 Graph 4.5 - Images with broadcasting ban and total newspaper articles 77 Graph 4.6 - Genre of broadcasting ban and total newspaper articles 77 Graph 4.7 - Prominence of broadcasting ban and total newspaper articles 78 Graph 4.8 - Size of broadcasting ban and total newspaper articles 79 Table 4.1 - Discourses in broadcasting ban newspaper articles during 1988 81 Table 4.2 - Discourses in broadcasting ban newspaper articles during 1994 83 C o n ten ts Introduction 1 Chapter 1 - The mass media and ‘terrorism’ 5 1.1 Defining terrorism - the orthodox position 5 1.2 Defining terrorism - the critical position 7 1.3 The Contagion Effect 10 1.4 New media and ‘terrorism’ 11 1.5 Symbiosis - the propagandists approach to terrorism 12 1.6 Symbiosis - the literal approach to terrorism 14 1.6.1 Degrees of dependence and exposure 15 1.6.2 Not all publicity is good publicity 17 1.6.3 Non-state terrorism sells 18 1.7 The mass media and the suffocation of censorship 19 1.8 The mass media and ‘counter-terrorism’ 21 1.9 The mass media and ‘terrorism’: summary 23 Chapter 2 — The British mass media and the Northern Ireland conflict 25 2.1 The silence before 1968 25 2.2 The ‘reference upwards’ system sifter 1971 29 2.2.1 Real Lives - At the Edge o f the Union (1985) 33 2.2.2 This Week - Death on the Rock (1988) 35 2.3 The British mass media and British law 36 2.4 The broadcasting ban (1988-1994) 37 2.4.1 Contextualising the broadcasting ban 37 2.4.2 The official line 39 2.4.3 The impact of the broadcasting ban 41 2.5 The peace process (1994-2007) 43 2.6 The British mass media and the Northern Ireland conflict: summary 47 Chapter 3 - Methodological Approach 50 3.1 Research questions 51 3.2 Sampling and data collection 52 3.3 Northern Ireland conflict subject categories 55 3.4 Combining research methods 58 3.5 Content Analysis 58 3.6 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) 59 3.6.1 The theory of CDA 60 3.6.2 The practice of CDA in this research 62 3.6.3 Analysing texts 63 3.6.4 Analysing discursive and social practices 65 3.6.5 The politics of CDA 67 3.7 Methodological approach: summary 71 Chapter 4 - Content Analysis: Textual Analysis I 74 Content Analysis - textual analysis I: summary 85 Chapter 5 - Critical Discourse Analysis: Textual Analysis II 87 5.1 Foregrounding and naming the Republican Movement 87 5.1.1 Introducing the ban (1988) 88 5.1.2 Lifting the ban (1994) 97 5.2 Starving the ‘terrorists’ of the ‘oxygen of publicity’ 99 5.2.1 Introducing the ban (1988) 102 5.2.2 Lifting the ban (1994) 105 5.3 There’s a similar ban in the Irish Republic 107 5.3.1 Introducing the ban (1988) 109 5.3.2 Subverting the discourse 112 5.3.3 Lifting the ban (1994) 114 5.4 Tactical opposition to the broadcasting ban 114 5.4.1 The ban is beneficial to the IRA 115 5.4.2 Introducing the ban (1988) 118 5.4.3 Lifting the ban (1994) 120 5.5 Principled opposition to the broadcasting ban 123 5.5.1 Introducing the ban (1988) 124 5.5.2 Lifting the ban (1994) 127 5.6 Ban was a farce because of dubbing 130 5.7 Critical Discourse Analysis - textual analysis II: summary 137 Chapter 6 — Critical Discourse Analysis: Textual Analysis III 142 6.1 The Sun 144 6.1.1 The Sun editorial position 152 6.1.2 The Sun - summary 154 6.2 Daily Mail 154 6.2.1 Daily Mail - summary 161 6.3 The Guardian 161 6.3.1 The Guardian - summary 173 6.4 Daily Mirror 174 6.4.1 Daily Mirror - summary 184 6.5 Critical Discourse Analysis - textual analysis III: summary 185 Chapter 7 - Critical Discourse Analysis: Discursive and Social Practices 190 7.1 Generic conventions of newspapers 191 7.2 Generic conventions of news articles, editorials and op-eds 195 7.3 Elite public spheres 199 7.4 Reporting speech ideologically 201 7.5 Winning and losing newspaper readers’ hearts and minds 203 7.6 Restricting British journalism during the Northern Ireland conflict 204 7.7 Media workers’ resistance 206 7.8 Critical Discourse Analysis - discursive and social practices: summary 211 Conclusion 215 Endnotes 219 References 224 Appendix 239 Introduction The Northern Ireland conflict was conducted through a combination of war, words and silence (Rolston and Miller, 1996).
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