What’s that in the road, a head? Punctuation in a Nutshell

If you look in any handbook of English grammar and composition, you will notice that the chapter on punctuation tends to be lengthy. The following summary of punctuation and its conventional uses has been put together from a variety of sources: handbooks, histories of English language, and notes from in-class student presentations. The guide is designed as a reference for you to use when you are writing assignments. Expanded information on punctuation can be found in any number of English grammar handbooks, so if you cannot find what you are looking for here, you can check elsewhere.

INTRODUCTION

Punctuation performs several different functions; generally, marks of punctuation are used to:

1. Separate thoughts or phrases 2. Introduce words or elements in a sentence 3. Enclose information within a sentence 4. Show omission 5. Indicate speech 6. Emphasize words or sentence elements 7. End a sentence, ask a question, or complete a thought

The marks of punctuation that will be covered in your guide are the comma, the semi‐colon, the colon, the dash, parentheses, quotation marks, brackets, ellipsis, italics, capitals and the apostrophe. You’re on your own when it comes to end punctuation (periods, question marks and exclamation points).

NOTE: Many of the examples (in green) for this sheet have been quoted from the following source; others, where indicated, are sentences that have been reworked to exemplify the particular punctuation:

Jacob, T., Indriati, E., Soejono, R.P., Hsu, K., Frayer, D.W., Eckhardt, R.B., … Hennenberg, M. (2006). Pygmoid Australomelanesian Homo sapiens skeletal remains from Liang Bua, Flores: Population affinities and pathological abnormalities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(36), 13421‐13426.

THE COMMA

The comma is probably one of the most widely used and widely misused marks of punctuation. Writers often pepper their prose with commas, presumably thinking that lots of commas make their sentences sound more authoritative. If you have this form of comma-itis, remember: if you think there should be a comma, most likely, there shouldn’t. Commas do, however, have specific uses:

In sentences, commas i) separate, ii) introduce, iii) enclose, or iv) show omission. i) to separate: If you use a word or phrase to preface the main idea in a sentence, separate the main idea from the introduction with a comma: In 2004, skeletal material from the Indonesian island of Flores was described as the holotype of a new hominin taxon, Homo floresiensis (Jacob et al, 13421).

Largely complete but for the missing lateral condyle, it has a prominent lesser trochanter with lipping in its anterior portion (Jacob et al, 13424).

Although LB1 exhibits a very small skull and numerous anomalies, other skeletons that also exhibited serious abnormalities were not used to establish new species, a point implicit in our initial publication (Jacob et al, 13421).

‐ Use a comma to separate two independent clauses that you have joined with a coordinating conjunction.* Note that the comma goes before the coordinating conjunction: The nuchal torus is markedly asymmetrical, and the antimeric mastoid regions differ greatly (Jacob et al, 13423). * Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of equal grammatical rank. They are: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet

‐ Also use a comma to separate words or phrases in a list: Associated signs [of microcephaly] include facial asymmetry and dental anomalies, as well as trunk/limb disproportions, over-tubulated bones, and signs of paresis in the postcranial skeleton (Jacob et al, 13423). ii) to introduce: Use a comma when introducing a short quotation: As described originally and confirmed by us, “[w]ith the exception of the squamous suture, most of the cranial vault sutures are difficult to locate and this problem persists in computed (CT) scans” (Jacob et al, 13423). iii) to enclose: Sometimes, you might want to include parenthetical information (interesting, but not required for grammatical sense) that is not necessary to the sentence’s meaning. If these words or phrases are included in the middle of your sentence, then the whole phrase or word is separated on either side by commas: H. erectus previously was held to have reached the island ≈840,000 years ago, on the basis of Middle Pleistocene stone tools found on Flores, remaining totally isolated while giving rise to H. floresiensis (Jacob et al., 13421).

THE SEMI‐COLON The semi‐colon is a mark of separation or division. It is a stronger mark than a comma, with a greater break between sentence elements, but is weaker than a period, as shown with the period mark over a comma. A semi‐colon indicates that two or more statements are not close enough to require a comma, but are closely related enough in meaning to be joined in the same sentence. A semi‐colon is never used as a mark of introduction, so you know not to begin an email or letter with Dear Prof X;.

Here are the common uses of the semi‐colon: i) to separate independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction*: The right tibia is complete; the left tibia lacks both proximal epiphysis and medial malleolus (paraphrased, Jacob et al, 13425).

* Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of equal grammatical rank. They are: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet ii) to separate independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb:** Premature elaboration of speculative evolutionary scenarios diverted attention from detailed study of the morphological characteristics of the specimens; furthermore, all but lost was any realization that the species diagnosis itself was centered on a single, distinctly odd, individual (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13421).

** Conjunctive adverbs (also called adverbial conjunctions) are adverbs that are used to relate and connect two independent clauses in a sentence. A partial list of typical conjunctive adverbs includes: consequently, conversely, for example, furthermore, however, indeed, instead, moreover, nevertheless, subsequently, therefore. Consult a handbook for a full list and more information about how to use them. iii) to separate clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction if the clauses are long or contain commas: At glacial maxima, water gaps between the islands decreased due to lowering sea‐levels, caused by an increase of polar ice‐volumes; Bali was contiguous with Java; and a transient unitary land mass connected Sumbawa through Komodo and Rinca to Flores, leaving water gaps of just several kilometers on either side of Lombok (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13422).

THE COLON

The colon is a mark of introduction; it indicates that what follows the colon will explain, clarify or illustrate the statement that precedes it. As well as being a mark of introduction, a colon is used to separate items in subtitles, titles,

scriptural and literary citations, divisions of time, and after the salutation in a business letter. Common uses of the colon include: i) to introduce lists: Problems with the Flores “hobbits”: H. floresiensis would have to exist in genetic isolation to develop as a separate species; their small brain size precludes they would have had the ability to craft tools for survival; and it is not certain that hominins would have reached Flores only once in >800 ka (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13421). ii) to introduce formal quotations: Taylor (1978) verifies a trait of teeth that occurs worldwide: “lower premolars represent wide variation [in H sapiens and] there is no such thing as a premolar that is typical of its group” (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13424). iii) to separate a main clause and another sentence element when the second one explains, illustrates or amplifies the first: Data for the maxillary dentition do not differ from this assessment: tooth size is not discordant with H. sapiens, as documented in the original report (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13423). iv) to separate items in divisions of time, subtitles, titles, scriptural and references or works cited listings: Pygmoid Australomelanesian Homo sapiens skeletal remains from Liang Bua, Flores: Population affinities and pathological abnormalities.

PARENTHESES AND THE DASH

Parentheses and the dash are both internal marks of punctuation that are used to set off interrupting comments, explanations, examples, and other similar parenthetical asides from a sentence’s main thought. The dash tends to be more dramatic and thus should be used sparingly for best effect, especially in academic writing. In fact, the dash and parentheses should be reserved for special occasions as they interrupt the normal flow of thought and rhythm of the writing. Parentheses are always used in pairs; dashes can be used singularly or in pairs, depending on what the dash is doing in the sentence. Parentheses also have a special application in essay writing as many documentation styles use parentheses to enclose a citation to acknowledge the writer’s source for a fact or direct quotation.

Use parentheses: i) to enclose numbers or letters that label items within sentences: It raises a number of questions: (1) If brain sizes smaller than average for chimpanzees were normal for the new species, how were these hominins able to manufacture stone microblades postulated to haven hafted as compound tools? (2) How could such tools, convergent in detail with those made by H. sapiens elsewhere but similar only in broad commonalities to earlier tools onFlores not raise the question of contact between populations? (3) How likely was it that Flores was reached by hominins only once during >800 ka? (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13422). ii) in your essays/papers to enclose referenced information or a reference number: In living African pygmies, for example, spatial and genetic isolation manifestly is incomplete (37) (Jacob et al, 13422). iii) in your full reference/works cited or bibliography to enclose material as required by the documentation style you are using: 36. de Quatrefages, A. (1894) The Pygmies (Macmillan, New York). (Jacob et al, 13426).

Use a dash: iv) to separate an introductory list or statement from the rest of the thought: Other neurocranial features –excluding small size – also lie within the range of Australomelanesians (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13422). v) to show a hesitation in speech: “I – uh – I mean – Professor Vader – I wasn’t able to finish my reading on the Flores find last night because the – um – dog ate my journal.”

Use parentheses or a pair of dashes: vi) to enclose information that is an aside from the main thought internally placed in the sentence: Although today the 14,200 km2 island of Flores has a population of >3.5 million people, this small land mass (even if entirely suitable for human habitation) would have been capable of supporting far fewer humans at a hunting‐gathering subsistence level (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13422).

Although today the 14,200 km2 island of Flores has a population of >3.5 million people, this small land mass, even if entirely suitable for human habitation, would have been capable of supporting far fewer humans at a hunting‐gathering subsistence level (Jacob et al, 13422).

QUOTATION MARKS

Quotation marks are used to set off direct speech or material quoted word for word from identified written sources. In addition, quotation arks are used to set off foreign or slang terms from the rest of the passage. As well, quotation marks have specific uses in the listing of reference materials. Double quotation marks, ” ” are used to set off conversation in a novel or quoted material in an essay. Single quotation marks, ‘ ’, have specialized uses. Other types of punctuation (such as commas) might introduce or close the quoted material, but placement of the accompanying punctuation is dependent on whether the punctuation is attached to the quotation or to the passage before or after the quote. i) to set off a direct quotation: Purportedly, the LB1 cranium displays two skeletal features “not seen in modern humans” (Jacob et al, 13422). No introductory punctuation is needed as the quotation is incorporated into the sentence.

As described originally and confirmed by us, “[w]ith the exception of the squamous suture, most of the cranial vault sutures are difficult to locate and this problem persists in computed (CT) scans” (Jacob et al, 13423). A comma separates the introductory statement from the short quotation.

“From the beginning,” Jacob writes, “the H. floresiensis discovery was treated as a matter of hominin taxonomy and phylogeny” (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13422). Note that commas are used to separate interrupting explanatory remarks from a two‐part quotation. ii) to set off slang or foreign words or phrases: I met with my “compadres” to sort out the “deets” on this Flores thing. This type of emphasis can also be shown with italics; it’s best not to overuse quotations or italics in academic writing. iii) to include sub units of larger works: titles, chapters, articles, essays, poems, short stories, songs, topics or sections: I have also read Mike Morwood’s article called “Archaeology and age of a new hominin from Flores in eastern Indonesia" that offers a totally different viewpoint about the Flores find Teuku Jacob.

* Writing Alert – How quotations are used in the text of your paper and at the end in your references/literature cited/bibliography section vary from format style to format style. Check your guidelines.

BRACKETS

Brackets, also called square brackets, are used to set off editorial remarks inside quoted material. Another specific use of brackets is to enclose an editorial term such as “sic” to indicate a grammatical or spelling peculiarity that is part of the original quotation. i) to set off editorial remarks inside quoted materials: Genetic isolation [from other hominin populations] is a necessary postulate, because prolonged isolation is needed to attain the requisite level of taxonomic distinctiveness (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13421). The square brackets indicate explanatory material that wasn’t in the original quotation. ii) to enclose the term sic (thus it is), which indicates a mistake or peculiarity in spelling or grammar is contained within the original of the quoted material: One of the letters to the editor of Nature said that the archaeologists who are engaged in

the Flores find controversy “should treat each other more respectively [sic].” The [sic] refers to misuse of “respectively”; the correct term is “respectfully.”

ELLIPSIS

Ellipsis indicates omission from quoted material and is represented by three periods with one space before the beginning of the trio and one space after, but no spaces in between the periods: To support the hypothesis that H. floresiensis evolved in extended isolation there, it is necessary to prove the island was reached once and only once … yet in numbers large enough to embody genetic diversity sufficient to establish a new mammalian species (Jacob et al, 13422). When using ellipsis, it is important that the material omitted does not change the meaning of the original.

ITALICS AND UNDERSCORING

Italics or underscoring are used to emphasize certain words, phrases or sentences, such as titles of books, plays, newspaper or magazine publications, films, sound recordings, television shows, the names of ships, air or space crafts. Italics also set off foreign phrases or words, Latin scientific names or words, and letters or numbers that are being used as examples. Italics can be the preferred method of punctuation over underscoring, so check your formatting and referencing style guides for what you should use in specific essay contexts. i) italicize or underscore titles of publications, films, recordings, works of art, television shows, legal cases, and the names of ships, air and space crafts: The team took a boat called the South Seas Maiden to the island, all the while studying the PSNA and Nature articles about the archaeological find on Flores. ii) italicize, underscore or set off by quotation marks words, letters or numbers that are used as examples: The word hobbit is misused here for the purposes of popularizing the Flores find. Or The word “hobbit” is misused here for the purposes of popularizing the Flores find. iii) italicize, underscore or set off by quotation marks foreign words, phrases or Latin scientific names: These lines are barely visible, even in the middle of the shaft, unlike a normally robust and prominent linea aspera (Jacob et al, 13425). iv) italicize or underscore words, phrases, or sentences that you want to emphasize: Jacob concluded the skeletal remains found on Flores are neither unique nor primitive.

* Writing Alert – Don’t overuse italics to emphasize words, especially when writing papers.

CAPITALS

In English, writers use capital letters to show the special status of certain words and to indicate the beginning of a new sentence. i) capitalize the first word in a sentence, proper names of persons, deities, places, languages organizations, historical events, periods and documents: If correct, these reports place humans on Flores by the latter half of the Quaternary (Jacob et al, 13422).

No other maxillae are known from the Liang Bua Cave sample, but it is highly unlikely that any species of Homo normatively would have bilaterally rotated upper premolars because this anomaly clearly would interfere with occlusion (Jacob et al, 13424). ii) capitalize the days of the week, months of the year, and special holidays. Generally, seasons are not capitalized unless they are personifications: This past fall, an interesting article disputing Jacob’s findings was published in the September 20th edition of New Scientist. iii) except for the initial word in the title and conjunctions, articles and prepositions of fewer than five letters, titles of books, plays, magazines, newspapers, journals, poems , works of art and copyrighted names of products are capitalized: PSNA stands for Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. iv) titles and their abbreviations are capitalized when they come before a proper noun; generally, titles following a name are only capitalized when they indicate distinction: Chief Investigators of the joint research project were led by Dr. R.A. Suriyanto, Chair, Laboratory of Bioanthropology and Paleoanthropology, Gadja Mada University Faculty of Medicine (Reworked from Jacob et al, 13426). v) capitalize common nouns when they are part of a title: The laboratory is located on Yogyakarta Boulevard. Do not capitalize common nouns if they are being used in a general way: The laboratory is located on the boulevard behind that library.

* WRITING ALERT – Avoid unnecessary capitalization in the following circumstances: ‐ the names of close relatives unless you are calling them by name, so … Mother got me interested in archaeology, but My mother has always had an interest in archaeology. ‐ common nouns that are used in a generic, not specific way: My uncle went to college, but my aunt attended university. the four directions, unless the direction is part of the location’s title: East Africa, Northwest Territories

APOSTROPHE

The apostrophe has two uses: to show omission of letters or to show possession. i) to show omission of letters or numbers: should have = should’ve, cannot = can’t, I will not = I won’t, the Flores find of ’97 ii) to show possession with singular and collective nouns: An ‘s attached to the end of a singular or a collective noun indicates a singular possessive: the skeleton’s position = the position of the skeleton, the team’s findings = the findings that belong to the team If the singular noun ends with an s, as in class or Charles, you can add ‘s. It looks weird but it is grammatically correct: the bus’s back window, Charles’s article iii) to show possession with plural nouns: An ’ is attached to the end of a plural word that ends in s: the girls’ trip to Liang Bua, the Smiths’ house Plural words that do not end with an s, such as children, women, men, people, add ‘s to form the plural possessive.

* Writer’s Alert – Possessive pronouns do not use apostrophes to show they are possessives: yours, hers, his, its, theirs: The National Geographic video is theirs. ‐ the possessive of the third person singular neuter is its: Its jaw was smashed, so the laboratory could not run conclusive tests on the dentition of the skeleton. (it’s means it is) ‐ do not add ‘s or s’ when you only want to indicate the plural of a noun. If it doesn’t make sense to say “the … of “ or “the … belonging to“ then the word should be a plural, not a possessive.