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Prevention of Rickets and Vitamin D Deficiency in Infants, Children, and Adolescents Carol L

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Prevention of Rickets and Vitamin D Deficiency in Infants, Children, and Adolescents Carol L CLINICAL REPORT Guidance for the Clinician in Rendering Prevention of Rickets and Vitamin D Pediatric Care Deficiency in Infants, Children, and Adolescents Carol L. Wagner, MD, Frank R. Greer, MD, and the Section on Breastfeeding and Committee on Nutrition ABSTRACT Rickets in infants attributable to inadequate vitamin D intake and decreased exposure to sunlight continues to be reported in the United States. There are www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/ peds.2008-1862 also concerns for vitamin D deficiency in older children and adolescents. Because there are limited natural dietary sources of vitamin D and adequate doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1862 sunshine exposure for the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D is not easily All clinical reports from the American Academy of Pediatrics automatically expire determined for a given individual and may increase the risk of skin cancer, the 5 years after publication unless reaffirmed, recommendations to ensure adequate vitamin D status have been revised to revised, or retired at or before that time. include all infants, including those who are exclusively breastfed and older The guidance in this report does not children and adolescents. It is now recommended that all infants and children, indicate an exclusive course of treatment including adolescents, have a minimum daily intake of 400 IU of vitamin D or serve as a standard of medical care. Variations, taking into account individual beginning soon after birth. The current recommendation replaces the previous circumstances, may be appropriate. recommendation of a minimum daily intake of 200 IU/day of vitamin D Key Words supplementation beginning in the first 2 months after birth and continuing vitamin D, vitamin D deficiency, rickets, through adolescence. These revised guidelines for vitamin D intake for healthy vitamin D requirements, infants, children, infants, children, and adolescents are based on evidence from new clinical trials adolescents, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, vitamin D supplements and the historical precedence of safely giving 400 IU of vitamin D per day in the Abbreviations pediatric and adolescent population. New evidence supports a potential role for AAP—American Academy of Pediatrics vitamin D in maintaining innate immunity and preventing diseases such as 25-OH-D—25-hydroxyvitamin D diabetes and cancer. The new data may eventually refine what constitutes 1,25-OH2-D—1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D vitamin D sufficiency or deficiency. Pediatrics 2008;122:1142–1152 PTH—parathyroid hormone PEDIATRICS (ISSN Numbers: Print, 0031-4005; Online, 1098-4275). Copyright © 2008 by the American Academy of Pediatrics INTRODUCTION This statement is intended to replace a 2003 clinical report from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP),1 which recommended a daily intake of 200 IU/day of vitamin D for all infants (beginning in the first 2 months after birth), children, and adolescents. The new recommended daily intake of vitamin D is 400 IU/day for all infants, children, and adolescents beginning in the first few days of life. BACKGROUND Rickets attributable to vitamin D deficiency is known to be a condition that is preventable with adequate nutritional intake of vitamin D.2–6 Despite this knowledge, cases of rickets in infants attributable to inadequate vitamin D intake and decreased exposure to sunlight continue to be reported in the United States and other Western countries, particularly with exclusively breastfed infants and infants with darker skin pigmentation.4,7–14 Rickets, however, is not limited to infancy and early childhood, as evidenced by cases of rickets caused by nutritional vitamin D deficiency being reported in adolescents.15 Rickets is an example of extreme vitamin D deficiency, with a peak incidence between 3 and 18 months of age. A state of deficiency occurs months before rickets is obvious on physical examination, and the deficiency state may also present with hypocalcemic seizures,16–18 growth failure, lethargy, irritability, and a predisposition to respiratory infections during infancy.16–22 In a retrospective review of children presenting with vitamin D deficiency in the United Kingdom,16 there were 2 types of presentations. The first was symptomatic hypocalcemia (including seizures) occurring during periods of rapid growth, with increased metabolic demands, long before any physical findings or radiologic evidence of vitamin D deficiency occurred. The second clinical presentation was that of a more chronic disease, with rickets and/or decreased bone mineralization and either normocalcemia or asymptomatic hypocalce- 1142 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS Downloaded from www.aappublications.org/news by guest on October 2, 2021 TABLE 1 Vitamin D Deficiency: Stages and Clinical Signs 1. Stages of vitamin D deficiency Stage I 25-OH-D level decreases, resulting in hypocalcemia and euphosphatemia; 1,25-OH2-D may increase or remain unchanged Stage II 25-OH-D level continues to decrease; PTH acts to maintain calcium through demineralization of bone; the patient remains eucalcemic and hypophosphatemic and has a slight increase in the skeletal alkaline phosphatase level Stage III Severe 25-OH-D deficiency with hypocalcemia, hypophosphatemia, and increased alkaline phosphatase; bones have overt signs of demineralization 2. Clinical signs of vitamin D deficiency ● Dietary calcium absorption from the gut decreases from 30%–40% to 10%–15% when there is vitamin D deficiency ● Low concentrations of 25-OH-D trigger the release of PTH in older infants, children, and adolescents in an inverse relationship not typically seen with young infants; the increase in PTH mediates the mobilization of calcium from bone, resulting in a reduction of bone mass; as bone mass decreases, the risk of fractures increases ⅙ Rickets Enlargement of the skull, joints of long bones, and rib cage; curvature of spine and femurs; generalized muscle weakness ⅙ Osteomalacia and osteopenia ⅙ Abnormal immune function with greater susceptibility to acute infections and other long-latency disease states (see below) 3. Potential latent disease processes associated with vitamin D deficiency ● Dysfunction of the innate immune system is noted with vitamin D deficiency ⅙ Immunomodulatory actions may include • Potent stimulator of innate immune system acting through Toll-like receptors on monocytes and macrophages • Decrease threshold for long-latency diseases such as cancers (including leukemia and colon, prostate, and breast cancers), psoriasis, diabetes mellitus, and autoimmune diseases (eg, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosis) mia. (For a more complete review of nutritional rickets nificant amounts only in fatty fish and certain fish oils, and its management, please refer to the recent publica- liver and fat from aquatic mammals, and egg yolks of tion in Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North Amer- chickens fed vitamin D.32 In adults, new evidence sug- ica on the topic.23) gests that vitamin D plays a vital role in maintaining 33 There are 2 forms of vitamin D: D2 (ergocalciferol, innate immunity and has been implicated in the pre- 34,35 synthesized by plants) and D3 (cholecalciferol, synthe- vention of certain disease states including infection, sized by mammals). The main source of vitamin D for autoimmune diseases (multiple sclerosis,28,33,36,37 rheu- 38 humans is vitamin D3 through its synthesis in the skin matoid arthritis ), some forms of cancer (breast, ovar- when UV-B in the range of 290 to 315 nm converts ian, colorectal, prostate),24,30,39–42 and type 2 diabetes 43–45 7-dehydrocholesterol into previtamin D3. Through the mellitus. Results from prospective observational heat of the skin, previtamin D3 is further transformed studies also suggest that vitamin D supplements in in- into vitamin D3, which then binds to the vitamin fancy and early childhood may decrease the incidence of D–binding protein and is transported to the liver and type 1 diabetes mellitus.46–50 converted to 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OH-D) by the ac- tion of 25-hydroxylase. 25-OH-D, the nutritional indicator RECOMMENDED DAILY INTAKE OF VITAMIN D FOR INFANTS of vitamin D, undergoes a second hydroxylation in the AND CHILDREN kidney and other tissues to become 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin In partnership with the Institute of Medicine, the Na- D (1,25-OH2-D). Vitamin D is an important prehormone tional Academy of Sciences Panel for Vitamin D recom- with active metabolites (25-OH-D and 1,25-OH2-D) that mended in 1997 a daily intake of 200 IU vitamin D to are involved in many metabolic processes beyond bone prevent vitamin D deficiency in normal infants, children integrity and calcium homeostasis.24 More-detailed reviews and adolescents.51 This recommendation was endorsed of vitamin D physiology and metabolism are available from by the AAP in a previous clinical report.1 The National Hathcock et al,25 Holick,26 Webb,27 and Misra et al.23 Academy of Sciences guidelines for infants were based It is important to note that measuring the concentra- on data primarily from the United States, Norway, and tion of 1,25-OH2-D instead of 25-OH-D for assessment of China, which showed that an intake of at least 200 vitamin D status can lead to erroneous conclusions, be- IU/day of vitamin D prevented physical signs of vitamin cause 1,25-OH2-D concentrations will be normal or even D deficiency and maintained the concentration of 25- elevated in the face of vitamin D deficiency as a result of OH-D at or above 27.5 nmol/L (11 ng/mL).† These secondary hyperparathyroidism (see Table 1). Preven- recommendations were made despite 50 years of clinical tion of vitamin D deficiency and achieving adequate experience demonstrating that 400 IU of vitamin D (the intake of vitamin D and calcium throughout childhood concentration measured in a teaspoon of cod liver oil) may reduce the risk of osteoporosis as well as other not only prevented rickets but also treated it.52–55 Primar- long-latency disease processes that have been associated ily on the basis of new information in adults linking with vitamin D–deficiency states in adults.28–31 The presence of vitamin D as a natural ingredient in †Universal units of measure for 25-OH-D and 1,25-OH2-D are nmol/L.
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