The Research on the Learning Space of Contemporary School from the Experiences of the Development of Educational Architecture in Modern China

The Research on the Learning Space of Contemporary School from the Experiences of the Development of

Educational Architecture in Modern China

A thesis submitted to the

Graduate School

Of the University of Cincinnati

In partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the degree of

Master of Architecture

In the College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning

Yining Fang

B.S. North Dakota State University

May 10 2017

Committee Chair: Elizabeth H. Riorden

Committee Co-chair: Michael McInturf Abstract

China currently faces a significant challenge in the educational field. The class-teaching system and its congruent educational architecture are out-of-date. This study aims to determine how modern educational architecture in

China developed into the current situation and explore a new typology of classroom building layout that would enhance the teaching-learning efficiency and quality. The new typology is developed based on the ancient teaching philosophy, while also learning from the experiences of the development and changes of educational architecture in China in each stage for the past 150 years. In this context, a classroom building is defined as the building at a campus that serves the function of teaching and learning with other supportive programs, not a building with only regular classrooms.

To develop this typological layout in a classroom building, besides a series of historical materials, an in-person survey was also distributed to potential users of the chosen site. High school students and teachers were randomly given the survey and asked to express their concerns and thoughts of current campus and school buildings. The results show that integrative and interactive spaces that would provide complex functions are needed.

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iii Table of Contents

List of Images…………………………………………………………………………………………………. vi

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………..1

[Chapter 1] Modern Educational architecture development in China …………………………………..…3

1.1 Brief Introduction: Schools in ancient China…………………………………..………………………....…4

1.2 1840~1911 First ever in history: Missionary schools in China…………………...... 8

1.2.1 Implant the western system of school buildings toChina………………………………….....…..8

1.2.2 The missionary pedagogy …………………...…………………………………………………..9

1.2.3 Case Study: College Saint Ignace (Xuhui High School) …………………...…...... 10

1.3 1911~1949 Movement in Republic of China and during the Wars…...…...... 15

1.3.1 Social condition after 1911: reform and development in education and

architecture …...…...... 15

1.3.2 development of missionary schools…...…...... 17

1.3.3 Case Study: Yale-In-China College (YaLi High School) …...…...... 22

[Chapter 2] Contemporary Educational architecture development in China …...…...... 26

2.1 1949~1965with the establishment of People Republic of China …...…...... 27

2.1.1 Comprehensive transformation: From “American” to “Soviet”: …...…...... 27

2.1.2 1952 “Reorganization” of Chinese higher education …...…...... 30

2.1.3 Case Study: TsingHua University extension in 1950s…...…...... 35

2.2 1966~1976 the Cultural Revolution…...…...... 43

2.2.1 Academics and education during the Cultural Revolution…...…...... 43

2.2.2 Architecture during the Cultural Revolution…...…...... 46

[Chapter 3] 1977~Now Mature educational system and educational architecture in China……………..49

3.1 Establishment of current educational system after the “Reform and Opening-up”………………………..50

3.2 Class-teaching system and existing space relationship…...... …..52

3.2.1 Relationship between educational building and campus…...…...... 52

3.2.2 Programs within educational building…...…...... 53

iv [Chapter 4] Exploration of a new model of academic space suitable for China………………………...... 55

4.1 Design philosophy of a new type of classroom space…...... …...56

4.2 A different way of forming a classroom unit ……………………………...... …...58

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………...68

v List of Images

Figure 1 Restored image of JiXia Academy [Qi Heritage Museum, restored image of JiXia Academy] Figure 2 Floor Plan of WeiWenShuYuan [Lin, Qinghui, WeiWen ShuYuan QuanZhi, 1819] Figure 3 1665 Refurnished Floor Plan of WeiWenShuYuan [Lin, Qinghui, WeiWen ShuYuan QuanZhi, 1819] Figure 4 1850~1877 starting period of time of College Saint Ignace [Xuhui High School School History Exhibition] Figure 5 St. Ignatius Cathedral, Xujiahui, Shanghai [World Imaging, 2009] Figure 6 St. Ignatius Cathedral, Xujiahui, Shanghai [World Imaging, 2009] Figure 7 early College Saint Ignace domitory [Xuhui High School School History Exhibition] Figure 8 Chongsi Hall in College Saint Ignace, built in 1917 [Xuhui High School School History Exhibition] Figure 9 First soccer team taking photo in front of ChongsiHall [Xuhui High School School History Exhibition] Figure 10 Letter from Henry Killam Murphy from Murphy & Dana Architects, New York to Miss Bender from Ginling College, April 17, 1919 [Yale Divinity School Library] Figure 11 Letter from Henry Killam Murphy from Murphy & Dana Architects, New York to Miss Bender from Ginling College, September 20, 1918 [Yale Divinity School Library] Figure 12 Campus planning of Ginling College, by the architect Henry Murphy, Jan. 1st 1921 [Yale Library] Figure 13 Yale-in-China College Plan designed by Murphy & Dana Architects [Yale in China Official Website, http://www.yalechina.org/chinese/history/302/] Figure 14 1920 Yale-in-China Wright Dormitory and on-campus tennis court [Chen, Xianshu, Chang Sha Bai Nian Ming Xiao, August 2017, Human People’s Press] Figure 15 1920 MaYuanLing Science Hall and Basketball court [Chen, Xianshu, Chang Sha Bai Nian Ming Xiao, August 2017, Human People’s Press] Figure 16 List of students and staff attending Shanghai Maritime College with the reorganization [Zhang Tingting, Shanghai Jiaotong University reorganization of departments in 1950s to 1960s, June 25, 2018, SJTU Digital Archives] Figure 17 Tsinghua 1909-1911 Campus Planning and the south façade of the third college in 1911 [Xu, Maoyan, Dong Xiaoxiao, TsingHua University school history exhibition] Figure 18 1914 Campus planning by Murphy &1920 The Auditorium [Xu Maoyan, Dong Xiaoxiao, TsingHua University school history exhibition] Figure 19 1930 Campus Planning & 1930 TsingHua University Library [Xu Maoyan, Dong Xiaoxiao, TsingHua University school history exhibition] Figure 20 1952 West Dining Center of TsingHua University [Fang, Huijian, Zhang, Sijing, TsingHua University Records, 2001, pp. 680-696, TsingHua University Press] Figure 21 Moscow State University Plan [Chen, XiaoTian, Development of form of Chinese Universities, 2008, pp. 122-130, Tongji University Doctor’s thesis] Figure 22 TsingHua University Plan 1954 [Chen, XiaoTian, Development of form of Chinese Universities, 2008, pp. 122-130, Tongji University Doctor’s thesis]

vi Figure 23 1954 TsingHua University main building schematic design sketches, Wang Guoyu [Wang GuoYu donated to TsingHua University, campus planning plans of each periods, stored in TsingHua archives center] Figure 24 Moscow State University Main Building & 1954 TsingHua University Planning Main Building [Wang GuoYu donated to TsingHua University, campus planning plans of each periods, stored in TsingHua archives center] Figure 25 1954 TsingHua University Planning Main Building Perspective Rendering [Luo, Sen, New Architecture 4th issue TsingHua University Architecture Planning and Revolution 1911~1981, 1987] Figure 26 Built TsingHua University Main Building [TsingHua University Architecture Department, 1949-2000 China Architecture Awards, 2009] Figure 27 urban intellectual youths in rural area as part of the Countryside Movement [VCG via Getty Images] Figure 28 Tearing down the gate of TsingHua University by its students [Tsing Hua Ren, 2009, 1st issue] Figure 29 Students dressed up in military uniforms attend classes at Beijing University, May 23, 1971 [Vittoriano Rastelli/corbis via Getty Images] Figure 30 WanSui Hall, construction started in 1968, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, Photo taken in 1982 [Jiangxi Province Exhibition Center] Figure 31 Ground floor plan of International Club, and the five parts [Jianwai Diplomatic Projects Team, “Guoji Julebu International Club”, Jianzhu Xuebao Architectural Journal, no.1, p.1973, p.48-49, drawn by the author based on the documentation drawings, courtesy of Beijing Urban Construction Archive ] Figure 32 Red guards at No. 23 Middle School wave the Little Red Book of the Quotations of Chairman Mao in classroom revolution rally [Wikimedia commons] Figure 33 Campus plan of TongWen High School [Draw by author] Figure 34 Lobby centered classroom building layout [Draw by author] Figure 35 Courtyard centered classroom layout [Draw by author] Figure 36 Hallway centered classroom building layout [Draw by author] Figure 37 Transformation from traditional classroom building layout to a new type of layout [Draw by author] Figure 38 Integrative learning unit providing multiple possibilities [Draw by author] Figure 39 Connecting different units [Draw by author] Figure 40 Concept of mobile unit layout floor plan [Draw by author] Figure 41Units with mobile walls [Draw by author] Figure 42 Ground floor plan [Draw by author] Figure 43 Section perspective 1 [Draw by author] Figure 44 Section perspective 2 [Draw by author]

vii Introduction: The Conflict and the Balance

With the accomplishment of the Industrial Revolution, British invaded China to crush opposition to its interference in the country’s economic and political affairs. Soon after the Qing Government ceded the island of

Hong Kong to the British, and in 1842, the Treaty of Nanking was signed. As a result the coast of southeast

China and ports along Yangtze River no longer served as a source of tax revenue for the Qing Government. Prior to 1842, China as a country had been implementing the Sea Ban, which was a series of related isolationist

Chinese policies restricting private maritime trading and coastal settlement for about 200 years. All of a sudden,

China was opened up to missionary activities. The Protestant missionary movement established itself in China and developed schools and hospitals and offered basic education to poor Chinese, both boys and girls, who otherwise would receive no formal schooling. At this time, Chinese people had their first encounter with Western

Neo-classical architecture, especially educational architecture. For the first time in Chinese history, the architecture and pedagogy of a great ancient culture was challenged by the concepts and practices of a very different world.

With the commencement of colonization, the traditional architecture system known as “the Structure Regulation” would never again be respected. After the Republic of China was established in 1912 in south China, which overthrew the Qing, the last imperial dynasty, a modern educational system was required. Revolutionists took over educational institutions established by the missionaries and began to root out the religious influence. Liang

Sicheng, as a typical noble of the waning years of the Qing Dynasty, took the chance to study architecture in

America and brought back Modernism. During the troubled times of the world wars, he and other trendy architects introduced and established Modernist architecture in China. Schools, again, became a testing ground.

During this period, architecture including architectural activities were mostly imitated from the western world.

In the name of business efficiency, especially in universities, many designs emerged that found a balance between western Modernism and Chinese traditions.

However, modern architecture, which barely relates to the traditional structures in China, had been developed

1 and moved too radically apart from social change, with the result that the harmony and balance between architecture and the social system was disrupted. Decades later, with the establishment of People Republic of

China, communism turned into the dominant ideology in the country. The Chinese population that has just been freed from colonization decided to oppose any kind of “capitalistic aesthetic value”. During the years of the

Culture Revolution, China’s economy and traditional culture were damaged, academics and intellectuals were regarded as the “Stinking Old Ninth” and were widely persecuted. Literature and artworks were burnt, schools were shut down. Perusing aesthetic value was forbidden and shamed. The development of architecture in China was interrupted and the attempts of the past decades were wasted.

The Cultural Revolution led to an erosion of aesthetics across China. This effect has spilled into the modern era.

Architects are trying hard to figure out a methodology that is appropriate in contemporary China. Like the dispute between the Beaux-Arts and Bauhaus, there is also a lack of consensus in China in terms of the contemporary architecture especially in forms. Architects are struggling with the considerable international influence and the insistence of traditions, which has always been a problem but only gets more intractable through times.

[Chapter 1] Modern Educational architecture development in China

1.1 Brief Introduction: Schools in ancient China

The roots of education in China could be traced back to the Spring and Autumn period (approximately 771 to

476 BC). Confucius is widely regarded as the first educationist in Chinese history. He advocated education for all without discrimination and for a time had over three thousand students. However, he did not establish any formal schooling system and students were mostly taught at home. It was not until around 350 BC when JiXia

Academy (or Academy of the Gate of Chi) was established, and it existed for over 150 years. Since record- keeping began, it was the first government-run national academy.

Figure 1 Restored image of JiXia Academy

This era in Chinese history was called the “Warring State period”. It was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. Under this social condition, different trends of thoughts and theories were proposed, scholars were free and welcomed to give lectures and preach. Debates became one of the most popular methods for different schools to communicate and attract students and followers. JiXia Academy provided a place for scholars to study, research and communicate.

In this time, the “teaching-studying” form is not as important a “debating and communicating.” The layout of

1 Qi Heritage Museum, restored image of JiXia Academy

4 the academy is very simple: large, transparent rooms which provided extraordinary free indoor space. This represents the philosophy of education in this era. People who teach and people who learn are considered equal.

This is the valuable quality of learning which is enabled by the spatial environment. At this time, people were not overly concerned with the spatial form of schools as it was not deemed to be important compared to the transfer of knowledge. In fact, JiXia Academy era contributed irreplaceable cultural achievements to anthropic history.

With the reunification of China (221BC), the nation’s leaders became aware of the importance of dictating ideology. Non-conforming thoughts were muted, and the freedom of schooling was also temporarily suppressed.

It was not until when the Imperial examination (or keju)2 started, that schooling and studying become a trend again. ShuYuan (“Book-Insititute”), meaning “Academy of classical learning”, as a unique educational institution in Chinese history, started in Tang Dynasty (618~907AD), flourished in Song Dynasty(960~1279AD) and was widely popularized after that. It is a system of architecture that serves as a library in the very beginning, and rapidly transformed into an official schooling system. In the Song Dynasty, most ShuYuan were located in forests or near mountains, far from the city center. This was because these locations were considered better for studying. The Song government encouraged private entities to establish ShuYuan and promoted large numbers of ShuYuan in the country. In total, there were 711 ShuYuans in the Song Dynasty established all over China.3

Later in the Ming Dynasty(1368~1644AD), the amount of ShuYuan reached around 2000, widely spread across

25 provinces in current China. In the Ming Dynasty, there were two main types of ShuYuan, one focusing on teaching and testing just like modern schools, and another for holding conferences, inviting different schools of thoughts to discuss social and academic problems.

2 Chinese imperial examinations, or keju, were a civil service examination system in Imperial China for selecting system in Imperial China for selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by merit rather than birth started early in Chinese history but using written examinations as a toll of selection started in earnest during the mid-Tang dynasty. The system became dominant during the Song dynasty and lasted until it was abolished in the late Qing dynasty reforms in 1905. 3 Hu, Lele, Beijing Daily

Thus, ancient ShuYuan architecture emphasizes the large “classroom” layout for a simple program, which we could see as an inheritance of the layout of ancient academies Another reason is the limitation of the level of productive forces at the time. Usually, in ShuYuan, the classroom space only provides for the function of reading and chatting. It is easy to picture the layout of ShuYuan due to its simple and single function which is highly similar to the layout of Buddhist temples. Spaces are widely open with people only moving furniture to serve different uses.

Figure 2 Floor Plan of WeiWenShuYuan

Figure 3 1665 Refurnished Floor Plan of WeiWenShuYuan

ShuYuan architecture should not be judged by modern, global notions of form following function. Ancient

ShuYuan’s form and its function do not have an inevitable connection, instead, this architecture is following the function of delivering traditional cultural information – a spiritual function. There is no doubt that the design of

ShuYuan would be influenced by its particular site, climate, materials and topology, and so there are also several

4 Lin, Qinghui, WeiWen ShuYuan QuanZhi, 1819

6 additional rules that most of ShuYuan follow. First of all, the campus usually aligns with the axis no matter if the campus is symmetrical or not. Public spaces including teaching facilities are usually at the front of the axis, which is imposing, and its open-planned corridor would interact with open space at the front to create a plaza to satisfy circulation and transportation within the campus. Library and other programs that require a peaceful a environment are usually placed at the rear of the axis, to provide a better storing and reading environment. The center of the campus is the teaching area with highly connected primary programs. Being courtyard-connected is also a typical pattern of ShuYuan layout. The teaching area and its concomitant programs are connected but also separated by layers of courtyards. Some courtyards we could also consider as pocket gardens, an introverted space that creates a sense of friendliness and amiability which allows people to stop, to think and communicate.

Small-scaled landscape offers users multiple possibilities to socialize. Such a layout can be seen at

HuiWenShuYuan where shows all of these characteristics.

ShuYuan culture ended in 1901, the time when western schools were largely built and foreign culture became overwhelming in China.

1.2 1840~1911 First ever in history: Missionary schools in China

1.2.1 Implant the western system of school buildings to China

After the signing of the Treaty of Nanjing between the UK and Qing Dynasty in 1842, missionaries started to enter Fujian and Canton provinces, where were the very first places that were forced to open as ports and where

British subjects were not subject to any Chinese laws.5 A series of unfair treaties were signed in the coming decades which provided the free and protected environment for missionary activities and missionary schools.

The colonial countries including the U.K., the U.S., France, Spain etc. had the right to buy and rent land in China to build churches, schools, and hospitals.

Missionaries turned towards establishing hospitals and schools since these methods were perceived to be more effective in attracting Chinese to Christianity than proselytizing. However, Protestant missionaries continued to establish and develop schools practicing Western pedagogy and courses. Traditional Chinese teachers viewed the mission schools with suspicion, and it was often difficult for the Christian schools to attract students. The schools offered basic education to poor Chinese and provided education to both boys and girls who would have otherwise received no formal schooling before the time of Chinese Republic.6 With the increasing influence of missionary and on-going colonization by colonial countries, there was an undercurrent of antipathy between

Chinese people and missionaries. After the “Boxer Rebellion,” 7 Chinese society continued to welcome educators that served the society but resisted preaching activities. Objectively, missionaries transformed their core focus from evangelism to education.

1.2.2 The Missionary Pedagogy

In 1830, American missionary Elijah Coleman Bridgman, who accepted an invitation from the first British

5Ministry of Foreign Affairs – Republic of China, Republic of China foreign affairs exhibition, National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan 6Spence, Jonathan D, The Search for Modern China, 1991, WW Norton & Company 7 The Boxer Rebellion, Boxer Uprising, or Yihetuan Movement was an anti-imperialist, anti-foreign, and anti- Christian uprising in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing Dynasty

8 missionary R. Morrison to come to China, published an article in Eastern Western Monthly which was the inaugural modern-age Chinese language magazine. The article criticized the Chinese educational system since he believed that history and literature taught in ShuYuan was useless and unpractical. In his opinion, China has to start teaching the young generation modern scientific subjects. 8 The president Samuel Robbins Brown of

Morrison9 Memorial School also pointed out that “the basic scientific facts are barely taught in textbooks, not to mention any individual subject. This pedagogy does not aim to develop and free personalities, but only to train conservative servants.”

In this period of time, missionaries’ main concern of Chinese pedagogy is that the content of education is feudal and conservative plus the Imperial Examination suppresses individual’s humanity and personality. As such, missionaries embarked on initiating an educational revolution in China. The first reform was to overhaul the education system by aligning the length of schooling with the western system. The education system was divided into 4 phases: kindergarten, primary school, high school and college which corresponds to the western system.

Because of this, the traditional ShuYuan could no longer provide an appropriate environment that suited the new schooling system. In addition to that, the ideology that missionaries and colonists brought into China was obviously advanced and Qing Dynasty was under a high pressure from colonial countries. The thoughts and ideas brought by the missionaries thus had a strong influence to the country. One result was the building a many new schools in China.

1.2.3 Case Study: College Saint Ignace (Xuhui High School)

Founded in 1850 in Shanghai, China by Jesuit missionaries, Xuhui High School’s original name was College

8 Bridgeman, Elijah Coleman, Eastern Western Monthly Magazine, 1837 9 Rev. Samuel Robbins Brown D.D (June 16, 1810-June 20, 1880) was an American missionary to China and Japan with the Reformed Church in America. In 1838 he went to Guangzhou and opened, for the Morrison Education Society, the first Protestant School in the Chinese Empire. The several annual reports on this school were published in The Chinese Repository for 1840 to 1846, to which he contributed some of his papers on Chinese subject.

Saint Ignace. It was the first Catholic missionary school in Shanghai. In 1931, it changed its name to Xuhui High

School. After the civil war, in 1951, it was nationalized by the PRC government and became the current Shanghai

Xuhui High School. In 1963, alumni rebuilt the school in Xinbei, Taiwan. In the following research, I will focus on discussing the Xuhui High School in Shanghai.

When it was first established, Shanghai was a little fishing village which only had a population to 200,000, a fraction of the 23 million today. In the beginning, preaching and teaching at the college took place in several small Chinese houses and the school only had 10 graduates the first year. At the time they were aiming to attract children from poorer backgrounds to enroll, like other missionaries. Due to the social limitation, it taught French, art and music besides teaching “Four books and five classics”, which are the authoritative books of Confucianism in China written before 300 BC. It could be considered a ShuYuan plus French, art and music course. It was far from a mature new school but it was already a brave try in China.

Figure 4 1850~1877 starting period of time of College Saint Ignace10

In 1889, College Saint Ignace stipulated French as a required subject. With the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in

1904, the Imperial Examination was abolished and the school added English as a subject. Students must choose either English or French together with math, physics, history and geography. All those courses were taught in

French. Two years after, the construction of St. Ignatius Cathedral was completed. It acted as the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shanghai and was designed in the Neo-Gothic style by William Doyle.

Figure 5 St. Ignatius Cathedral, Xujiahui, Shanghai11

10 Xuhui High School School History Exhibition 11 World Imaging, 2009

Figure 6 St. Ignatius Cathedral, Xujiahui, Shanghai12

In this period, most of the missionary schools were in a budding stage. Architects had not participated much in school design. Most of schools were small, some of them were equal in size to an office. Though, in terms of pedagogy this was the most dramatic change happening in schools in China. At College Saint Ignace, sports and music were held in high regard. In 1860, Catholic priest Franciscus Ravary pointed out that Shanghai lacked a professional orchestra and band and thus suggested to form an orchestra at College Saint Ignace. He provided instruments imported from France. This was sensational and advanced for that time.

Towards the later stages of the Imperial Exam, the learning form of ShuYuan had already changed dramatically compared to what it was during the ancient period. It was no longer a space with freedom of expression: Father

Samuel Robbins Brown’s point of view was undoubted.13 However, architecturally, ShuYuan in China Empire still kept their representative characteristics (for example the axial layout, and the highlight of courtyard and landscape that aim to create a peaceful sense of place) until the last day from which they disappeared in history.

Worth mentioning is when missionaries first started building schools in China, just like College Saint Ignace, they used residential houses as classrooms because at that time their power and abilities could not contend with

12 World Imaging, 2009 13 See footnote 11

12 the traditional ShuYuan. So they either rented or bought residential houses, but not existing schools (ShuYuan) and simply turn them into schools. Thus, missionary schools largely implanted the style of western schools into

China not only because they despised traditional Chinese pedagogy, but also they did not even have the chance to develop schools on the base of an existing one. Therefore, even early missionary schools looked almost no different than their neighbors (beside the Cross), the space within the courtyard walls barely had anything to do with traditional ShuYuan. It was a purge – in the late 19 century, whatever the traditional ShuYuan had anything that we could possibly learn from, it was purged by missionary schools.

The school laid a foundation for its further development in 1911, but was strictly limited by the external political and social situation. After 1911 (i.e., the establishment of the Republic of China), missionary architecture in school reached a completely different level.

Figure 7 early College Saint Ignace domitory14

14 Xuhui High School School History Exhibition

Figure 8 Chongsi Hall in College Saint Ignace, built in 1917

Figure 9 First soccer team taking photo in front of ChongsiHall

1.3 1911~1949 Movement in Republic of China and during the Wars

1.3.1 Social Condition after 1911: reform and development in education and architecture

On January 1st 1912, The Republic of China was established and Nanjing designated as the capital of the country.

During this era, scholars that had studied aboard in Europe and America gained important positions in the national educational administration. They carried out a series of drastic reforms in the education field. Schools were now comprehensively and officially reforming into a modern structure.

During this troubled time in China, non-governmental scholars believed that educational development is the fundamental of national rejuvenation. Scholars, especially those who had studied aboard established many educational institutions locally and nationally. Furthermore, they participated in teaching and willingly donated

14 land and money into education and campus construction.

Even though there were still disagreements regarding teaching reform, they still brought positive results macroscopically.

In 1912-1913, with the lead of Cai Yuanpei15 and other scholars, the educational system transformed from imitating the Japanese system to imitating western systems. The government published “RenZi-KuiChou” guidance as a code of operating new schools, which became later known as “RenXu” guidance This publication included encouraging girls to attend school and allowing boys and girls to attend the same school. This guidance was working well and was not changed until 1949 (Establishment of The People Republic of China). Before

1937 when the Second Sino-Japanese War began, school construction and establishment reached a historically high level.

Looking at Nanjing, the capital at the time, as an example, in 1912, the population of the city was 269,000, and slowly increased to 401,500 in the next 15 years. By 1927 when the national government eventually moved to

Nanjing, the population had rapidly increased to 496,500. Within this number, 51,742 (10.4%) were children from 6 to 12 years old and the number of children attending schools was 13,263. As such, the enrollment rate of the city was 25.7%. In 1936, the population of Nanjing had swelled to a million16 and there were about 91,641 children in the 6-12 primary school age bracket. By now, the enrollment rate had reached 55.33%.17 Within only

8 years, the enrollment rate almost doubled. However, enrollment rates differed between significantly between the genders, the male attendance rate of 62.99% was significantly higher than the female rate of 37.01%.

By this time, the architecture industry in China had developed into an iconic point in history. One main reason is the start of the industrial revolution after People Republic of China established, which prompted the

15 Cai Yuanpei (11 January 1868 – 5 March 1940) was a Chinese philosopher and politician as well as influential educationalist in the history of Chinese modern education. 16 Nanjing Local chronography office, Nanjing Chronography, 1986, pp. 91 JiangSu Guji Press 17 Nanjing City Education Bureau, Nanjing Education, 1936, pp. 21-23

15 construction industry. Different types of mills were operated like cement mills, brick mills, etc. Also, bidding was brought into China and immediately became popular and accepted in both government and commercial projects in architecture and the construction field. By 1935, there were over 480 mills and factories in Nanjing, the capital of Republic of China.18

Thus, during this period of time, China had a peaceful and welcoming environment for not only Chinese architects who returned from western countries, but also international firms participating in architecture design and construction. Most of the Chinese architects took part in designing military and political institutes, also public primary and high schools. But for international firms, they were mostly invited by missionary that come from the same parent country of the firm to direct the design work of missionary schools. It is worth mentioning the Chicago firm Perkins, Fellows & Hamilton Architects designed the Private University of Nanking and Henry

Killam Murphy (we also mentioned that in last chapter) designed Ginling College. Those two universities used to be the top colleges in China, and merged to form the current Nanjing University.

1.3.2 Development of missionary schools

After a massive flow of missionaries entering China in late 19th century and early 20th century, a large number of fundamental schools were built. It happened also because of the establishment of Republic of China, a short, relatively peaceful period which facilitated public infrastructure and cultural development. Missionaries now switched their focus from primary and high school to universities. On the one hand, they were working to merge high schools together to form colleges, on the other hand, they were building new universities; all of those schools are copying the western schooling system.

In the previous chapter, we discussed the conflict between traditional Chinese society and missionaries, a conflict that even led to massacre. This is an important reason why the missionaries were looking for an adaptive way of preaching and a pedagogy that partly combined traditional Chinese education.

In terms of architecture, the international firms that were invited by missionaries participated in designing works

18 Liu, Xianjue, Zhang, Fuhe, Muramatsu, Shin, Terahara, Sanji, China Modernism Architecture Overview, vol. 16, 1992, pp. 5-14, China Architecture & Building Press

16 in China. First, this promoted modernism in architecture particularly in campus planning and school building design, while also attempting design that should be a combination of Chinese and Western elements.

During the design work of Murphy & Dana designing Ginling College, President Mrs. Laurence Thurston19 and architects Henry Killam Murphy both agreed to design the college with the combination of western,20 modern architecture and Chinese traditional elements. Furthermore, the firm was willing to invest to achieve this combined style. In the letter Mr. Murphy21 from Murphy & Dana Architects replying to Miss Bender of Ginling

College, explained (Figure 2.1below):

“STYLE:

Mr. Murphy explained that Mrs. Thurston and Murphy & Dana agreed that the Chinese style should be followed throughout the buildings, and not confined to the roof as at first suggested; and that it was also agreed that the additional cost (perhaps 10%) of carrying out the buildings in this style as compared with the foreign style, was felt to be fully justified.”

In addition to this, in the Ginling College project, Murphy not only catches the basic, specific elements of

Chinese traditional architecture, and utilizes it in the envelop design, but also understands the spiritual sense of

Chinese traditional spacious and landscape layout. Also, in the letter to Ginling University, Murphy states

(footnote 25):

“The approach, so important in a College group, should work out very well as indicated on the sketch. By

19The first president of Ginling University, the first Women’s College in China 20 William, Cody Jeffery, Henry K. Murphy, An American Architect in China, 1914~1035, 1989, Cornell University Press 21 Henry Murphy (August 19, 1877-October 12, 1954) was an American architect noted for his design of educational establishments in the North-East of the United States, China and Japan. Graduated from Yale in 1899 and opened his own firm Murphy & Dana, Architects in New York City in 1908 with Yale University instructor Richard Henry Dana, Jr. During his career Murphy made eight trips to China, the first for a few weeks in 1914, the last and longest from 1931 to 1935.

17 joining the three ponds now existing at the East side of the property, and spanning these artificial streams by little Chinese bridges, a most attractive landscape effect can be obtained; while from a practical viewpoint, the circular drive, enclosing the central ponds, will give a desirable circulation for vehicles coming up to the Chapel and Library.”

Figure 10 Letter from Henry Killam Murphy from Murphy & Dana Architects, New York to Miss Bender from

Ginling College, April 17, 1919 22

22Yale Divinity School Library

Figure 11 Letter from Henry Killam Murphy from Murphy & Dana Architects, New York to Miss Bender from

Ginling College, September 20, 1918 23

23 Yale Divinity School Library

Figure 12 Campus planning of Ginling College, by the architect Henry Murphy, Jan. 1st 1921 24

Henry Murphy, as a representative of American architect in China, in the late 1920s brought up the concept, “the adaptive renaissance of Chinese architecture,”25 and Ginling College is one of the best examples of this theory.

In 1927, when the National Government of the Republic of China was established in Nanjing, most of missionary universities in Nanjing had already finished their construction works.

24 Yale Library 25Tang, Keyang, Cong Fei Yuan Dao Yan Yuan, 2009, Shenghuo-Dushu XinZhi Bookstore Publication

1.3.3 Case Study: Yale-In-China College (YaLi High School)

YaLi High School, located in Changsha, Hunan Province, was established by the Yale-China Association, formerly Yale-in-China, which is an independent, nonprofit organization which seeks to develop educational programs and promote further understanding between the Chinese and American people founded in 1901. 26

In the 1890s, a group of Yale College graduated missionaries founded Yale-in-China and brought the mission to

Changsha between 1901 and 1905. In 1906, the mission’s preparatory school, or the Yali School, began operations. When the campus was expanded in 1914, Yale based architecture firm Murphy & Dana Architects designed the campus for free. This led Murphy to come to China for the first time in order to research the site of the school. Afterwards, Murphy made eight trips in his life to China, and the last and longest one was from 1931-

1935.

Figure 13 Yale-in-China College Plan designed by Murphy & Dana Architects

Missionaries also took the location of site seriously, they believed that a campus should be in a place that is quiet, far from the city center, located in the suburbs and placed an emphasis on separating the area of dorm, office and

26 Chapman, Nancy E, Plumb, Jessica C, The Yale-China Association: A Centennial History, 2001, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press 27Yale in China Official Website, http://www.yalechina.org/chinese/history/302/

21 classroom just like schools in America in the late 19th century.

This plan has a strong neo-classical form, emphasizing the symmetry, simple geometry, and social demands instead of ornament. This plan is quite similar to many plans of schools in America during the same period. This layout also reintroduced the ShuYuan school layout that had been resisted for thousands of years. Even though this is about 10 years before Murphy designed Ginling University, we can still see a strong, adaptive renaissance style in his design. He usually adapted five features – the hanging curved roof, the assigned order, the honest structure, the gorgeous colors and perfect proportions – to express the internal spirit of traditional Chinese architecture. He actually led a renaissance of Chinese classic architecture during the Republic of China era (1912-

49).28 The Yale-in-China campus planning clearly represents Murphy’s philosophy of “adaptive design,” in addition to absorbing the essence of Chinese architecture; he also borrowed the architectural axis order of

Chinese palaces and sought harmony with the natural context of a site. (Figure 2.4)

In terms of curriculum, the Yale-in-China high school had 4 grades and a preliminary grade. In each year, there were 6-7 courses. The total class hours in preliminary and first grade of high school were 30 hours per week.

This amount of teaching decreases as students progress towards the senior grades. However, those courses were fairly advanced even by current standards, especially in science subjects.

Year in School Subjects and hours per week

Preliminary Grade Chinese (8) English(9) Calculate(4) Chinese geology(4) Art(3) Bible(2)

Grade 1 Chinese (8) English(10) Algebra(4) geography(4) Art(3) Bible(2)

Grade 2 Chinese (8) English(5) Literature(4) Ancient Western History(3) Chemistry(3)

Geometry(4) Bible(2)

Grade3(first half) Chinese (8) English(5) Geometry(3) Mediaeval Western History(3) Physics(3)

Health(3) Bible(3)

28 Qiao, Michelle, US architect left legacy in China, November 11, 2016, Shanghai Daily

Grade3(second half) Chinese (8) English(5) Advanced Algebra(3) Modern Western History(3)

Physics(3) Health(3) Bible(3)

Grade4(first half) Chinese (8) English(4) Geology(4) Britain History(3) Triangle(3) Biology(3)

Bible(2)

Grade4(second half) Chinese (8) English(4) Astronomy(3) Politics(3) Physics(3) Triangle(3)

Biology(3) Bible(2)

Different from traditional academies in China, the Yale-in-China school pays attention to not only literature and politics, but also in arts, music and sports. In 1906, when Yale-in-China was first established, the notion of “out of class activities” was virtually unheard of in China. Within three years, the school formed the first soccer team in the whole province.

Figure 14 1920 Yale-in-China Wright Dormitory and on-campus tennis court

29 Liu, Weichao, Kua Shi Ji de Ya Li, September 2016, pp. 36 Hunan Education Press 30 Chen, Xianshu, Chang Sha Bai Nian Ming Xiao, August 2017, Human People’s Press

Figure 15 1920 MaYuanLing Science Hall and Basketball court

The Yale-in-China high school buildings also had modern electrical infrastructure, and the space layout was rendered very modern and open, with electrical lighting, heating system, hot water, flush toilets and bathtubs.

(Figure14-15). In 1920s when the construction of the new campus was finished and teaching set up, the Yale-in-

China college became one of the best high schools in China.

All these activities require an updated layout of the campus. Many missionary schools were similar to Yale-in-

China as they were designed according to a western school planning method which focused on function and program. The form of the whole school was in a uniform shape, and most of the buildings were in rectangular in plan. This method of planning can also be found in terms of designing of the school buildings. Function was the most important criteria at that time; the plan had to be convenient, and lighting and ventilation had to be efficient.

Compared to ShuYuan in ancient China, this type of school already developed the basic foundations of the modern school, which is suitable for larger class sizes. So, even though the façade of buildings looked significantly different, the actual plan did not change too much: a wide corridor with multiple rectangular spaces.

31 Chen, Xianshu, Chang Sha Bai Nian Ming Xiao, August 2017, Human People’s Press

[Chapter 2]Contemporary Educational architecture development in China

2.1 1949~1965 with the establishment of People Republic of China

2.1.1 Comprehensive transformation: From “American” to “Soviet”

The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomingtang32 (KMT)-led government of the Republic of

China (ROC) and the Communist Party of China (CPC) lasting intermittently between 1927 and 1949. The

Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of mainland China and resulted in the Kuomingtang retreating offshore, reducing its territory to only Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 21 September 1949, Communist Party Chiarman Mao Zedong announced the establishment of the

People’s Republic of China with a speech at the First Plenary Session of the Chinese People’s Political

Consultative Conference.33 This was followed by a mass celebration in Tiananmen Square on 1 October, at which the proclamation was made publicly by Mao at the Tiananman Gate, the date becoming the new country’s first National Day.34

The first major educational transformation in modern China was when missionaries swarmed into China and initiated a nationwide revolution of implementing Western, especially American educational systems as a model for China. After the People’s Republic of China was established, with changes to all social, political and economic aspects, the educational system in China received the second large-scale transformation. Taking universities as an example, before 1949, there were two main types of universities. The first group consists of universities built by the Republic of China government which imitated the American higher education system, including 124 public universities (taken over by PRC government with the liberation of each city), 21 missionary universities (taken by PRC government in 1951) and 60 private universities (reformed into public schools in

32 The Kuomingtang (KMT) Chinese Nationalist Party, often referred to in English as the Nationalist Party of China or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a major political party in the Republic of China throughout its historical periods in both the mainland as well as Taiwan, which was recognized and transitioned to the current form since 1919. The KMT was the dominant ruling party of the Republic of China on the mainland from 1928 to 1949. 33 UCLA Center for East Asian Studies, The Chinese people have stood up, Archived from the original on February 18, 2009. Retrieved April 16, 2006 34 Westcoot, Ben, Lee, Lily, They were born at the start of Communist China. 70 years later, their country is unrecognizable, September 30, 2019, CNN

1952). The second type were the universities in YanAn35.

In December 1949, PRC government established the policy of educational reform, “based on the experience of

YanAn, imitating Soviet advanced experience, to develop new democracy education system.” 1949 to 1957 was the period when China recovered its economy from decades of wars and began the first of a series of “five-year plans”36. In this period, China implanted Soviet educational system, and established the People’s Education

Press on 1st December 195037, which wrote and published standardized textbook used nation-wide. From there, educational policy in China became highly centralized and would remain this way for a decade to come. However, all those changes and policies did not make enough progress to satisfy the needs of the government and citizens.

One of the most severe problems was the lack of schools in quantity. In 1956, only 52% of children in schooling age attended a primary school, which means the rate of literacy (around 78%) was still far too law. Another problem was there were not enough high schools in rural areas. In 1958, there were 37,000,000 teenagers between 13 to 17 years old while formal high schools in China only had the capacity to accommodate 7,000,000 students. The remaining 30,000,000 students living in rural areas could not receive a high school education. 38

In 1958, the Great Leap Forward394041(Second Five Year Plan) emphasized a teaching core in schools which

35 YanAn area: Communist-controlled China, officially called the Soviet Zone, from 1927 to 1937, and the Liberated Zone from 1946 to 1949, was the part of the territories of China controlled by the Communist Party of China from 1927 to 1949 during the Republican era and the Chinese Civil War with Nationalist China. 36 Came from “The Five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics”. Chinese government also used this method of plan to control and regulate macroeconomic nationally, and it’s still on-going now. 37ISBN 978-7-107 38 Bramall, Chris, Chinese Economic Development, London and New York: Routledge, 2009, Chapter 6 39The Great Leap Forward (Second Five Year Plan) of the People’s Republic of China was an economic and social compaign led by Chinese Communist Part from 1958 to 1962. Chairman Mao Zedong launched the compaign to reconstruct the country from an agrarian economy into a communist society through the formation of people’s communes.Mao decreed increased efforts to multiply grain yields and bring industry to the countryside. Local officials were fearful of Anti-Rightist Campaigns and competed to fulfill or over-fulfill quotas based on Mao's exaggerated claims, collecting "surpluses" that in fact did not exist and leaving farmers to starve. Higher officials did not dare to report the economic disaster caused by these policies, and national officials, blaming bad weather for the decline in food output, took little or no action. The Great Leap resulted in tens of millions of deaths, with estimates ranging between 15 and 55 million deaths, making the Great Chinese Famine the largest in human history. 40 Smil, Vaclav, “China's great famine: 40 years later”. BMJ: British Medical Journal. December 18, 1999, pp.1619–1621 41 Meng, Xin, Qian, Nancy, Yared, Pierre, “The Institutional Causes of China's Great Famine, 1959– 1961,” Review of Economic Studies, Archived original on March 5, 2020. Retrieved April 22, 2020

27 was focused on “basic knowledge” and “basic skills” instead of academic research (we will focus on this in next chapter) to accommodate and cater to politics. This was aligned with wider political policy implemented across the whole country. In August 1958, the government decided to delegate administrative power of education to lower levels42and precisely indicated that local government could modify and replenish instructional teaching programs, syllabuses, and textbooks that national government published. Thus, highly centralized and controlled teaching policy in China turned into a fragmented system which caused nationwide confusion in schools and the quality of education in China dramatically declined. We could see policies from 1958 to 1965 as attempts to adjust to the Soviet mode of education although they were not determinately successful.

To fully understand what happened in China in this period, it is necessary to realize that when the Chinese

Communist Party gained power, they completely discarded everything that was left by the Kuomingtang, including developed experiences in YanAn (Mao believed it was production in rural area in war time)43 and advantages in the traditional Chinese education system. The government only and exceedingly praised Soviet pedagogy. This is also an important reason that why the modern Chinese educational history is impacted by several faulted zones, which also caused a breakage in the design and research of educational architecture. If we take missionary schools as a purge of traditional Chinese ShuYuan, the popularity of Soviet mode schools after

1949 was another purge of the previous two types of schools. This kind of “purge” existed in many developing countries that had been influenced by colonists, however, what happened in China was even worse.

2.1.2 1952 “Reorganization” of Chinese higher education

42CPC Central Committee and the State Council, Guan Yu Jiao Yu Shi Ye Quan Li Xia Fang De Gui Ding 43 Multiple Author, China Education Year-book (1949-1981), 1984, pp. 684, China encyclopedia Press

In 1950s, according to the government’s appeal, universities in China hired 861 Soviet scholars and educators to directly participate in the transformation and reform of higher education in China. Meanwhile, the Chinese government sponsored and sent 9,106 international students to The Soviet Union to study. With the help of Soviet scholars, China established two universities as role models in 1950 for educational reform, Renmin University of China as the role model for Arts schools and Harbin Institute of Technology as the role model for STEM schools. The Chinese government established the teaching philosophy for Renmin University of China as

“Teaching contents should be highly integrated with practical problems, Soviet experiences and realistic situation in China.” At the same time, Renmin University of China became a base to foster Marxism-Leninism-Maoism teachers nationally. In 1950, Renmin University of China was allocated 20% of total government funding for higher educational institutions. From here, the Chinese government started to control enrollments, departments and majors. Meanwhile, the government canceled all missionary universities, and reformed and limited private universities. For example, in Shanghai, the Great China University44and Kuang Hua University45 merged into the public East China Normal University. By the end of 1952, all 20 missionary universities were reformed.

Missionary schools Establishment date – Missionary schools reformed Establishment date – reformed into public Reorganization date into private school running by Reorganization date schools Chinese citizens and partially

Location funded by government Location

Fu Jen Catholic 1925-1951 Beijing Central University of China 6/24/1901 – 1951

University Suzhou

Yenching University 1919-1951 Beijing Shantung Christian University 1902-1952

Shandong Province

Universite de Tsin Ku 1/1921 – 8/1952 Tianjing Saint John’s University 1878-1952

44 Private university June 1st 1924 to July 17th 1951 45 Private university established by staff and students quitted from Saint John’s University in Shanghai, 1925 - 1951

Shanghai

Peking Union Medical 1917 Beijng Hangchow Christian College 1897-1951

College Hangzhou

Private MingXian 1907-11/1950 Shanghai Baptist College 1909-1951

College Shanxi Province Shanghai

Jinling University 1888 – 1952 Universite L’Aurore 3/27/1903 – 1952

Nanjing Shanghai

Jinling Women’s 1913-1952 Aurora Women’s College 9/1937-1952

College Nanjing

Fukien Chirstian 9/1915-1/1951 Canton Christian College 1888-1952

University Fuzhou Guangzhou

Hwa Nan College 1/1908-4/1951 QiuJing Business College 1940-9/1951

Fuzhou Chongqing

Central China University 1926 -1952

Wuhan

Wenhua Librarian 5/16/1910-8/1951

College Wuhan

West China Union 1906-1950/1953

University Chengdu

With the late start of the development of industry, China was eager to have professional specialists. Besides taking control of private and missionary schools, China also urgently needed to increase STEM majors in schools.

That was perceived to be another important reason to start the “reorganization.” In the beginning of the year

1952, within 206 universities in China, there were only 36 (17%) technical and engineering schools and STEM students in public universities. Even worse, those existing STEM colleges were small with outdated technology.

Thus, they were not able to train holistic engineering specialists.46

In 1952, China established 95 more colleges. Among those colleges, 50 of them were engineering colleges and

25 of them were normal colleges. Nationally, besides a small number of comprehensive research universities, the government strived to develop engineering schools focusing in the steel industry, geology, aviation, mining industry, hydraulic engineering etc. After 1952, the number of engineering schools, agricultural schools, normal schools and medical schools increased from 108 (before 1949) to 149, and the number of students doubled from

70,400 to 138,400. But the number of comprehensive universities decreased from 51 to 2147, and the number of politics and law students decreased from 37,682 to 3,830.

The process of “Reorganization” was not only adding up majors and colleges. Take the reorganization of

Shanghai JiaoTong University as an example:

1. In 1949, College of Science of National Chi Nan University, Aviation department of ZheJiang University,

Aviation department of Nanjing University and Civil Engineering department of Fudan University

merged together into JiaoTongUniversity

2. In 1950, the Department of Maritime Management in National JiaoTong University merged with

Shanghai Maritime College. The new college was later merged with DaLian Maritime College which

to completely located in another city!

46Multiple Author, 1984, Page 684 China Education Year-book (1949-1981), China encyclopedia Press 47 Unknown Author, Research of China higher education in the past 50 years, 1999, pp. 1864

Figure 16 List of students and staff attending Shanghai Maritime College with the reorganization 48

3. June 12th, 1951, when Ministry of Education firstly reorganize and add engineering departments and

colleges, JiaoTong University (STEM school) was on the top of the list. Within the university,

Department of Telecom Management merged with the Department of Electrical Engineering, the

Department of Industrial Management merged with the Department of Mechanical Enginee ring, the

Department of Marine Engineering merged with the Department of shipbuilding. Inter-college

reorganization also took place as exemplified by the Department of Transportation Management moving

to Beijing Jiaotong University (a department from Shanghai to Beijing!), the Department of Financial

Management moving to Shanghai University of Finance and Economics.

The Department of Spinning at Shanghai Spinning college and Shanghai Spinning Technical School merged

together as East China Spinning Technical College, which is now Donghua University.

48 Zhang Tingting, Shanghai Jiaotong University reorganization of departments in 1950s to 1960s, June 25, 2018, SJTU Digital Archives

4. Till that, the whole Management College of Shanghai Jiaotong University was abolished.

It is not a waste of pages to spend this much length to explain the Reorganization of universities in 1950s. The

Soviet mode of discarding general education has distinct weaknesses. The government promoted this

Reorganization only with the purpose of quickly developing the economy in the short term. Everything that is not related to practical skills, like Arts subjects, were removed from universities, which is a completely opposite approach to pedagogy compared to traditional Chinese philosophy. This Reorganization influenced several generations and caused a destructive and irreversible cultural damage. The Chinese population, for a long time, would lack of the sense of aesthetics and humanism. It is also a divide in architecture that new constructions after 1949 were going in another direction.

2.1.3 Case Study: TsingHua University extension in 1950s

Before 1949, TsingHua University had already undergone three stages of campus planning and construction. The very first time was by Emil Fisher completing the construction of TsingHua School in 1909-191149 . This planning was based on TsingHua Garden in the Qing Dynasty building the preparatory school, which remained the fundamental installation of the royal garden and laid the “H” shape foundation from the campus gate to

Tsinghua School.

Figure 17 Tsinghua 1909-1911 Campus Planning and the south façade of the third college in 1911 50

In 1913, the idea of promoting TsingHua school to TsingHua University was brought up and in 1914, American architect Henry Murphy was invited to plan the campus for new university division. From1914 to 1924, Murphy completed the extension of TsingHua campus planning. Murphy separately planned both the preparatory school part and the new (future) university part. This primary framework of TsingHua campus was built in such a way that provided a possibility for further extending the campus.

49Luo, Sen, New Architecture 4th issue TsingHua University Architecture Planning and Revolution 1911~1981, 1984, pp. 2-14 50 Xu, Maoyan, Dong Xiaoxiao, TsingHua University school history exhibition

Figure 18 1914 Campus planning by Murphy &1920 The Auditorium

Later in 1928, the Kuomingtang government took over TsingHua school, from 1930-1937, Architect Yang

Tingbao completed the planning of National TsinghHua University and started another round of construction so that the campus would be more appropriate for a “university” than a “school”.

Figure 19 1930 Campus Planning & 1930 TsingHua University Library

From 1951 to 1952, to accommodate the department adjustments and rapid increase in student numbers (in 1949,

51Xu Maoyan, Dong Xiaoxiao, TsingHua University school history exhibition 52Xu Maoyan, Dong Xiaoxiao, TsingHua University school history exhibition

35 total number of students was 2300, and before the Reorganization in 1952, the number increased to 3080 and reached 5078 after the Reorganization53) caused by the Reorganization in Universities, TsingHua University had a large number of constructions with poor quality (shows Figure 20). However, due to the funding limitation, and the political policy of “making things done with whatever is available” and to satisfy the need for classrooms,

TsingHua University built a mass of unplanned structures. The amount of those structures was almost half of existing buildings and this later had a negative influence on the long-term development of the campus.

Figure 20 1952 West Dining Center of TsingHua University

At the end of 1954, TsingHua University decided to have another extension towards the east side of the campus.

As to be the role model of “Comprehensively learning from The Soviet Union,” the best university in China,

TsingHua University implanted Moscow State University’s main building and its surrounding spaces from the perspective of higher education and architecture.

53Wei GaoChuan, 1995, Page 24-27, TsingHua University campus planning and architecture research, Beijing TsingHua University 54 Fang, Huijian, Zhang, Sijing, TsingHua University Records, 2001, pp. 680-696, TsingHua University Press

Moscow State University is a coeducational and public research university located in Moscow, Russia, founded on 23 January 1755 by Mikhail Lomonosov. The campus of MSU expanded during the first five-year-plan of

Soviet (1928-1932) and Soviet government invested significant funding to represent their superiority and the sense of national pride. The main building of MSU and the whole campus were designed in line with the philosophy of large scaled and monumental Russian nationalism architecture. 55

With the influence of MSU Main building, the main building of TsingHua University also wanted to show the monumental manner of architecture but did not have a massive space to do that, so that designers filled this building as many programs as possible. When arranging those spaces with different programs, it was arranged in neo-classism style to represent heroism. Meanwhile, to build as many rooms as possible while not reducing natural lighting, the spaces in two sides of the main building are indented. Thus, the floorplan in general looks like a horizontal “H”.

Figure 21 Moscow State University Plan

55 Chen, XiaoTian, Development of form of Chinese Universities, 2008, pp. 122-130, Tongji University Doctor’s thesis

Figure 22 TsingHua University Plan 1954

Besides implanting the space layout, TsingHua University also implanted the architecture form of MSU main building. In 1954, TsingHua University main building design and construction experienced “implanting form” and “simplifying form.” In 1953, China started its first “five-year-plan”, with the political policy of “leaning to

Soviet side,” Soviet architecture philosophy, nationalism and communism, also became mainstream in China. In

China, it ends up in “Beaux-Arts” special relationship and traditional Chinese form.56 The main building of

TsingHua University could be seen as a representative work of this design philosophy: the structure has a classical form. The ground floor has a colonnade in the center, the body of the structure has obvious vertical columns with DouGong57 decorating the top, and the roof part of the building installs traditional Chinese tented roofs.

56 Lai, Delin, Analyze in “words” and “grammar” of western architecture – classical architecture language, 2018 57 DouGong, “cap and block” is a unique structure element of interlocking wooden brackets, one of the most important elements in traditional Chinese architecture.

Figure 23 1954 TsingHua University main building schematic design sketches, Wang Guoyu58

Figure 24 Moscow State University Main Building & 1954 TsingHua University Planning Main Building59

58 Wang GuoYu donated to TsingHua University, campus planning plans of each periods, stored in TsingHua archives center 59Wang GuoYu donated to TsingHua University, campus planning plans of each periods, stored in TsingHua archives center

Figure 25 1954 TsingHua University Planning Main Building Perspective Rendering60

Figure 26 Built TsingHua University Main Building

With the influence of Soviet architectural philosophy, TsingHua University main building also had a pinnacle on

60 Luo, Sen, New Architecture 4th issue TsingHua University Architecture Planning and Revolution 1911~1981, 1987 61 TsingHua University Architecture Department, 1949-2000 China Architecture Awards, 2009

40 the top. In 1956, architect Guan Zhaoye carried on the design work of the main building, however, with criticisms of the “luxury roof” from within the architectural field, he decided to retain the basic space layout of the previous schematic design but simplified lots of decoration in form and ended up in a functional and classical structure.

From 1950s, politics played a central role in the field of architecture, and design works were subject to intense political restrictions. Ideology control reached to a level in history which is clearly reflected in architecture design and this has a long-term influence in teaching-learning environment and creative works.

2.2 1966~1976 the Cultural Revolution

2.2.1 Academics and education during the Cultural Revolution

The Cultural Revolution, formally the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a violent sociopolitical purge movement in China from 1966 until 1976. Launched by Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of

China, its stated goal was to preserve Chinese communism by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society, and to re-impose Mao Zedong Thought (known outside China as Maoism) as the dominant ideology in the CPC. Launching the movement in May 1966 with the help of the Cultural Revolution

Group, Mao soon called on young people to “bombard the headquarters” and proclaimed that “to reel is justified.”

In order to eliminate his rivals within the CPC and in schools, factories, and government institutions, Mao charged that bourgeois elements had infiltrated the government and society with the aim of restoring capitalism.

Schools and universities were closed with the college entrance exams cancelled nationally. Over 10 million urban intellectual youths were sent to the countryside as part of the Countryside Movement.

Figure 27 urban intellectual youths in rural area as part of the Countryside Movement

Under the “Back to the Countryside Movement”, more than 17 million students were pulled out of the cities and sent to rural farms, Jilin, 1968.62

According to the official documents obtained during the prosecution of the Gang of Four, 142,000 cadres and teachers in education circles were persecuted and noted academics, scientists, and educators died.63 As of 1968, among the 171 senior members who worked at the headquarters of the Chinese Academy of Science in Beijing,

131 were persecuted. Among all the members of academy in China, 229 were persecuted to death. 64

The Cultural Revolution brought China’s education system to a virtual halt for a long time. In the early months of the Cultural Revolution, schools and universities were closed. Primary and middle schools later gradually reopened, but all colleges and universities remained closed until 1970, and most universities did not reopen until

1972.65 The university entrance exams were cancelled after 1966, to be replaced later by a system whereby students were recommended by factories, villages and military units, and entrance exams were not restored until

1977 under Deng Xiaoping. Values taught in traditional education were abandoned.

62 VCG via Getty Images 63 Mayers, T. James, Domes, Jurgen, Groeling, Erik von, eds, Chinese Politics: Fall of Hua Kuo-Feng (1980) to the Twelfth Party Congress (1982) 1995, University of South Carolina Press 64Cao, Pu, “Among all the members of academy in China, 229 were persecuted to death.” Chinese University of HongKong, Retrieved Feburary 23, 2020 65 Joel, Andreas, Rise of the End Engineers: The Cultural Revolution and the Origins of China’s New Class, 2009, Stanford University Press

Figure 28 Tearing down the gate of TsingHua University by its students66

Figure 29 Students dressed up in military uniforms attend classes at Beijing University, May 23, 1971 67

66 Tsing Hua Ren, 2009, 1st issue 67 Vittoriano Rastelli/corbis via Getty Images

2.2.2 Architecture during the Cultural Revolution

As stated in the previous chapter, during the Cultural Revolution, the development of architecture was stagnant and even retrogressive. Nonetheless, construction activities were still going on and there were some progressive works in specific styles. For example, “WanSui Hall” a type of building to propagate Maoism, were built across the country with abundant funding and labor support, which in some way could represent the highest standard of construction at that time.

Figure 30 WanSui Hall, construction started in 1968, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, Photo taken in 1982 68

Also, even though the political agitation caused significant distress in the country, diplomacy made progress during these years. In 1970, China relaunched diplomatic activities, and by 1972, China re-established diplomatic relations with 88 countries and recovered a lawful seat at the United Nations in October 1971. Thus, a series of diplomatic structures were built, like Beijing International Club, Inc69.

68 Jiangxi Province Exhibition Center 69 Beijing International Club was built as a community center for foreign diplomats living in the embassy region. It was made up of five parts, including a gym (part I), a recreation area (Part II), a dining area (Part III), a cinema (Part IV), and a swimming pool (Part V).

Figure 31 Ground floor plan of International Club, and the five parts.70

However, there is little doubt that the Cultural Revolution did great damage to the advancement of educational architecture. As part of the “Design Revolution,” the architecture field was criticized for the pursuit of beauty.

Even though the “architecture code” requires buildings which are “functional, economic and moderate aesthetically pleasing,” buildings were strictly restricted by political ideology. A way of building with rammed earth and oil waste was widely used in residential dorms during the development of the DaQing oil field. In

March 1966, during the national architecture conference, the experience was appreciated and promoted nationally.71 After that, it became popular to reduce construction costs which caused a reduction in quality. Also, during the Cultural Revolution, specialists were scarce so that architecture for civil use, including schools was lackluster.

70 Jianwai Diplomatic Projects Team, “Guoji Julebu [International Club”, Jianzhu Xuebao Architectural Journal, no.1, p.1973, p.48-49, drawn by the author based on the documentation drawings, courtesy of Beijing Urban Construction Archive 71 Zhao, Jijun “In Agriculture, learn from Dazhai”: Mao Zedong’s Revolutionary Model Village and Battle against Nature. Landscape Research. 2007, pp. 171-200

Figure 32 Red guards at No. 23 Middle School wave the Little Red Book of the Quotations of Chairman Mao in classroom revolution rally. 72

72 Wikimedia commons

[Chapter 3] 1977~Now Mature educational system and educational architecture in China

3.1 Establishment of current educational system after the “Reform and Opening-up”

Deng Xiaoping first proposed the idea of “Boluan Fanzheng” 73 in September 1977 in order to correct the mistakes of Cultural Revolution. On December 18, 1978, the pivotal Third Plenum of the 11th Central Committee was held. At the congress, Deng called for “a liberation of thoughts” and urged the party to “seek truth from facts” and abandon ideological dogma.

In 1977, the College Entrance Exam was restored, which was the most important point of educational system reform even for social and political reform. Because it re-established the principle of fair competition in education and incentivized millions of youths to go back to schools. At this time, China was in a huge need of teachers and schools. The Class-teaching system, which Chinese were familiar accustomed to, was the easiest and fastest way to restore teaching activities in China at this time.

After about 100 years of development, China improved its own class-teaching system. It is deep-rooted and there are of course pros and cons of this system. The superiority of the class-teaching system is listed below:

1. First of all, it is easy to extensively duplicate in schools. Under the class teaching system, one teacher

could easily teach dozens of students, which is labor efficient. It is a way to utilize limited teaching

materials and resources to achieve the goal in teaching. During the early stage of economic development,

this system successfully balanced the conflict between the mass number of enrolled students with the

very limited supply of teachers.

2. Everything evolved around the teacher so that he/she could easily control what to teach and what to do.

It is a direct way to pass the knowledge from teacher to student.

3. Taking “class” as a unit of teaching activities, students could easily absorb theoretical knowledge. This

could objectivize mass learning content and help students to understand issues through a step by a step

approach.

73 Literally meaning “eliminating chaos and returning to normal”, was a period in the history of PRC during which Deng Xiaoping, then paramount leader of China, led a far-reaching program attempting to correct the mistakes of the Cultural Revolution launched by Mao Zedong.

4. The Relatively stable class scale and unitive teaching arrangement is easy for administration. Under the

class-teaching system, usually students are divided into classes according to age; all classes start and

finish a class at the same time. This is easy for schools to arrange the teaching progress and to set up a

standardized curriculum.

5. Students in the same class stayed together all day long, which reinforced their group consciousness.

Students thus also have the same curriculum, same tests and same goals, so that they would compete,

encourage, and make progress together.

On the other hand, the class teaching system also had obvious disadvantages. The class teaching system in some way led us to a situation that our educational system would not satisfy the need of creative talents and specialists.

It is a system that is relatively regressive, the content taught is outdated and students are under excessive pressure.

The disadvantages are also thought provoking:

1. It is fails to realize the importance of an individual student’s need in teaching activities. The class

teaching system is based on students, subjects, class. So that during the process of teaching, students

are passively absorbing whatever the teachers teach. It is not an efficient way to develop self-learning

ability and creativeness.

2. The form of teaching is simple, and the contents of each class are adequately linked in a coherent manner.

Thus, the class has a template and might not change for different class and for a long time.

3. Students lack the opportunities of engaging in teamwork. Even though the class teaching system put

students together into classes and they stay together every day, they still finish their learning activities

individually.

4. The Class teaching system focuses on the general characteristics of students but ignore their individual

differences. The system requires students to make progress together but fails to cultivate individual

personality development.

3.2 Class-teaching system and the form of its space

3.2.1 Relationship between educational building and campus

In most of the campuses, they are usually planned according to functions. This type of layout is easy to administer and the operation of school would not be interrupted by construction activities. For both students and staff, buildings that provide the teaching environment during the day are relatively close which offers a planned, regular routine for students and staff. This layout is relatively simple and could be practiced in different schools.

In the class teaching system, classrooms take up the most intensive space in the whole campus, and thus they serve as the core of a campus plan. The location and design of the classroom building always has the priority and it is indeed a great concern in educational architecture design.

The classroom building is usually located at the main axis or by the main circulation of the campus, and close to the entrance of the school. The reason is that firstly students could get to the classroom as soon as possible after walking into the campus. It is also a safety consideration since the public space surrounding classroom building could be used as an evacuation square. This type of layout could be traced back to ShuYuan which also places great emphasis on study space. Though ShuYuan’s plan often focused on softening the edge between indoor learning space and outdoor environment, ShuYuan were much smaller than contemporary schools in terms of size.

The relationship between the classroom building and other buildings on campus is also worthy of discussion. In schools today, classroom buildings and other buildings like dorms and dining centers are usually completely separated into different zones according to function. This type of layout was established since Republic of China time (1910s). It is not fair to simply call it wrong because functionally they are seldom used together. Thus, existing classroom buildings in school have an intense teaching function but are not appropriate for contemporary school life.

3.2.2 Programs within educational building

In current class-teaching system schools, different functions would usually exist in different buildings and each building is designed for its own main function. Besides dining services and dorms, there are several main functions of a classroom building. We could easily divide those functions into teaching unit, lab unit and public space unit.

A “Teaching unit” in the class teaching system school is a “classroom”, or in general a “class”. “Class” is where most of teaching-learning activities happen, and students spend most of the day in a classroom as well.

“Classroom” thus is a space for teaching multiple subjects, so in fact, it is actually “good to go” if an educational building only has this one function (and in a lot of time it indeed only has this one function). In a class teaching system school, the function of a classroom building is singular. But important to mention, in this system, students participate in almost all activities on campus as a part of their class, the sense of group honor is emphatic so

“classroom” here is not only a concept of “teaching space” but also a spiritual symbol.

Another function that a classroom building would offer is “lab unit”. In some way “lab unit” could be installed anywhere on campus, but some activities happening in a “lab unit” are requiring similar space, for instance, chemistry lab, physics lab and biology lab. However, even though those lab activities are happening in the similar or same space, students could barely interact or communicate with each other. It could be seen as another type of “classroom unit” with different furniture in it.

Public space unit is combined by hallway, stairs, courtyard etc. and in class teaching system, they often and only carry the circulation of a classroom building. Those space could be utilized to connect and interact different units within a building and create multiple layers within a space. The hallway is the most functional part in classroom building because it carries the high density of transportation every time when students finish their classes. In traditional class teaching system school, the hallway needs to ensure the transportation of the building and it barely has any other function. The scale and dimension are also strictly limited by code and barely changed. The same thing happens to the stair, whose form is limited by safety concerns and almost carries few other functions.

Courtyards, whatever in ancient ShuYuan or in missionary schools in modern times were both holding the function of communication, discussion and outdoor activities, whereas in the school teaching system became a rigid “transportation space” or even worse a “wasted space”.

The circulation within a classroom building in class teaching system school is relatively simple. Classrooms are simply connected by hallway and students in different years are simply divided by floors. Classrooms do not necessarily have connections to each other, and they could possibly located at different buildings. That is why in TongWen High School, a building could serve as dorm, offices and later a dining center within 10 years. The chaotic plan in essence is the low interaction between each functional unit in school.

Figure 33 Campus plan of TongWen High School

74 draw by author

[Chapter 4] Exploration of a new model of academic space suitable for China

4.1 Design philosophy of new type of classroom space

With the current economic and social development in China, the class-teaching system can not fully satisfy the need of contemporary education. The idea of what an education should focus on has changed from “based on teachers, based on classes, based on textbooks” to “based on students, based on activities, based on experiences.”

With the evolution of education pedagogy, existing classrooms and schools could not provide needed experiences of students and staff. Under this circumstance, how can we help with improving learning experiences at schools and thus promote fundamental educational revolution at the perspective of architecture designers?

To accommodate to the contemporary teaching philosophy, learning space should not be a space that simply offers a room that teachers can inculcate students. It should be a space that blends communication, storage, teaching-learning and discussion etc. Public spaces like hallway, stairs and courtyard should all be considered as part of “learning space”. New teaching philosophy brings up new instructional forms like discussion, debate and teamwork, which are already quite popular in schools (no matter in high school or colleges). Thus, new facilities and updated learning space are required, and they will be more complex and flexible.

Japanese architect Satoru Nagasawa has stated that there would be 10 parts combining a contemporary learning space in the future:

1. Teaching space: All students could take classes together, having group activities.

2. Normal studying space: having multiple studying activities, has to be flexible.

3. Storage space: for personal or group

4. Water closet: bathroom, water fountain

5. Studio: for multiple uses

6. Teacher’s space: teachers’ personal storage

7. Teaching materials’ space: lab materials etc.

8. Multimedia space: computers, multimedia, small library etc.

9. Quite space: soundproof isolated space

10. Half-outdoor space: hallway, balcony, etc. 75

A contemporary learning space should have a flexible space layout and multiple layers of teaching environment.

The layout has a tendency to be more open-ended and spaces with different functions should have a softer edge.

Adjunctive learning spaces should also be focused besides classrooms since they are able to provide inquired functions to support teaching and learning.

4.2 In a different way of forming a learning space unit

75 Gu, Hegang, Research on designing primary school space accommodating contemporary educational pedagogy, 2009, Chengdu, Southwest Jiaotong Univeristy

A basic “learning space unit” means a certain scaled space that could accommodate a certain number of students and provide basic functions for students to study. It is a relatively independent space with a relatively clear boundary. A “learning space unit” is not only a space for teachers to teach and students to learn, but also a place to accommodate relationship between students and teachers, to develop pedagogy, and to improve academic atmosphere. The scale and boundary of a learning space unit would be decided by the way of teaching, the number of students, the layout of teaching facilities and the site, thus it should be flexible.

Even though we are criticizing the traditional class teaching system here, the core of a learning space unit should still be the “teaching space” with no doubt. However, the integrative communication space is more important in learning space than ever before.

Seeing a common classroom as a “basic learning space unit”, there are countless way of forming up those units into a building in terms of space layout. Even though the layout would be influenced by enrollment scale, land use limitation, method of teaching, climate and such, there are several common layouts in Chinese school: lobby centered layout, courtyard centered layout and hallway centered layout.

Figure 34 Lobby centered classroom building layout76

Lobby centered layout is the most common one in high schools. It is otherwise a narrow, long “lobby” that connects classrooms along one or both sides with other functions like restrooms and offices (Figure 34) The advantages are obvious: classrooms are closed to each other, circulation is relatively short that saves that eases the transportation. However, in this layout, the circulation area is narrow and small, it would be extremely crowded during “rush hours” in classroom building. Also, it is hard to control the noise between classrooms and lighting condition is not ideal because most of the classrooms would only get one side of natural lighting.

76 Draw by author.

Figure 35 Courtyard centered classroom layout 77

The courtyard centered layout is utilizing a courtyard that usually in the center or as a lobby, to improve the indoor environment and create a quiet, comfortable learning space. The courtyard also serves as an essential part of circulation, release the pressure of high intensity of transportation.

77 Draw by author.

Figure 36 Hallway centered classroom building layout 78

Hallway centered layout, as figure 36 shows, means that units (including classrooms, offices, restrooms, etc.) are connected by circulation hallway. The advantages are shown in lighting and ventilation condition, and the view of each part are equally good. Each part of the building has equal connection to outdoor spaces. Many new built educational buildings are in this type of layout.

Taking the experiences of current classroom building layout, this research paper aims to develop a new typology of classroom building layout. However, consider the current social condition of China, it is not realistic to have a complete open-planed classroom building. The method of teaching is now in a transactional stage of transforming from teacher-oriented to student-oriented and encourage self-learning and teamwork. Thus, this research is looking for a layout that is appropriate and feasible in China to help and enhance teaching quality and learning efficiency.

78 Draw by author.

Figure 37 Transformation from traditional classroom building layout to a new type of layout79

Transforming from the traditional common classroom building layout, inspired from experiences from ancient school layout, the idea of new typology is developed gradually with the considerations:

1) Enrich the layers of classroom unit. In a common Chinese school layout, a class (or a classroom) is the

smallest “unit”. Small group and individual activities are not considered in the design process of the current

school. Helping to teach in an architectural way should enrich the layer of spaces in classroom buildings, it

not only increasing the area of a classroom building but also enrich the programs, circulation and provide

possibilities for students to explore and create. In the developed typology, for instance, classroom buildings

should possibly have green space, lab, living space, discussion space, public space, reading space, etc. Each

of this space is equally important. Standing from here, we can image a layout has multiple boxes with same

area to provide different functions.

2) The possibility and changeability of a unit and between different units. On the base of enrich the layers of

units of classroom buildings, it is also important to consider the relationship between units. Those learning

units should not be used separately. They should be integrative and interactive. Thus, architectural layout

will be influencing the way of teaching and learning at this school. For instance, in an art class, students are

79 Draw by author.

encouraged to look up relative books or artworks in the reading unit next to the classroom unit or could have

a quick sketch session in the garden unit. The space offers more possibilities and opportunities of learning

and teaching as well as social.

Figure 38 Integrative learning unit providing multiple possibilities 80

Figure 39 connecting different units.

3) The most important point of the new typology is to overturn the traditional way of circulation. Instead of

having several units (classrooms, offices, restrooms) along the hallway, breaking up the circulation into the

80 Draw by author.

units is the main goal of the new layout. Thus, indoor spaces are fully utilized, and each unit is moderately

undertaking the responsibility of circulation (Figure 39). The very first concept of mobile unit layout (Figure

40) carried on the characteristics, showing a model of school building layout with mobile walls. Thus, no

room in this layout is enclosed. Adjacent units could have enormous possibilities of functions depending on

the needs of users (Figure 41). This is a very ideal model for schools since the noise control is not feasible

and the model is not perfectly duplicative due to its required surface area and shape of the site. However, it

brings up this interesting thought into a fundamental shape.

Figure 40 Concept of mobile unit layout floor plan 81

81 Draw by author.

Figure 41 Units with mobile walls 82

4) Having horizontal and vertical circulation space completely blend into study space. Besides, extracting the

essential circulation hallway into mezzanine level serving as a 24/7 unobstructed access connecting public

spaces within the building also to another classroom building next to here. Horizontally, each unit serves its

own function also welcomes students from all directions going through it. Vertically, the outdoor garden unit

is bringing natural sunlight, natural green environment and vertical views to different levels.

82 Draw by author.

Figure 42 Ground floor plan83

Figure 43 Section perspective 184

83 Draw by author. 84 Draw by author.

Figure 44 Section perspective 2 85

To sum up, space layout of educational architecture should be appreciated by both architectural and educational fields. Social development, economic condition and pedagogy should all be considered while designing the educational architecture space. The research is based on the transactional trend in teaching pedagogy that transforming from teacher-oriented to student-oriented. The typology that author brought up might not be the perfect solution for all schools in China, though it is considered with the development history of educational architecture in modern China and particularly designed for current Chinese schools.

85 Draw by author.

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