Page Numbers with Italics Indicate Figures, Maps, Notes, and Tables

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-83278-6 — Shari‘a, Inshallah Mark Fathi Massoud Index More Information

INDEX

Page numbers with italics indicate ﬁgures, maps, notes, and tables. Surnames and terms beginning with al- are alphabetized by the subsequent part of the name.

Abderrahim, Sheikh Idris Wad, 86 14; in postcolonial Somali Republic, 132; Abel, Richard, 308 qadis, rivalry with, 85; transition to Abgaal sub-clan, 170 democracy and independence, diyya-paying Abu Bakr, 54 groups in, 114; in transition to Act of Union law, 126 independence, 114, 118; xeer, use of, 31 Adan, Sharif Hassan Sheikh, 179, 186, 188 Arabic language, xvi–xvii Adde, Sheikh Hassan Sheikh Mohammed, ARS (Alliance for Re-liberation of Somalia), 176 195–196 Afghanistan: Islamic identity in 2004 authoritarian rule: deﬁned, 6; independent constitution of, 61; law and religion in, Somaliland’s efforts to reject, 20, 208, 212, 111; Taliban, 111, 296; women activists 215, 222, 223–224, 245, 253; “international in, 296 law,”“human rights,” and “rule of law” Afrah, Mohamed Mohamud, 205 associated by Somalis with, 59; law and African Union: AMISOM (African Union religion as means of limiting, 21, 38, 166, Mission in Somalia), 186–189; TFG reliant 167, 223, 228; law and religion used by, 33, on troops from, 197 113, 136, 151, 154, 155, 156; rule of law as ah al-kitaab (Jews and Christians; people of the means of limiting, 21, 38; shari‘a and, 15, 18, book), 66 35, 111, 136; women’s rights associated with, Ahlu Sunna Wal Jamaa, 168 257, 261. See also Siad Barre, Mohamed, Ahmed, Abdulah Yusuf, 178 dictatorship of Ahmed, Mohamed Sheikh, 138 Aweys, Sheikh Hassan Dahir, 167, 176–177, Ahmed, Sheikh Sharif Sheikh, 183, 185, 186, 183 195 aid workers. See international aid community Bakaara Market, Mogadishu, 169, 173 Aideed, Mohamad Farah, 168, 172 Barsane, Sheikh Hassan, revolt lead by, 69 Aisha (wife of Muhammad), 45, 274 Bartholomew I (patriarch of Constantinople), alcohol consumption/intoxication, prohibited 295 in Islam, 48 al-Bashir, Omar Hassan, 295 Ali (son-in-law and cousin of Prophet Sheikh Bashir, revolt lead by, 69 Muhammad), 49 Battle of Mogadishu (1993), 13, 169 Alliance for Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS), Ben Ali, 111 195–196 Benadir Company, 72, 90, 93 Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Bhutan, religion/law and dominant culture in, Counter-Terrorism, 184 293 AMISOM (African Union Mission in Biimal revolt (1896–1908), 69 Somalia), 186–189 bin Laden, Osama, 182 Anglo-Italian Protocol (1890s), 79 birtu ma gaido (the iron cannot touch them), aqils: in colonial British Somaliland, 82–87, 225 84, 89; in independent Somaliland, 209, Black Hawk Down (book/ﬁlm), 13, 169 211, 215, 219, 223, 250; as political elites, Black Lives Matter movement, 294

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blood money. See diyya 57, 162, 168, 169, 172, 173–174, 183–184, British colonialism and British Somaliland. See 298; women, self-help groups formed by, colonial legal politics 262. See also shari‘a courts Buber, Martin, 300 clan system: al-Shabaab and, 192; shari‘a Buddhism: as dominant culture in Bhutan, courts and, 170–171, 174, 178, 181; in 293; legal appeals to, 293 Somalia and Somaliland, 55–56; TFG and, 178, 179 Cabdulqaadir Mosque, Mogadishu, 148 Cold War, 152 Calvin, John, 160 colonial legal politics (1884–1960), 17–18, Camel Corps, 87 65–109; Anglo-Italian Protocol (1890s), 79; CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of anticolonial response to, 94; Berbera, All Forms of Discrimination Against Roman Catholic mission in, 79, 100; Women), 147, 267, 284 Christian missions, British control of, 79; Center for Security Policy, 4 courts, civil and Islamic, 87–90; child marriage, 280–281 disagreements over prevailing law in, 66–69; Choi, Seung-Whan, 39 dispute resolution processes, coopting, Christianity: ah al-kitaab (Jews and Christians; 80–82; European settlements in Somalia, people of the book), treatment of, 66; British not allowing, 79; formal legal anticolonialism and, 133; Berbera, colonial agreements and treaties between Somalis Roman Catholic mission in, 79, 100; legal and British, 75–80, 78; geopolitical districts, appeals to, 293; legal systems, development establishment of, 87; Sheikh Hassan, war of, 176, 292; religion and law, connection against (1899–1920), 17, 36, 65, 68, 69, between, 301–304; varied political 95–107, 109, 174, 217, 297; independent interpretations of ethics in, 293, 294 Somaliland, continuing operation of Churchill, Winston, 81 colonial process in, 231–232, 241, 246–248; civic groups, as political elites, 14 law, building colony through, 75–95, 108; Civil Rights Movement, 294 legacy in Somali legal culture, 54; legal civil war in Somalia, 18–20; archetype of pluralism and, 67–68; map of European disaster, Somali political and legal culture colonial administrations, 65; modern Somali viewed as, 57–58; constitutional shari‘a, opinions of, 107; multiple colonial legacies 197, 199–205; economy during, 57; ICU in Horn of Africa, 69–75, 74, 107; political/ (Islamic Courts Union), 19–20, 37, 159, legal elites, creating new classes of, 82–87, 163–164, 179–189, 298; IFCC 84; pre-colonial law in Horn of Africa, 73; (Independent Federal Constitution religion and, 66, 88, 95–96, 108–109; rule of Commission), 183; judiciary, TFG law, separation of religion and law, and attempting to reestablish, 179, 195–199; life secularization, 11, 41–42; shari‘a, British use expectancy during, 180; map of Somalia of, 3, 17, 36, 66, 72, 101–107, 301–302; during, 159; piracy during, 182, 190, women, treatment of, 260, 264; xeer, use of, 193–194; political and social organizations 80–81; xeer and shari‘a, British separation of, during, 162, 166–168, 170; post-ICU efforts 75, 85. See also French Somaliland; Italian to establish political authority (2007–2021), Somalia 189–205; religion as means of restoring law, Committee for the Protection of Journalists, 160–165, 303; rule of law, shari‘a courts/ICU 198 building, 180–186; al-Shabaab, 163–165, common law: American association of 183, 188, 189–196, 200–207, 208, 303; Christianity with, 161; Catholic Somali legal order[s] during, 58–61; development of legal systems and, 176; “stateless” period in Somalia (1991–2001), shari‘a-trained judges, analogical 166–169; TFG (Transitional Federal methodology of, 128; xeer as form of, 80–81, Government), 159, 164–165, 175, 178–179, 111, 115. See also English common 183–185, 186–188, 189–190, 192, 195–206; law TNG (Transitional National Government), Conference on National Reconciliation 164–165, 175, 176–177; transitional (1993), 168 governments during, 20, 37, 57, 164–165, constitution of independent Somaliland 169, 175; UNISOM and UNITAF, (2001), 20, 208, 209, 229–234, 249, 168–169; US-backed Ethiopian invasion 269–271, 298 and collapse of ICU (2006/2007), 19, 37, constitution of Somalia (2012), 197, 199–205, 163, 186–189, 298; warlords during, 18–20, 269–271, 298

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constitution of the Somali Republic (1960): Somalis studying at, 134, 145; independent gender equality in, 261, 269–271; Islamic Somaliland, legal education in, 234–242, identity in, 125–126, 298 239, 247, 252; National Teacher Education consultative commission for legislation, Center set up by Eastern Michigan 130 University, 134; postcolonial Somalis Convention on the Elimination of All Forms studying for university degrees, 134, 134; of Discrimination Against Women Puntland State University legal aid clinic, (CEDAW), 147, 267, 284 197; under Siad Barre, 145, 236–241; Somali Costea, Doru, 5 National University, 119, 119–120, 134, courts and judges: colonial establishment of, 145; University Institute of Law and 87–90; ICU (Islamic Courts Union), 19–20, Economics, establishment of, 119, 119–120; 37, 159, 163–164; in independent University of Hargeisa, 235–242, 243, 244; Somaliland, 219, 221, 222, 223, 234, 238, University of Mogadishu, 236; for women 245–252; national security courts under Siad and girls, 120, 186, 239, 241, 274–275, 275 Barre, 142, 143, 149, 153, 154, 155, 208, Egypt: colonization of Horn of Africa by, 70, 223, 245; postcolonial establishment of new 82; departure from Horn of Africa, 71; fear of judiciary, 126–129; in pre-colonial period, shari‘a in, 5; Islamic identity of, 61; judges of 88; under Siad Barre, 139, 140–145, 142; Islamic law in colonial period, 121; law and state courts, ethnographic observation in, religion after Hosni Mubarak in, 111; legal 312; TFG setting up, 179, 195–199; in controls over religion in, 294; Mahdi, transition period before independence, Islamic revolution in Sudan under, 70; 120–124, 123. See also qadi courts; shari‘a women activists in, 258 courts; Supreme Court Eid al-Adha address (Siad Barre, 1970), 139 Covid-19, 4 Eisa treaty, 77 Crusades, 294 elders: in colonial British Somaliland, 77, 80, customary law. See xeer 83, 84, 87; Sheikh Hassan on, 106; in independent Somaliland, 208, 215, Dardaaran (“The Will”), Sheikh Mohamed 225–229; as political elites, 14; in pre- Abdullah Hassan, 65 colonial Horn of Africa, 73; xeer, use of, democracy: in independent Somaliland, 58, 80–81 213, 214, 250, 298; international Eldoret conference, 178 perceptions of, 250, 253, 261, 263, 268; elites. See political elites Italian Somalia and, 115–117; marketplace English common law: British colonial use of, for ideas, creating and promoting, 30; 42; Italian Somalia compared to British transition to (1950–1960), 112, 113–124; Somaliland, 130; lack of Somali training in, religion and, 160, 294; shari‘a courts as 85; legal education in, 85, 237; legal seedlings of, 7, 161, 298; Siad Barre’s pluralism and, 67, 236, 302; legal reform minister of urban planning favoring, 137; in projects and, 246, 248 Somali Republic (1960–1969), 112, Eritrea: Ethiopia, proxy war with, 187; ICU, 124–134, 261; TFG constitution and, 183; ﬁnancial support for, 183, 186 women’s rights and, 268 ethics, shari‘a as form of, 7 Democratic Republic of Somalia. See Siad Ethiopia: colonization of Horn of Africa by, 70; Barre, Mohamed, dictatorship of Eritrea, proxy war with, 187; shari‘a courts/ Deria, Musa Haji, 138 ICU, concern over, 178, 179, 183, 184; Siad Dheel, Abdulkadir, 143 Barre’s invasion of, 145, 146, 152; Somali- Dheere, Sheikh Ali, 170, 190 occupied lands ceded to, 73; Soviet Union, diyya (blood money): in colonial period, 66; in alliance with, 152; US-backed invasion of independent Somaliland, 216; in Somalia, 19, 37, 163, 186–189, 298 postcolonial period, 114, 130, 132; Siad ethnic and racial justice, in Islam, 47 Barre, abolition under, 140 European Court of Human Rights, 5 Djibouti’s emergence from French Somaliland, European Union’s support for TFG, 73 196–197 Domingo, Rafael, 293 extremism, fear of, 30, 52, 189, 199 Dworkin, Ronald, 306 family law under Siad Barre, 146–152, education: English common law, legal 261 education in, 85, 237; foreign universities, Farah, Sheikh Abdul Qadir, 194

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fatwas: on FGM (female genital mutilation), Hussein Hersi and Ahmed Adan v. Yusuf Deria 279; state courts in independent Somaliland Ali (1964), 132 issuing, 221 Hess, Robert, 90 fear of shari‘a, 4–6, 209 Higher Institute of Legal, Economic and Social female genital mutilation (FGM), 143, Studies (later University Institute of Law 277–279 and Economics and Somali National feminism and Somali women activists, University), 119, 119–120, 134 256–257, 262, 265, 267 Hinduism: as dominant culture in India, 293; FGM (female genital mutilation), 143, legal appeals to, 293; state secularism and 277–279 Hindu nationalism in India, 293 Filonardi, Vincenzo, 91, 92 human rights: in independent Somaliland, Filonardi Company, 90–92 209; Somali understanding of, 61; Universal fiqh, 49, 50, 128 Declaration of Human Rights, 125; women/ First Charter of the Revolution, 138 women activists and, 264, 266, 269; foreign aid. See international aid community workshops and conferences, ethnographic foreign universities, Somalis studying at, 134, observation in, 211–212, 312 145 humanitarian organizations. See international fragile or failed state, Somalia viewed as, 13 aid community; nongovernmental French Somaliland: colonization of, 70, 73; organizations Djibouti emerging from, 73; Sheikh Hassan Hussein, Saddam, 111 and, 101 Friedman, Lawrence, 161 ICU (Islamic Courts Union), 19–20, 37, 159, 163–164, 179–189, 298 Gabriel (archangel), Hadith of, 45–47 IFCC (Independent Federal Constitution Gedi, Mohamed Ali, 179 Commission), 183 Geertz, Clifford, 22 ihsan (spiritual aspect of Islam), 45,46 gender equality in Somali constitutions, 261, ijma (scholarly opinion), 128 269–271 Illig Agreement, 100 gender hierarchies, disruption of, in war, 257 imams, obedience owed to, 51 gender identity, equality of, 295 iman (theological aspect of Islam), 45,46 gender justice, in Islam, 47, 147, 268, 274, 276, impact legislation, lack of Somali culture of, 295 270 Germany, potential colonization of Horn of Independent Federal Constitution Africa by, 70 Commission (IFCC), 183 Ghani, Ashraf, 289 independent Somaliland (1991–2021), 20, Gorod, Abdikarin Hassan, 205 208–254; aqils in, 209, 211, 215, 219, 223, Guleid, Ainanshe, 143 250; archival research in, 311, 314; colonial guurti. See elders remnants in, 231–232, 241, 246–248; constitution, 20, 208, 209, 229–234, 249, Hadith: as ethics code, 50; origins and 269–271, 298; courts and judges in, 219, definition, 45; shari‘a, relationship to, 48, 221, 222, 224, 234, 238, 245–252; creation 216 of state of, 223–234; democracy in, 58, 213, Hallaq, Wael, 50 214, 250, 298; efforts to regulate and Halliday, Terrence C. (Terry), 296 institutionalize sheikhs in, 221–223; elders Hanafi school, 50 or guurti in, 208, 215, 225–229; flag of, 228, Hanbali school, 50, 98 229; international aid community in, 209, Hansen, Stig Jarle, 173 211–214, 222, 227, 232, 234–235, 243–244; Harding, Andrew, 192 as Islamic state and society, 210, 215–223, Hargeisa: fieldwork in, 26 (See also research 228–234, 229, 246; lack of female sheikhs methods); location of, xvi and judges, 222; legal aid in, 234–235, Hargeisa Hospital Group, 223 242–245; legal education in, 234–242, 239, Hassan, Sheikh [Sayyid] Mohamed Abdullah, 247, 252; legal pluralism in, 209, 210, British conflict with (1899–1920), 17, 36, 218–221, 235, 236, 241, 245–252; legal 65, 68, 69, 95–107, 109, 174, 217, 297 reform in, 234–235, 245–252; map, 208, Hawaadle clan, 174 255; new legislation in, 248–251; peace Hawiye clan, 170, 174, 181 summits/guurti summits, 225–230, 226; Hayes-Sadler, J., 95 problems faced by, 214; rule of law in, 209,

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211, 218, 232, 234–235, 251; shari‘a in, Guleed, 225; Hassan, vii, 220, 223, 241, 250, 208–215, 228–235; sheikhs and macduum, 251; Hatim, 198, 204, 264; Hussein, 61, 233, 209, 210, 211, 212, 215–223, 224, 230, 247, 236, 237, 240, 242, 243, 244, 249; Ibrahim, 251, 253; Siad Barre regime, reaction 151, 171, 185, 190, 207, 289; Ibtisam, 245; against, 20, 208, 212, 215, 222, 223–224, Ismaciil, 233, 239; Jamila, 241, 269, 284; 245, 253; simplicity, shari‘a viewed as, Jeff, 247, 248, 250, 266; Jen, 174, 177, 205; 218–221; SNM in, 215, 217, 223–225; Kabir, 85, 92, 98, 108, 137, 239, 248; Kahlil, sovereignty, international nonrecognition 233, 249; Kalim, 59, 86, 216, 289; Karim, 73, of, 213, 214, 235, 267; sovereignty, 81; Khadija, 241, 243; Khadra, 178, 225, reassertion of (1991), 18, 20, 58, 208; state 286; Khalid, 236, 238, 240, 242; Ladan, 276, institutions and shari‘a in, 209, 211; sultans 284; Majda, 143, 144, 167, 177, 191, 197, in, 209, 219, 250; ulema, commission of, 222, 266; Majed, 154, 238, 239; Sultan 233, 251; warlords, dearth of, 225; women Mansoor, 28, 77, 130, 265, 277; Matilda, and women activists in, 218, 222, 241, 243, 200, 202, 204; Maxamed, 191, 221, 243, 244, 261–263; xeer in, 209, 210, 219, 225 246, 247, 250, 251, 264, 265; Mille, 192, India: legal appeals to Hinduism in, 293; 281; Mustafa, 83, 85, 92, 189; Muuse, 59, religion/law and dominant culture in, 293; 151, 160, 173, 177, 179, 184, 185, 192, 193, state secularism and Hindu nationalism in, 194, 195, 196, 199, 203, 205, ; Nahda, 274; 293 Na’im, 145, 148, 149, 225, 230, 232, 242, indirect rule, as colonial policy, 90, 231 271; Najib, 148, 224, 227, 231, 260; Naqeeb, inshallah, concept of, 2 177, 188; Nisreen, 274; Omar, 218, 247; Institute of Evaluation of National Heritage Omera, 269, 272, 273, 276, 280, 281, 287,; and Mental Decolonization, 145 Sheikh Oweis, 66, 180, 181, 184, 223, 242, instrumental use of religion and law, 110, 291, 253, 289, 309; Philip, 155; Qasim, 137, 154, 301–304 248;Ra’ed, 218;Rafiq, 249, 250; Raouf, 88; international aid community: democracy, Rashida, 148, 221, 232, 273; Roble Ali, 219; perceptions of, 250, 253, 261, 263, 268; in Ruben, 154; Salaam, 232, 234, 245, 246, independent Somaliland, 209, 211–214, 249, 270, 271, 273, 279, 283; Sam, 271; 222, 227, 232, 234–235, 243–244; Shahab, 220, 221, 235, 249, 260; Shamsi, rebuilding efforts in Somalia led by, 175, 147, 285; Shermarke, 231; Sohir, 44, 137, 178; separation of law and religion by, 218, 265, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276, 278, 280, 299–300; shari‘a, views on, 34–36, 39, 133, 281, 283, 283, 284, 285, ; Stephanie, 170, 209, 211–214, 299–300; shari‘a courts/ICU, 172, 180, 185, 192, 279; Suleiman, 220; concern over, 178, 182; TFG support for, Tahir, 221, 245, 281; Tariq, 297; Tayyib, 190, 196–197; TFG constitution and, 200, 1–2, 30; Todd, 173, 297; Warsame, 197, 201, 202, 204; women/women activists and, 262, 252; Xalwo, 154; Xidig, 251, 275; Yasir, 137; 263–267, 269, 283 Yasmeen, 219; Zack, 249; Sheikh Zaki, 73, International Year of Women (1975), 147 85, 222, 223, 230, 232, 234, 247, 250, 265; interview participants: list of, 315–323; Aqil Zaki Yasim, 224, 260 Aaliyah, 245; Sheikh Abdirahman, 230, intoxication/consumption of alcohol, 233, 244; Abubakr, 246, 264; Adam, 229, prohibited in Islam, 48 246; Adnan, 61, 239, 240; Akifah, 222, 241; Iran, Islamic identity of, 61 Amburo, 90, 261, 283; Asha, 255, 272, 277, Iraq: Islamic identity in 2005 constitution of, 278; Axmed, 48, 55, 88, 218, 219, 220, 238, 61; law and religion after Saddam Hussein 240, 242, 246, 251, 253, 266; Babiker, 219, in, 111 220, 252; Barkhado, 22, 192, 200, 201, 203,; Ireland, religion/law and dominant culture in, Bashir, 224; Bilan, 246, 262, 264, 266, 277, 293 284; Bourhan, 278, 279; Cabaas, 249; ISIS (Islamic State), 61 Cabdelcaziz, 246; Cabdi, 270; Cabdulmajid, iska wax uqabso, 143 248, 260; Caziz, 56, 88, 208, 221, 222, 223, al-Islah, 167 232, 233, 248; Daniel, 190, 247, 266; Islam: constitution, as official religion of Dhahir, 35, 85, 88, 242; Edith, 196, 198; independent Somaliland in, 20, 228–234, Evelyn, 199, 222, 266; Fadl, 239, 240; Faisal, 229; constitution, as official religion of 89, 227, 228, 230, 242; Faris, 235, 237, 238; Somalia in, 20, 125, 201, 202; as dominant Fatima, 241; Fawzia, 144, 151, 218, 249, 261, culture in Pakistan, 293; etymology of term, 262, 263, 272, 273, 275, 278, 287, ; Garaad, 44; gender justice in, 47, 147, 268, 274, 276, 231; Gul, 13, 166, 196, 197, 284, 287; 295; Horn of Africa, arrival and spread in,

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54–56; international policy regarding Islam, journalists, harassment of, 198, 205 shari‘a, and religious activism, 6, 15, 35; Judaism: ah al-kitaab (Jews and Christians; intoxication/consumption of alcohol, people of the book), treatment of, 66; as prohibition of, 48; legal, theological, and dominant culture in Israel, 293; legal appeals spiritual aspects of, 45,45–47; political to, 293, 295; religion and law, connection history of, 45–48; racial/ethnic, social, and between, 301–304 gender justice in, 47; Sunni and Shia, 49 Judge, Rajbir Singh, 10 islam (legal aspects of Islam), 45,46 judiciary. See courts and judges Islamic Call, 166, 170 Islamic courts. See qadi courts; shari‘a courts Kassim, Mohamed M., 94 Islamic Courts Union (ICU), 19–20, 37, 159, Kediye, Salaad Gabayre, 143 163–164, 179–189, 298 Kenya: archival research in, 311, 314; bombing Islamic Implementation Council (later Joint of US embassy in (1998), 177; Somali- Islamic Courts Council), 176–177 occupied lands ceded to, 73; UNISOM Islamic law: as distinct from shari‘a, 2. See also based in, 168; Westgate Mall, Nairobi, 2013 fiqh; shari‘a attack on, 27 Islamic state: defined, 6; independent Khadija (wife of Muhammad), 274 Somaliland as, 210, 215–223, 228–234, 229, Khalil, Ibrahim, 229 246; postcolonial Somalia as, 125–126, 197, King’s African Rifles, 100 199–205 Kisra, Queen of, 256 Islamic State (ISIS), 61 Kittermaster, Sir Harold Baxter, 83,87 Israel: integration of Hebrew language and law post-independence, 111; legal appeals to Lafole massacre (1896), 69 Judaism in, 293, 295; religion/law and languages: Arabic, xvi–xvii; Siad Barre’s dominant culture in, 293 creation of Somali script and legal language, Italian colonialism. See colonial legal politics 144; Somali, xvi–xvii, 144 Italian East Africa, 72 law: anticolonialism, as vehicle to express, 133; Italian Somalia, 67, 90–95; Anglo-Italian authoritarian rule, as means of limiting, 21, Protocol (1890s), 79; aqils in, 118; charter 38, 166, 167, 223, 228; authoritarian rule’s company, government by, 72, 90–95; use of, 33, 113, 136, 151, 154, 155, 156; colonization of, 70, 71–73; courts and judges colonial legal politics, disagreements over established prior to independence, 120–124, prevailing law, 66–69; as concept, 3–4; 123; Sheikh Hassan and, 100, 101; destruction of postcolonial structure under legislation prior to independence, 120–124; Siad Barre, 137–140; instrumental use of map of, 65; preparation for unity with British religion and, 110, 291; postcolonial Somaliland, 117–118; qadis in, 92–94, 93; remaking of religion and, 111–113; pre- shari‘a in, 72, 92–94, 301–302; in transition colonial law in Horn of Africa, 73; to independence and democracy, 115–117; rebuilding of Somali law under Siad Barre, as United Nations Trust Territory of 140–145, 142. See also rule of law Somaliland, 116; united Somali Republic, lawlessness, Somalia viewed as bastion of, creation of (1960), 124; women, treatment 57 of, 260, 264 lawyers and paralegals: as political elites, 14, al-Itihaad al-Islamiyya (Arabic: Islamic 14–15; postcolonial establishment of legal Union), 167, 168, 170, 172, 182 education programs and, 119, 119–120; Itihad al-Mahakim al-Islamiyya. See Islamic sheikhs versus, 1; Siad Barre, establishment Courts Union of Roll of Advocates and law review under, 145; Somaliland Lawyers Association and Aqil Gulaid Jama v. Abdullah Ali (1969), Somaliland Women Lawyers Association, 132 244. See also education Japan: surveillance of Muslims in, 5; TFG, legal aid centers: ethnographic observation in, support for, 196–197 312; in independent Somaliland, 234–235, Jehovah’s Witnesses, 295 242–245; Puntland State University legal Jews. See Judaism aid clinic, 197 Joint Islamic Courts Council (formerly Islamic legal education. See education Implementation Council), 176–177 legal pluralism: in colonial legal politics, Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 67–68; English common law and, 67, 236, 180 302; in independent Somaliland, 209, 210,

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218–221, 235, 236, 241, 245–252; in for shari‘a in, 8; rejection of shari‘a in, 5, 41; postcolonial legal politics, 114, 126–129; religion/law and dominant cultures in, 61, problem of, 31–36, 40–44, 58–61, 60; under 293. See also speciﬁc countries Siad Barre, 141 Mussolini, Benito, 72 legal politics: concept of, xii; of religion, xi–xii; Myanmar, legal appeals to Buddhism in, 293 shari‘a as, 291, 301–304. See also Somali legal politics Nairobi. See Kenya legal vacuum, shari‘a and inshallah not arising Nalayeh, Hodan, 195 in, 1 national security courts under Siad Barre, 142, Lewis, I. M., 106, 114 143, 149, 153, 154, 155, 208, 223, 245 Libya, law and religion after Qaddaﬁ in, National Teacher Education Center, 134 111 Nigeria: shari‘a in, 61, 202, 294; social justice Little, Peter D., 33 and early Islam in, 52 Lynch, Cecelia, 294 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs): in independent Somaliland, 212, 244, 248; macduum and sheikhs in independent legislation efforts of, 249, 250; registration Somaliland, 209, 210, 211, 212, 215–223 law for, 248; religious issues, avoidance of, “Mad Mullah.” See Sheikh [Sayyid] Mohamed 299–300; TFG and, 200; women/women’s Abdullah Hassan rights and, 25, 143, 222, 262, 263, 265, 266, Mahdi: Sheikh Hassan declaring himself as, 267, 272, 273, 276, 278, 280, 281, 283, 284; 97; Islamic revolution in Sudan under, 70, workshops sponsored by, 211–212, 246, 273, 102 284, 296 Majalada Shaariya (“Somali Law Journal”), Noor Muhammad, Haji N. A., 115, 116, 125 145 Malaysia: Islamic identity in constitution of, odayal. See elders 61; judges of Islamic law in colonial Malaya, Organization of the Judiciary Law (2003, 121; women activists in, 258 independent Somaliland), 234 Maliki school, 50 Osman, Abdirahman Omar, 195 Marbury v. Madison (1803), 132 Ottoman Empire (Turkey) in Horn of Africa, Mecca, Sheikh Hassan opposed by religious 70, 76, 82 leaders at, 102–106 Menelik I (Ethiopian emperor), 73, 97 Pakistan: gender justice and Islam in, 295; Menelik II (Ethiopian emperor), 73 Islamic identity of, 61; religion/law and Menkhaus, Ken, 57 dominant culture in, 293; women and Mijjertein treaty, 79 women’s activism in, 147 Millman, Brock, 115 patriarchy: legacies of, 260–263, 276; women Minhaj al-Muslim (“The Way of the Muslim”), activists organizing against, 258–259, 82, 224 263–265, 283. See also women and women Mogadishu: attacks on state courts in, 187, activists 195, 205; Bakaara Market, 169, 173; Battle peacebuilding: in independent Somaliland, 20, of (1993), 13, 169; Cabdulqaadir Mosque, 58, 210, 215, 225–230, 226; role of Islam, 148; challenge of conducting research in, 23, shari‘a, religion, and the law in, 8, 28, 109, 26; growth of shari‘a courts in, 19, 37, 162, 215, 224, 294 163–164, 172, 173, 175, 179, 183–184, 189; Pew Forum,8 international aid community and, 204; legal Physicians for Human Rights, 168 and university education in, 112, 119, 236; piracy, 182, 190, 193–194 location of, xvi; TFG control of, 195, 200 pluralism, legal. See legal pluralism Mohamoud, Ahmed Sheikh, 138 policy: British colonial policy of indirect rule, moneychangers in Somaliland, 289 76, 231; international policy regarding monotheism (tawhid),47 Islam, shari‘a, and religious activism, 6, 15, Morocco, gender justice and Islam in, 295 35; Italian colonial policy on indigenous Moustafa, Tamir, 258 judicial institutions, 90, 94; Mubarak, Hosni, 111 recommendations and takeaways, 29 Muhammad (Prophet), 45, 47–48, 217, 256 political elites: during colonial period, 82–87, Muslim Brotherhood, 167, 253 84; current types of, 14,14–15; instrumental Muslim-majority countries: Islamic-based use of shari‘a by, 110, 291, 301–304; rule of statehood and shari‘a in, 61; popular support law as project of, 111–113; Siad Barre,

357

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resistance to, 153–154. See also specific types Qur’an: as ethics, 50; origins of, 45; shari‘a, of elite relationship to, 48, 202, 216 postcolonial legal politics (1960–1991), 18, 110–156; Act of Union law, 126; racial and ethnic justice, in Islam, 47 anticolonialism in, 133; closure of Islamic rape and sexual assault: custom of forcing courts and establishment of new judiciary, women to marry their assaulters, 265, 281; 126–129; colonial law, continuations of, first Somaliland law criminalizing, 249; 129; constitution of 1960, Islamic identity journalists in Somalia harassed for reporting in, 125–126; consultative commission for on, 198, 205; women’s groups attempting to legislation, 130; courts and judges prevent, 281–283; in xeer, 265 established prior to independence, 120–124, religion: aims and motivations for studying 123; creating legal capacity, 117–120; alongside rule of law, 28–30; economic and political turmoil before Siad anticolonialism, as vehicle to express, 133; Barre, 134–135; foreign aid, reliance on, authoritarian rule, as means of limiting, 21, 134; independent, democratic government 38, 166, 167, 223, 228; authoritarian rule’s (1960–1969), 112, 124–134, 261; use of, 33, 113, 136, 151, 154, 155, 156; instrumental view of state law and shari‘a in, Berbera, reaction to colonial Roman 110; Italian Somalia during transition Catholic mission in, 79, 100; civil war, period, 115–117; legal dualism and pluralism religion as means of restoring law amidst, in, 114, 126–129; legal education programs, 160–165; colonial legal politics and, 66, 88, establishing, 119, 119–120; legal 95–96, 108–109; as concept, 3–4; European integration, 129–131; legislation prior to attempts to purge from politics, 66; independence, 120–124; map of united instrumental use of law and, 110, 291; Somalia, 110; political elites in, 14; international aid community and, 299–300; remaking law and religion in, 111–113; international policy regarding Islam, shari‘a, shari‘a and, 36, 110, 120–124, 126–129, 131, and religious activism, 6, 15, 35; legal 132–134, 302; Supreme Court, authority of, culture in Somali history and, xi–xii, 53–61; 126, 131–134; transition to democracy legal politics of, xi–xii; postcolonial (1950–1960), 112, 113–124; united Somali remaking of law and, 111–113; rule of law Republic, creation of (1960), 124; uniting of and, 40–44, 291–297; separation of religion British Somaliland and Italian Somalia, and law, and secularization, 11, 41–42, preparation for, 117–118; university degrees, 299–300; theology, rule of law as, 291, Somalis studying for, 134, 134; women and, 304–309. See also specific religions, e.g. Islam 260. See also Siad Barre, Mohamed, research methods, 22–28, 310–313; analysis, dictatorship of 313; coding, 313; ethnographic observation, pre-colonial law in Horn of Africa, 73, 26, 311–312; fact and recollection, 88 differentiating, 27; historical research, Prendergast, John, 57 archival and oral, 23–24, 310–311; Kenya, Public Order Law (1963), 130, 131 archival research in, 311; limitations of, Puntland: national charter, development of, 26–28; list of archives and libraries visited, 174; piracy, efforts to control, 194; political 314; list of interviews, 315–323; personal geography of, xvi; registration of sheikhs in, interviews, 24–26, 312–313, 315–323; 222; shari‘a courts in, 174 Somaliland, archival research in, 311; UK, Puntland State University, 197 archival research in, 311 rule of law, 21, 289–309; aims and motivations qadi courts: colonial establishment of, for studying alongside religion, 28–30; 87–90; independent Somaliland’s district archetype of disaster, Somali political and courts descended from, 219; postcolonial legal culture viewed as, 57–58; authoritarian closure of, 126–129; in transition period rule, as means of limiting, 21, 38; defined before independence, 120–124, 123 and described, 38–44; as foreign imposition, qadis: aqils, rivalry with, 85; in British 59, 66–69; in independent Somaliland, 209, Somaliland, 66, 83, 84, 85, 89; in Italian 211, 218, 232, 234–235, 251; instrumental Somalia, 92–94, 93 use of religion and, 110, 291, 301–304; al-Qaeda, 13, 182, 184, 186, 193 international aid community and, 34–36; qat, 98, 198 legal culture in Somali history and, 53–61; qiyas (analogy), 128 legal pluralism and, 31–36, 40–44, 58–61, Quaddafi, Muammar, 111 60; religion and, 40–44, 291–297; separation

358

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of religion and law, and secularization, 11, Horn of Africa, 73; rule of law, relationship 41–42, 299–300; shari‘a courts/ICU with, 16, 51, 295, 297–301; in shari‘a courts, building, 180–186; shari‘a’s relationship 183; under Siad Barre, 136, 139, 145–155; as with, 16, 51, 295, 297–301; Somali simplicity, 218–221; socio-legal approach to, understanding of, 59; “stateless” period in 51–53; Somali experience of, 36–38; Somalia (1991–2001), breakdown of rule of Supreme Court of the Somali Republic on, law in, 166–169; as theology, 291, 304–309 132–134; women activists and, 3, 37, 44, 256–259, 268–274, 283–285, 298, 303; xeer, Salafi ideologies, 168, 253 colonial separation from, 75, 85, 89; xeer, Saleh, Mohamed, 104–105 relationship to, 81 Samatar, Said, 97 shari‘a courts, 165–175; Catholic legal system Santorum, Rick, 4 compared, 176; clan system and, 170–171, Saudi Arabia: fear of shari‘a in, 5; independent 174, 178, 181; criminal matters before, 171; Somaliland and, 223, 253; religious police democracy, as seedlings of, 7, 161, 298; in, 171; Salafi ideologies from, 168, 253 establishment and growth of, in civil war Second Charter of the Revolution, 138 period, 160, 161, 162, 170–175; financial secularization: rule of law and, 11, 41–42; support for, 171; growth and uniting of, separation of religion and law and, 11, 175–179; ICU (Islamic Courts Union), 41–42, 299–300 19–20, 37, 159, 163–164, 179–189, 298; September, 11, 2001, 13 international concern over, 178; Islamic sexual assault. See rape and sexual assault Implementation Council (later Joint Islamic sexual offenses, stoning of women for, 263 Courts Council), 176–177; organization and al-Shabaab, 163–165, 183, 188, 189–196, personnel, 173–174; political rifts within, 200–207, 208, 303 183; popular Somali acceptance of, 177, Shafi‘i school, 50, 98, 99, 149, 152, 253 180–181; postcolonial closure of Islamic shari‘a, 16, 31–62; anticolonialism, as vehicle courts and establishment of new judiciary, to express, 133; archetype of disaster, Somali 126–129; pragmatic and religious nature of, political and legal culture viewed as, 57–58; 166; rule of law, building, 180–186, 298; authoritarian rule and, 15, 18, 35, 111, 136; shari‘a in, 183; social mores, as mechanism civil war, religion as means of restoring law for enforcing, 171; “stateless” period in amidst, 160–165, 303; colonial British use Somalia (1991–2001) and, 166–169; US- of, 3, 17, 36, 66, 72, 101–107, 301–302; in backed Ethiopian invasion and collapse of colonial Islamic (qadi) courts, 87–90; ICU, 19, 37, 163, 186–189; xeer in, 171, 181. constitutional, 197, 199–205; definition of, See also qadi courts, for colonial period 1; diverse interpretations/flexibility of, 7–9, sheikhas (female sheikhs), 222, 256, 278 35–36, 44, 48–51, 290; ethics, as form of, 7, sheikhs: in colonial Somali legal politics, 82, 50; fear of, 4–6, 209; gender justice in Islam 83, 84, 85; FGM (female genital mutilation) and, 47, 147; Sheikh Hassan against British and, 277–279; in independent Somaliland, on, 97, 99, 101–107; importance in Horn of 209, 210, 211, 212, 215–223, 224, 230, 247, Africa, 12–15; in independent Somaliland, 251, 253; lawyers versus, 1; as political elites, 208–215, 228–235; international aid 14; rebellion against colonial rule by, 95; community and, 34–36, 39, 133, 209, rule of law and, 295; shari‘a, private use of, 211–214, 299–300; international policy 31; Siad Barre’s execution of, over family regarding Islam, shari‘a, and religious law, 146, 148–151; women activists working activism, 6, 15, 35; Italian colonial use of, with, 259, 271–274, 276–279, 280–283 72, 92–94, 301–302; legal culture in Somali Shermarke, Abdirashid Ali, assassination of, history and, 53–61; legal pluralism and, 135 31–36, 40–44, 58–61, 60; as legal politics, Shia Islam, 49 291, 301–304; legalistic version used by al- Siad Barre, Mohamed, dictatorship of Shabaab, 191–195; as legislation/legal code, (1969–1991), 18, 134–155; collapse of, 49–51; in Muslim-majority countries outside 153–154; coup undertaken by, 135–137; Horn of Africa, 61; political history of Islam destruction of postcolonial legal/judicial and, 45–48; popular Somali support for, 8; in system, 137–140; disillusionment with state- postcolonial legal politics, 36, 110, 120–124, building resulting from, 154, 167; economic 126–129, 131, 132–134, 302; post-ICU and political turmoil before, 134–135; efforts to establish political authority education under, 145, 236–241; Eid al-Adha (2007–2021) and, 189–205; in pre-colonial address (1970), 139; Ethiopia, invasion of,

359

INDEX

145, 146, 152; family law under, 146–152, Somali National Movement (SNM), 153, 215, 261; “famous call” (1969), 141; First 217, 223–225, 263 and Second Charters of the Revolution, 138; Somali National University (formerly Higher first Somali script and legal language, Institute of Legal, Economic and Social creation of, 144; independent Somaliland’s Studies, and University Institute of Law and reaction against, 20, 208, 212, 215, 222, Economics), 119, 119–120, 134, 145 223–224, 245, 253; legal pluralism under, Somali Republic. See postcolonial legal politics 141; national security courts, 142, 143, 149, Somali script, creation of, 144 153, 154, 155, 208, 223, 245; popular feeling Somalia. See civil war in Somalia; colonial about, 137, 154; postcolonial legal politics legal politics; postcolonial legal politics; and, 36, 57, 62, 112–113; rebuilding of legal Siad Barre, Mohamed, dictatorship of; system under, 139, 140–145, 142; religious Somali legal politics leaders under, 205; resistance to, 143, 144, Somaliland. See independent Somaliland; 145–155, 298; shari‘a under, 136, 139, Somali legal politics 145–155, 303; sheikhs, execution of, 146, Somaliland Lawyers Association, 244 148–151; socialism under, 18, 62, 112, Somaliland Women Lawyers Association, 244 135–136, 139, 144, 171; SRC (Supreme Souaré, Issaka K., 186, 206 Revolutionary Council) under, 135, 138, Southern Poverty Law Center, 5 140, 155; US aid to, 162; women/women sovereignty: former British Somaliland’s five activists under, 143, 259, 261–263, 286; xeer days of (in 1960), xvi, 20, 74, 208; under, 140 international nonrecognition of, for Simons, Anna, 57 independent Somaliland, 213, 214, 235, Sisters in Islam, 258 267; reassertion of, by independent slavery: British treaties on, 77; Islamic social Somaliland, 18, 20, 58, 208 justice and, 47; prohibition in Italian Soviet Union: Ethiopia’s alliance with, 152; Somalia, 91 religion and Bolshevik revolution in, 66; SNM (Somali National Movement), 153, 215, Siad Barre and, 135, 146, 152; US aid 217, 223–225, 263 following Siad Barre’s renunciation of social justice, in Islam, 47 allegiance to, 162 socialism in Somalia (1969–1991), 18, 62, 112, Special Representative of the Secretary 135–136, 139, 144, 171 General (SRSG), 202 socio-legal approach to shari‘a, 51–53 sports for women and girls, 274 Somali language, xvi–xvii, 144 SRC (Supreme Revolutionary Council), 135, Somali legal politics, 1–30; aims and 138, 140, 155 motivations for studying, 28–30; archetype Sri Lanka, legal appeals to Buddhism in, 293 of disaster, viewed as, 57–58; clan system, SRSG (Special Representative of the Secretary 55–56; concept of legal politics, xii; General), 202 extremism, fear of, 30, 52, 189, 199; fragile state, defined, 6 or failed state, Somalia viewed as, 13; state courts: attacks on, in Mogadishu, 187, historical overview, 16–22; inshallah, 195, 205; ethnographic observation in, 312; concept of, 2; law and religion, as concepts, fatwas,state courts in independent 3–4; legal pluralism and, 31–36, 40–44, Somaliland issuing, 221 58–61, 60; map of horn of Africa, xviii; “stateless” period in Somalia (1991–2001), political elites in Somalia and Somaliland, 166–169 14,14–15; political geography of Somalia, statelessness, concept of, 33 Somaliland, and Puntland, xvi; populations Sudan: Sheikh Hassan, envoys sent to, 104; al- identifying as Somali in Djibouti, Kenya, Itihaad al-Islamiyya, aid sent to, 168; legal and Ethiopia, xvi; pre-colonial law in Horn appeals to Islam in, 295; Mahdi, Islamic of Africa, 73; religion, legal politics of, revolution under, 70, 102; postcolonial xi–xii, 53–61; separation of religion and law, period, law and shari‘a in, 111; women and and secularization, 9–12. See also civil war in women’s activism in, 147 Somalia; colonial legal politics; independent Suez Canal, 1967 closure of, 134 Somaliland; postcolonial legal politics; Sufis and Sufism, 167, 168, 182, 196, 253 research methods; rule of law; women and sultans: in colonial Somalia, 70, 71, 76, 77, 83, women activists 84, 85; in independent Somaliland, 209, Somali National Congress v. the State (1963), 219, 250; as political elites, 14; women/ 132 women activists and, 264; xeer, use of, 31

360

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Sunnah, 45, 202 United Nations Human Rights Council, 5 Sunni Islam, 49 United Nations Mission in Somalia Supreme Court: postcolonial Somali Republic, (UNISOM), 168–169, 200 establishing authority in, 121, 126; United Nations Security Council, Resolution shootings of 2013 in Mogadishu, 205; under 1725, 187 Siad Barre, 138; TFG setting up, 179, 185 United Nations Trust Territory of Somaliland, Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), 135, 116 138, 140, 155 United States: bombings of Kenyan and Syria, women and women’s activism in, 147 Tanzanian embassies (1998), 177; Ethiopian invasion of Somalia backed by, 19, 37, 163, Taliban, 111, 296 186–189, 298; National Teacher Education Tanzania, bombing of US embassy in (1998), Center, establishment of, 134; religion and 177 law in, 294; shari‘a courts/ICU, concern tawhid (monotheism), 47 over, 182, 184; Siad Barre, aid to, 162; TFG, Text Analysis Markup Software (TAMS) support for, 196–197; UNITAF (US-led Analyzer, 313 Unified Task Force), Battle of Mogadishu, TFG (Transitional Federal Government), 159, and Black Hawk Down, 168–169 164–165, 175, 178–179, 183–185, 186–188, United States Agency for International 189–190, 192, 195–206 Development (USAID), 134 theology, rule of law as, 291, 304–309 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 125 Thompson, E. P., 306 University Institute of Law and Economics TNG (Transitional National Government), (formerly Higher Institute of Legal, 164–165, 175, 176–177 Economic and Social Studies; later Somali transitional governments in Somalia National University), 119, 119–120, 134 (1991–2021), 20, 37, 57, 164–165, 169, 175; University of Hargeisa, 235–242, 243, 244 TFG (Transitional Federal Government), University of Mogadishu, 236 159, 164–165, 175, 178–179, 183–185, Urban II (pope), Deus vult, 294 186–188, 189–190, 192, 195–206; TNG USAID (United States Agency for (Transitional National Government), International Development), 134 164–165, 175, 176–177 usul al-fiqh,48 treaties and formal legal agreements between Somalis and British, 75–80, 78 Vianello, Alessandra, 94 Trump, Donald, 5 Tunisia: gender justice and Islam in, 295; wadaad, 217 Islamic identity of, 61; law and religion after Wahhabism, 199 Ben Ali in, 111 warlords: during civil war in Somalia, 18–20, al-Turabi, Hassan, 167 57, 162, 168, 169, 172, 173–174, 183–184, Turkey: legal controls over religion in, 294; 298; dearth of, in independent Somaliland, Ottoman Empire in Horn of Africa, 70, 76, 225 82 Western fear of shari‘a, 4–6, 209 Westgate Mall, Nairobi, 2013 attack on, 27 ulema, commission of, in independent Wingate, Sir Reginald, 83, 86 Somaliland, 233, 251 Wintersteen, A. H., 207 UNDP. See United Nations Development women and women activists, 21, 255–288; in Programme Afghanistan, 296; authoritarian rule, UNICEF, 266 women’s rights associated with, 257, 261; UNISOM (United Nations Mission in CEDAW, 147, 267, 284; child marriage, Somalia), 168–169, 200 efforts to end, 280–281; in colonial period, UNITAF (US-led Unified Task Force), 260, 264; constitutional litigation and, 168–169 269–271; education of women and girls, 120, United Nations Development Programme 186, 239, 241, 274–275, 275; empowering of (UNDP), 39; civil war-era Somalia and, 185, women and girls, 274–275; evidentiary rule 191, 196–197, 200; in independent on female witnesses, 277; family law under Somaliland, 211–212, 222, 236–241, 246, Siad Barre and, 146–152, 261; feminism and, 247; women/women activists and, 264, 265, 256–257, 262, 265, 267; FGM (female 266 genital mutilation), efforts to eliminate, United Nations General Assembly, 39 143, 277–279; gender equality in Somali

361

INDEX

constitutions and, 261, 269–271; gender sheikhs), 222, 256, 278; sheikhs, working hierarchies, disruption of, in war, 257; with, 259, 271–274, 276–279, 280–283; gender justice in Islam and, 47, 147, 268, under Siad Barre, 143, 259, 261–263; sports 274, 276, 295; in independent Somaliland, for women and girls, 274; xeer and, 257, 258, 218, 222, 241, 243, 244, 261–263; 259, 269, 272. See also rape and sexual international aid community and, 262, assault 263–267, 269, 283; lack of female Somali Woodward, Peter, 57 sheikhs and judges, 222, 256; as law students World Justice Project, 38 and lawyers in independent Somaliland, 218, 222, 239, 241, 243, 244, 261–263; xeer/xeer dhaqan (customary law), 31; in legacies of patriarchy and, 260–263, 276; colonial Somalia, 75, 76, 85, 89; in organizing against patriarchy, 258–259, independent Somaliland, 209, 210, 219, 263–265, 283; politics, increasing women’s 225; in postcolonial Somalia, 129, 131, participation in, 275–277; in postcolonial 132–134; rape and sexual assault in, 265; period, 260; religious convictions of, 259; shari‘a courts and, 171, 181; under Siad self-help groups formed by, in civil war Barre, 140; Supreme Court on, 132–134; period, 262; sexual offenses, stoning of women activists and, 257, 258, 259, 269, 272 women for, 263; shari‘a and, 3, 37, 44, 256–259, 268–274, 283–285, 298, 303; zakat,98 shari‘a courts and, 171; sheikhas (female Zaki, Hind Ahmed, 258

362