M.A. (English) Part-II Course - XIV Semester-IV Indian Writing in English Lesson No. 4.1 Author : Dr. Vineet Mehta

Amitav Ghosh : Introduction Amitav Ghosh is a prominent Indian writer in English. He was born in Calcutta on 11 July, 1956 in an upper middle class Bengali family, and grew up in India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. His father, Lieutenant Colonel Shailendra Chandra Ghosh, served in the pre-independence Indian army. Presently, Ghosh mostly resides in New York with his wife, Deborah Baker and his two children, Lila and Nayan, who work in the finance industry in the New York. Ghosh has been a fellow at the Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta and Centre for Development Studies in Trivandrum. In 1999, he joined the faculty at Queens College, City University of New York, as Distinguished Professor in Comparative literature. He has also been a visiting professor at the English department of Harvard University since 2005. In January 2007 he was awarded the Padma Shri, one of India’s highest honours. Ghosh has been a prolific writer and has authored critically acclaimed like The Circle of Reason (1984), The Shadow Lines (1988), In An Antique Land (1992), The Calcutta Chromosome (1995), Dancing in Cambodia (1998), The Glass Palace (2000), The Hungry Tide (2004), and the three volumes of The Ibis Trilogy— Sea of Poppies (2008), River of Smoke (2011) and Flood of Fire (2015). His latest book, The Great Derangement (2016) examines imaginative failure in the face of climate change. The Circle of Reason was awarded France’s Prix Médicis in 1990, and The Shadow Lines won two prestigious Indian prizes the same year, the Sahitya Akademi Award and the Ananda Puraskar. The Calcutta Chromosome won the Arthur C. Clarke award for 1997 and The Glass Palace won the International e-Book Award at the Frankfurt book fair in 2001. In January 2005, The Hungry Tide was awarded the Crossword Book Prize, a major Indian award. His novel, Sea of Poppies (2008) was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize, 2008 and was awarded the Crossword Book Prize and the India Plaza Golden Quill Award. Along with Margaret Atwood, he was also a joint winner of a Dan David Award for 2010. In 2011 he was awarded the International Grand Prix of the Blue Metropolis Festival in Montreal. Amitav Ghosh’s work has been translated into more than twenty languages and he has served on the Jury of the Locarno Film Festival (Switzerland) and the Venice Film Festival (2001). He has also established himself as a cultural critic in his essays. Ghosh is not only a seductive story teller but has also published anthologies of non-fictional writings including Dancing in Cambodia, At Large in M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 31 Course-XIV

Burma (1998), Imam and the Indian (2004) and Incendiary Circumstances (2006). He has also written a number of essays and journalistic essays like “The Ghosts of Mrs. Gandhi,” “Confessions of a Xenophile,” “Folly in the Sunderbans,” “On R. K. Narayan” and others which show his sensitive understanding of current problems, his knowledge and also express his debt to a number of people for shaping his aesthetic sensibility. Ghosh’s novels are known for their scholarly content. Political, social and environmental issues find a place in his work. He is one of the foremost Indian English writers of the post Rushdie generation. His initial novels like The Circle of Reason show the influence of Salman Rushdie but his later works reflect how he has outgrown this dominating influence. In his fictional techniques and art, Ghosh reveals the profound influence of Charles Dickens, Herman Melville, Marcel Proust, Ford Madox Ford, V.S. Naipaul and Gabriel Garcia Marquez. He, in his talks and interviews, has often accepted debt to Bengal’s creative doyens like Tagore and Satyajit Ray for shaping his intellectual, philosophic and artistic world. Ghosh’s writing is preceded by meticulous research and his works reflect his knowledge and grasp of a wide range of subjects and issues. As a diasporic writer based currently in the US, travel, migration and diaspora formation remain his favourite themes. In spite of delving on transcultural spaces and focusing on showing cross-cultural connections, Ghosh‘s novels have been largely Bengal- centric or specifically Calcutta- centric. Calcutta has been the node of his routed worlds and also the center of much of the action in many of his novels. Another trademark of Ghosh’s writing is his strong emphasis on history, memory and the past. He challenges conventional ways of looking at the past events and happenings. He unearths ignored or silenced events of history and weaves a narrative around them thus revealing their mammoth importance. He challenges Western knowledge systems which had led to disciplinary boundary building, and boundary-crossing, thus, is an important feature of his work. Amitav Ghosh is considered an important postcolonial writer of the present era. His works like The Glass Palace and Sea of Poppies, present him as an important critic of the British colonial project. Ghosh excavates colonial history to show that the domination, displacement and dispossession of the eastern people was not an isolated phenomenon but was interlinked with the domination of nature. He often sides with the marginalized people and emerges as an advocate of the ‘underdogs’ in his work. He, thus, makes the subaltern speak through his writings. The Ibis trilogy is an important work of historical fiction by Amitav Ghosh. It comprises Sea of Poppies (2008), River of Smoke (2011), and Flood of Fire (2015). The story is set in the first half of the 19th century. It deals with the trade of opium between India and China run by the East India Company and the M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 32 Course-XIV trafficking of coolies to Mauritius. The trilogy gets its name from the ship, Ibis, which provides a platform for the meeting of the various major characters for the first time. Ibis is in fact a schooner refurbished for human trafficking. The events leading to the First Opium War form the back ground of the trilogy. Sea of Poppies – A Critical Summary Sea of Poppies (2008) is the first part of the Ibis trilogy. In this ambitious novel Ghosh tries to fill in the gaps in the written history. Sea of Poppies was nominated for the prestigious Man Booker prize in 2008. This is a historical saga which tries to unearth, and explain the silenced tales of colonial exploitation of the colonized people. By focusing on the lives of common men and women, Ghosh in his narrative provides other ways of thinking about history, culture and identity. The writer has justified his tendency to weave alternate history into his stories: “History can say things in great detail, even though it may say them in rather dull factual detail. The novel on the other hand can make links that history cannot.”1 Sea of Poppies opens in 1838 on the eve of the opium wars. The British imperialism, and its exploitation of the colonized people, and their resources, forms the central theme of the novel. The novel narrates the turbulent history of the period, and in doing so exposes how British imperialism flourished due to its coercive pushing of the illegal opium trade. Ghosh shows how the fertile agricultural lands of the Indo-Gangetic plains were swamped by the “white-petalled flowers” (3) of the novel’s title, grown to produce opium that the British exported to addicts in an increasingly resistant China. Hungry Indian peasants, meanwhile, were driven off their land, and many were recruited to serve as plantation labourers in far-off British colonies such as Mauritius. Sea of Poppies can be studied as a tale of mass displacement, having ‘drug-trade’ and ‘coolie-trade’ as its central concerns. The novel consists of a number of tales, rather a network, skillfully interlinked by the writer. It can be interpreted as a tale of the forced migration of millions of the people from the Indian countryside to far off islands of ― ‘Mareech’ or Mauritius to work as indentured labourers in large plantations. The novel opens with Deeti having vision of a “tall-masted ship, at sail on the ocean” (3). This ship later turns out to be the Ibis. Deeti lived in a remote village near Ghazipur, a town about fifty miles east of Benares. The town, Ghazipur is the site of a British opium factory, as Amitav Ghosh reminds us “. . . was among the precious jewels in the Queen Victoria’s crown.”(91) Through the portrayal of the tragic lives of the rustic characters like Deeti, her crippled, ‘afeemkhor’ husband Hukum Singh, Muniya, Kabutri, Kalua and Heeru, Ghosh points out the disastrous socio eco-cultural effects of opium plantation on the rural folk. This novel is, thus, also the story of the destruction of rural economy. The three sections of the novel— M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 33 Course-XIV land, river and sea, show the phases of peasants, journey from the Gangetic plains to the ‘kalapani’ or black waters of the sea. Deeti is in many ways representative of a strong peasant woman having a ‘never say die spirit.’ By a sudden twist of fate, Deeti’s addicted husband dies. As a Rajput woman in those days, she is forced to undergo ‘sati’ i.e. burn herself to death by sitting on her husband’s pyre. Kalua, who belongs to a lower caste, rescues her. The couple flees, pursued by Deeti’s in-laws, falls in love and boards Ibis hoping for better fate and times. In a parallel plot, Zachary Reid hides his race and lineage to become the Second mate of the Ibis. He brings the Ibis to Calcutta where its new owner, Burnham Bros is based. Discontinued as a ‘blackbirder’ after the abolition of the slave trade, the schooner was refurbished for transporting indentured labourers— ‘coolies’ to work in plantations in the distant Mauritius. The Ibis has on its deck a number of lascars led by Serang Ali. Ghosh then narrates another tale that has in its center a representative of the landed aristocracy of Bengal, Raja Neel Ratan Haldar. He becomes a victim of British power politics, and Benjamin Burnham forces him to sell his estate of Rashkali in order to pay his huge debt. The romantic Neel’s sense of honour, extravagance, financial and political naivety leads him to bankruptcy, trial and shame. He refuses to sell his estate but willingly undergoes the pain, humiliation and sentence of deportation. Neel is an important character in Sea of Poppies who represents the fall of the landed aristocracy of Bengal. The reader then meets Miss Paulette alias ‘Putli’ a French lady who is determined to run away from Mr. Burnham's villa because the latter is trying to get her married to Justice Kendalbushe, of whom she disapproves. She has resolved to travel to Mareech, as her great-aunt did, in the hope of finding a better future. Along with Azad Naskar alias Jodu, her childhood friend, she boards the Ibis, unaware of her destiny. On the ship she falls in love with Zachary. All these characters land on the Ibis forced by their varied circumstances, and a number of twists of fate. As the Ibis sets on sail, the development of a new community takes place. The boundaries of caste, creed, religion, birth and race which were so important on the land are crossed on the deck. As Deeti declares, “From now on, and forever afterwards, we will all be ship-siblings—jahaz-bhais and jahaz-bahens—to each other. There’ll be no differences between us”(356). The Ibis also becomes a shelter for multiple victims of the empire. But the formation of a new community on board is not without its problems. People like Bhyro Singh and Mr. Crowle are inimical to this brotherhood and camaraderie found by the community on board. A mutiny takes place and Bhyro Singh and Mr. Crowle are killed by Kalua and Ah Fatt respectively. M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 34 Course-XIV

After much strife and bloodshed on board the ship, Neel, Ah Fatt, Jodu, Serang Ali and Kalua abandon the ship and manage to escape, unaware of the destination the sea waves would carry them to. The sadist first mate and the cruel ‘subedar’ are dead. Out of the key figures, only Deeti, Paulette, Nob Kissin and Zachary are left on board. The novel closes on a note of suspense. The novel ends with Ibis in the mid-ocean in a storm. Notes: 1. Ghosh, Amitav. “The Past-master.” Sunday Hindustan Times. 15 June 2008. All Quotes from Sea of Poppies. New Delhi: Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., 2008. Critics & Commentators on Sea of Poppies 1. “Sea of Poppies is a stunning, page turning adventure”— Mumbai Mirror 2. Ghosh’s purpose is clearly both literary and political. His narrative represents a prodigious feat of research; one does not need the impressive bibliography of sources at the end to be struck by the wealth of period detail the author commands. His descriptions bring a lost world to life . . . At times, Sea of Poppies reads like a cross between an Indian Gone with the Wind and a Victorian novel of manners — Review by Shashi Tharoor Washington Post, Sunday, October 19, 2008. 3. “ Epic . . .Each scene is boldly drawn, but it is the sheer energy and verve of Ghosh’s story telling that bind this ambitious medley”— The Daily Mirror 4. Caught within the dark web of the empire's history is a mixed cast of characters for whom the Ibis is a projection of the uncertainties of their lives and the routines of home. On the Ibis a community of sorts begins to form among the migrants. Relationships are forged or break up, hostilities erupt, and individual destinies undergo sudden changes of direction. The broad canvas of Sea of Poppies displays many features of a sensational novel— Review by Shirley Chew The Independent, Friday, 16 May 2008. 5. This terrific novel, the first volume in a projected trilogy, unfolds in north India and the Bay of Bengal in 1838 on the eve of the British attack on the Chinese ports known as the first opium war. In Sea of Poppies, Amitav Ghosh assembles from different corners of the world sailors, marines and passengers for the Ibis, a slaving schooner now converted to the transport of coolies and opium . . . Ghosh creates an encyclopedia of early 19th-century. . . His technique, which was also Scott's, is to supply the maximum information that the story can support – Review by James Buchan The Guardian, Saturday 7 June 2008. 6. The depth of Ghosh’s research is staggering; he strives for authenticity not only in his descriptions but also in his language. If a word in Bhojpuri, Bengali, or hinglish exists — for a kind of ship or an article of clothing — he M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 35 Course-XIV

uses it. . . . On the other hand, the author’s contempt for the British Empire, which bubbles under the optimistic, whimsical tone of the storytelling, leads to some oversimplification. Mr. Burnham, a wealthy merchant and the odious mouthpiece of the opium trade, enjoys being spanked with an Indian broom; the first mate on the Ibis, a foul-mouthed sadist named Mr. Crowle, comes off like a bad guy in Pirates of the Caribbean. Whereas Zachary, Deeti, and the other pilgrims seem almost incapable of a bad instinct or selfish act –- Review by Chris Wangler. October 8, 2008. M.A. (English) Part-II Course - XIV Semester-IV Indian Writing in English Lesson No. 4.2 Author : Dr. Vineet Mehta

Sea of Poppies : A Critical Analysis of the Novel Sea of Poppies is divided into three sections—Land, River and Sea. All these sections describe the settlement, displacement and journey of the indentured labour or girmityas from the Indo-Gangetic plains to Calcutta, and from Calcutta, on the ship, Ibis, to the plantations in distant Mauritius. The Land section describes the lives of the various characters who are to become a part of the community on board the Ibis. The section deals with the rooted histories of the various characters and focuses on the conditions and circumstances that cause their displacement. This catastrophic or extremely damaging effect of forced plantation of poppy on the lives of the peasants of the Indo-Gangetic plains is narrated. The stories and histories of central characters seem separate and different in this section. Chapter 1 During an ordinary day in her village, Deeti has vision of a “tall-masted ship.” Being a peasant woman of the Indo-Gangetic plains, she had never seen a ship in her life. But she has this premonition that this ship is going to shape her future destiny. Deeti’s village is on the outskirts of the town of Ghazipur, some fifty miles east of Benares. During this period, for miles and miles a sea of “white-petalled” flowers can be seen blanketing the fields. Deeti is married to Hukum Singh who was crippled while working as a sepoy in a British regiment. Hukum works in an opium factory but has become an opium addict or “afeemkhor.” There is a “giant of a man” the ox-cart driver, Kalua in the village who carries people around, including Hukum Singh, in his ox-cart. Deeti is mother of a six-year old daughter, Kabutri. She works hard to make the ends meet and often has to ignore the jibes and remarks of her husband’s younger brother, Chandan Singh who has evil designs on her. The readers are then introduced to the Ibis, the ship that Deeti saw in her vision. In the second week of March, 1838 the Ibis waited on the shores of Ganga Sagar Island for a pilot to take it to Calcutta. Zachary Reid is around twenty years old, having ivory skin and black curly hair. He has risen to the position of second mate by hiding his lineage, and the fact that he is the son of a “Maryland freedwoman.” The leader of the lascars, Serang Ali has been responsible for this transformation of Zachary, “Zikri Malum” from a sailor, dock boy to a “pucca sahib.” M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 37 Course-XIV

The schooner, Ibis was built to serve as a blackbirder, for transporting slaves. Her new owner, Benjamin Burnham of Burnham Bros Co. has acquired her “with an eye to fitting her for a different trade, the export of opium.” Ibis lands on the shores of India to pick up coolies to work in the plantations in the distant Mauritius. In the opening chapter, the writer, Amitav Ghosh, introduces us to the main characters, their background and histories. Two diverse stories dealing with Deeti and Zachary Reid are narrated. Deeti’s story reflects the catastrophic influence of poppy plantation on the lives of peasants of the Indo-Gangetic plains. Zachary Reid’s story points out the history of slavery, and the racial set-up that existed in the Western world. Chapter 2 Deeti and her daughter, Kabutri are having their mid-day meals when Chandan Singh breaks the news that her husband, Hukum Singh, has collapsed in the opium factory. He has to be brought home and for this she needs the help of the ox-cart driver, Kalua who lives in the “hamlet of chamars.” She reminisces about her childhood suffering due to her gender. She believes that her suffering is due to her fate “being ruled by Saturn—Shani.”As a child she had often laughed at the ‘afeemkhors’ –habitual opium addicts of her village not knowing that she might be one day married to an addict. Deeti, recollects her past, and is not sure of what happened during the night after her marriage to the lame, infertile, ‘afeemkhor’ Hukum Singh. The comments of her mother-in-law like she is “Draupadi of the Mahabharata” confirm Deeti’s doubt that it is not her husband but her brother-in- law, Chandan Singh who has fathered her child. Meanwhile, a few miles short of Calcutta, the Ibis is noticed by Raja Neel Rattan Halder, the zemindar of Rashkali, who is on board the palatial barge along with his eight-year old son, Raj Rattan. Neel is hopelessly involved with a once- famous dancer, Elokeshi. He has recently inherited the title of the Halders who are “one of the oldest and most noted families of Bengal.” Neel tells his bearer, Parimal to give an invitation to Zachary Reid and Doughty-sahib for dinner at his place. Elokeshi during her flirtations with Neel questions him about the invitees to the dinner, and also asks about the arrangement. Meanwhile, Doughty thinks of the reasons behind the invitation from Neel Halder and in doing so shows his biases and prejudices. Zachary, in a sudden light of illumination, reflects upon his transformation from a carpenter on board to the position of a second mate, and thinks of the circumstances that led him to impersonate as a white gentleman, “a pucca sahib.” He recalls days of racial discrimination when he was ill treated due to his race and lineage. In this chapter, the characters, and the linked tales of Deeti, Neel Halder and Zachary Reid are developed further. The difference in lifestyle of the landed M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 38 Course-XIV aristocracy and poor peasants is shown. Zachary Reid’s story points out the racial prejudices and the resulting discrimination existing in the western society.

Chapter 3 Kalua lived in ‘chamar basti,’ a cluster of huts inhabited only by dalits, or people considered outcastes. Deeti shouts and calls Kalua a number of times to make him come out of his hut. Kalua is giant sized but suffers due to his caste, and also due to his gullibility and simplicity. Deeti has earlier witnessed humiliation of Kalua by three pleasure seeking landlords. But Kalua was in unconscious state then, and is perhaps unaware of that incident. Deeti tells Kalua, as he comes out his hut, that her husband is unwell, and she needs his help to fetch him from the factory. Four hundred miles east of Ghazipur, Azad Naskar alias Jodu, prepares for a journey that will ultimately take him on board the Ibis. Jodu has earlier that day buried his mother, and he leaves on the boat that he has inherited from his father. Before dying, his mother tells him to find the daughter of French botanist, “Lambert-sahib’s daughter-Miss Paulette alias Putli.” The girl was like a daughter to Jodu’s mother, who had brought her up as an ayah when her mother had died. Paulette used to call Jodu’s mother, ‘Tantima’ or ‘aunt mother.’ Paulette and her father who was an assistant curator at Calcutta’s botanical Gardens were more at home among the plants and the natives, than among the other Europeans in Calcutta. Bengali is the first language that Paulette has learnt. Jodu and Paulette grew up as half brother and sister and were close playmates. But the unexpected death of Pierre Lambert made things difficult for Paulette and Jodu. The writer, in this chapter introduces us to another sub-plot or story, featuring cross cultural ties cutting across boundaries of language, culture, race, class and religion. Though showing the inhumanity of the colonial regime, he does not paint all the white people with the same brush. He presents Paulette and her father, Pierre Lambert as nature loving and humane Europeans. In depicting Deeti’s village, the writer shows the deep rooted caste boundaries and biases existing in the nineteenth century rural India. Chapter 4 Heading into Ghazipur, on Kalua’s ox-cart, Deeti and Kabutri come across a crowd of bonded coolies or girmityas whose leader or duffadar also boards the cart as he has hurt his foot. The duffadar, Ram Saran informs that these girmityas will be taken to a distant island of Mareech on a ship. Kabutri questions Deeti whether the ship described by the duffadar is same as she saw in her vision? Meanwhile, Benjamin Burnham arrives on the deck to inspect his ship. The ship-owner, Benjamin is a trademan’s son and he has made lot of wealth by M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 39 Course-XIV smuggling “thugs and drugs” out of Calcutta. Benjamin shows his distrust of the lascars headed by Serang Ali and tells Zachary Reid that the Ibis won’t be carrying opium during its first voyage. Racial mindset of Burnham is revealed during his conversation with Zachary. He informs that the Ibis will be carrying ‘coolies’ during its voyage. Zachary also comes to know that Mr. Chillingworth will be the captain and a man of “uncertain temper,” Mr. Crowle will be the first mate of the Ibis during the voyage. Neel is enjoying making love to his paramour, Elokeshi when Parimal enters his chamber informing him that Benjamin Burnham has arrived on the Ibis. Neel decides to invite Benjamin, too, to the dinner that he is hosting. Burnham has had a long business association with the older rajah, Neel’s father. Year after year, the rajah and his associates made handsome profits from their investments with the British company of Mr. Burnham not bothering to know how and from where the profits came from. The Rajah’s acquisitions and dependents had increased manifold but it had also increased the debt. The year the old zamindar died failed to bring profits from the investments in Burnham’s company. All adds to Neel’s woes and worries him. In his response to Neel’s letter pleading for a loan to tide off the crisis, Burnham refuses to lend a loan and reminds Neel that his debts far exceed the cost of his zemindary. Neel grows insecure about his estate, and becomes worried for his family, and its large dependents. Through Neel- Burnham relationship, the uneasy relationship of the British mercantile companies with the landed aristocracy of Bengal is shown. Chapter 5 The Sudder opium factory or “Ghazeepore Carcanna” was immense. It was large and well guarded because, “it was among the most precious jewels in Queen Victoria’s crown” (91). Leaving Kabutri in Kalua’s cart, Deeti heads alone towards the factory entrance. After observing the working of this factory, she enters a large hall to find Hukum Singh lying on the floor of the assembly room. As she brings her ‘afeemkhor’ husband home, she worries about her future and thinks how she will manage without her husband’s monthly pay. Meanwhile, Jodu lands near the Burnham’s estate in search of Putli alias Paulette. On the Rashkali budgerow, preparations are in full swing for the dinner hosted by Neel. During the conversations and discussions, Zachary creates a good impression on Neel. Burnham reveals his biases and capitalist mindset by his statements. The writer points out the nexus between colonialism, capitalism and Christian missionaries as is evident from the declarations and assertions of Benjamin Burnham. The capitalist, Burnham justifies the opium war against China M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 40 Course-XIV on the pretext of it being a war “. . . for freedom— for the freedom of trade and for the freedom of the Chinese people.” He is a negative character in the novel, who justifies ‘economic slavery’ of the natives by asserting, “Jesus Christ is Free trade and Free trade is Jesus Christ.” Burnham reveals his ulterior motives as he warns Neel that his lands will be usurped by the company as the debt is huge. But Neel tells Burnham that the land does not exclusively belong to him. A detailed description of the opium factory reflects the writer’s in-depth research and knowledge. Chapter 6 Paulette alias Putli, though of European origin has acquired liking for Indian dress and food but these tastes are considered inappropriate for the Europeans. She feels uncomfortable in the ill-fitting dresses that her benefactor, Mrs. Burnham provides her. She is laughed at due to her failure to conform to ‘European’ or British standards of appropriate behavior, dress and scriptural knowledge, set by Burnhams. Mrs. Burnham often derisively calls her “Puggly.” Paulette slips into “a spell of melancholy remembrance” of the life she led with her idealistic, humane father, and with Jodu and ‘tantima.’ Now she is a dependent, placed in the custody of Burnhams who have kept her as a destitute white girl in their palatial house. The Burnhams seemingly instruct her on things they consider extremely important i.e. piety, penitence and Scripture. Paulette during her melancholic condition recognizes Baboo Nobokrishna Panda, Mr. Burnham’s gomusta—the agent responsible for shipping of indentured migrants entering the Burnhams mansion. Paulette finds that the gold-framed locket that ‘Baboo Nob Kisan’ is holding is miniature that belongs to her mother. The gomusta confides that this miniature was given by Paulette’s father, Pierre Lambert to him. Lambert had told Baboo that he needed money, in exchange, for a safe passage to France for this daughter, Paulette. She demands that the locket be returned to her but the gomusta asks for the interest and tells her that he needs money for a higher purpose of building a temple for Lord Krishna. Meanwhile, Jodu’s dinghy crumbles after it has hit the Ibis but he is saved by Zachary Reid and Serang Ali. As Zachary plays a tune on his penny-whistle, Baboo Nob Kissin is drawn to it and takes it a sign of the lord Krishna’s awakening as predicted by Ma Taramony, his spiritual preceptor and ‘Guru ma.’ Paulette and Jodu feel elated to meet after such a long gap. Paulette says that Jodu is like her brother and requests Reid to provide him employment on the ship, Ibis as his boat has been destroyed. Deeti’s intuition that her husband, Hukum Singh won’t go back to work is soon confirmed as his condition worsens. As he lies in a hopeless condition, Deeti worries about her future. Noticing Chandan Singh’s amorous advances, she prefers M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 41 Course-XIV to die as a sati than to be dependent on Chandan Singh. With a heavy heart, Deeti sends Kabutri to her brother’s house. Chapter 7 Nob Kisan dreams of the temple he has promised to build for Ma Taramony. He recalls his life of devotion towards his aunt, Taramony who was also his spiritual mentor. Nob Kissin has risen in worldly affairs but he feels that he is there to fulfill some higher spiritual goal. Taramony has told him that her spirit would manifest itself in him and he should wait for the signs. He sees the notion black in the old crew list and takes it to be a sign of divine Krishna in Zachary. His belief becomes stronger that Ibis would take him to a place where his temple would be built. Neel is busy flying kites with his son, Raj Ratan on the roof of Rashkali mansion when Parimal, his bearer comes running to the top to inform him that the British officer from the jail has arrived with a police platoon. Neel soon comes to know that the police has come to arrest him for forgery. Initially, Neel takes things lightly but is shocked to hear that Mr. Burnham is the one who is the complainant, and the one responsible for his arrest. Kalua hears the news of the death of Deeti’s husband by chance, as he meets men going to attend the cremation of Hukum Singh. An unusually large crowd has gathered to attend the cremation of ‘afeemkhor,’ Hukum Singh. People have come to witness the event of sati. Kalua times his move perfectly and rescues Deeti from the burning pyre. In an improvised raft, Kalua places Deeti and carries her downstream. After a while, Deeti becomes aware that she is being rowed downstream. Kalua and Deeti exchange garlands and express devotion and love for one another. River This section focuses on the journey of the migrant-coolies downstream to the ghat towns and cities to Calcutta. As a fictionalized history, this section wants to recreate an era when rivers like Ganga were used for transporting people and goods on rafts, boats and pulwars. The writer wants to narrate the untold history of the impoverishment of the peasants of the Indo-Gangetic plains and also point out the causes for the poverty and displacement. The tales of the various characters, who are to become a part of the community on the Ibis, are further developed. Chapter 8 Ibis waits at the dry port of Kidderspore. It is to be refurbished for its voyage to Mauritius. Jodu gets employed on board the Ibis against Serang Ali’s wishes. He soon befriends Roger Cecil David alias Rajoo-launder. The ship crew of lascars is from varied origins and speaks a strange mix of languages. Deeti and Kalua decide to move to a city so that they would not be noticed in the crowds. But, before moving further Deeti plans to meet her daughter, Kabutri M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 42 Course-XIV who is staying with her brother’s family in her native village.In spite of Kabutri’s insistence, Deeti tells her that she cannot take her long to lead a nomadic life not knowing where the next halt is and from where the next meal will come from.With a heavy heart, Deeti parts from her dear daughter. Baboo Nob Kisan plans how he can be a part of the voyage on the Ibis. He has received a note from the duffadar, Ramsaran-ji that he will be soon arriving in the city with a large party of indentured workers. Nob Kissin thinks of the arrangements to be made to accommodate these large numbers. Chapter 9 In the riverside town of Chapra, Deeti and Kalua encounter the duffadar Ram Saran ji whom they had met earlier at Ghazipur. The town is full of ‘impoverished transients’ who are displaced from their native settings due to forced cultivation of poppy plants. Fighting hunger and poverty, Deeti does not allow her hopes to slacken. Kalua tells Deeti he has met the duffadar who assured him that they would be properly fed and taken care of if they sign a bond or girmit to become bonded coolies ready to work in distant lands beyond the ‘black waters’ of the Indian Ocean. He also tells her that Ram Saran ji told him that there is no caste criterion for becoming a girmitiya or bonded coolie, and also informs that the duffadar has given him one day to decide. Deeti on hearing Kalua’s account of the meeting grows skeptical and fearful, haunted by the fears of the ‘unknown land.’ She also does not want to part from her dear daughter, Kabutri. Paulette attempts to make her useful to her benefactors, Burnhams by writing place-cards for their dinner, supper and other entertainments. She follows Mrs. Burnham's instructions on the seating arrangement and thus, comes to know the deep seated class prejudices in her mind. The seating arrangements are done according to one’s social-economic class or status. Chapter 10 Burnham notices the change in the appearance of the gomusta, Nob Kissin. The gomusta has been the first one to alert Benjamin Burnham about the advantages of acquiring Rashkali estate. He has been keeping a close watch on Neel’s missteps. The gomusta wants to be on the Ibis as he believes it will carry him to the place where he would build the temple he has often dreamt of. He expresses his desire to Burnham that he wants to take up the job of supercargo on the ship. Burnham tells him if he can procure an affidavit from Neel’s paramour, Elokeshi he would get the job. As Neel’s trial begins, he comes to know that the judge is Justice Kendalbushe who is closely linked to Benjamin Burnham. Near the ghats in the Chapra town, Deeti and Kalua find Bhyro Singh, the sirdar on the lookout for the couple. Being chased by Bhyro Singh and others, Deeti M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 43 Course-XIV and Kalua decide to join the girmitiyas. Kalua cautions Deeti that if they join the boat carrying the girmitiyas, there will be no going back. Mr. Crowle’s, or Burra malum's, visit on the deck creates tensions. But Zachary stands in support of Serang Ali and other lascars. Jodu supports Serang Ali’s view that they should not desert as Reid would be blamed. Instead he opines the lascars should have faith in Reid. Jodu knows that by standing firmly with Serang Ali he has assured his place in the crew.

Chapter 11 On the boat, Deeti gets familiar with a number of displaced women. She hears stories of Sarju, Heeru, Muniya and others. On being asked about her identity, Deeti says that she is Aditi, wife of Madhu. Deeti is called ‘bhauji hamar’— my sister-in-law by Heeru. Justice Kendelbushe in his judgment indicts Neel, and declares him guilty of forging the signature of “one of this city’s most respectable merchants, Mr. Benjamin Brightwell Burnham” (216).The trial shows the unfairness of the British legal system. Soon an atmosphere of urgent intimacy develops between the women folk on the pulwar. The women pass their time by sharing their work, worries and fears, and by narrating stories. There is the tragic tale of Sarju abandoned by her husband, the story of Heeru’s separation from her husband. Munia tells her tale too and Deeti too contrives her own story in which “she had been Kalua’s wife since the age of twelve” (242). As the subject of “black waters” comes up, the pulwar becomes a cauldron of rumours” (246) This chapter highlights how Deeti emerges as the leader of the migrants and is looked up to by the women folk. She undergoes a sort of renaissance, once she decides to become a ‘bonded coolie’ or girmitiya. Chapter 12 The fall of suave, romantic, English educated Neel is narrated further in this chapter. Neel is to be shifted to the prison at Alipore and the privileges that were allowed to him at Lal bazaar jail are taken away. He takes time to adjust to his new condition. His wife Malati and son Raj come to meet him in the jail. Neel’s wife cleans the floor of his cell, and informs him that they will be going to Parimal’s place to live. She consoles Neel, “We’ll manage. It’s you who must be strong” (270). Neel assures his wife and his son, “Do not doubt that I will come back, for I will” (271).Malati shows exemplary courage and resilience, like many other women characters in the novel, when faced with adverse circumstances. Neel’s last meeting with his family is quite emotional. M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 44 Course-XIV

Mrs. Burnham (Burra Beebee) summons Paulette to her chamber to break the news that Justice Kendalbushe plans to propose to her. Paulette is shocked to hear this but Mrs. Burnham excitedly tells her that she has made a ‘huge catch.’ The conversation between the two ladies shows the difference in approach and attitude towards love and life between the two. Paulette does not like the idea of marrying a man fit enough to her grandfather. She reveals the romantic side of her as she asks, “Does not love demand we give our all” (276) The pulwar reaches Calcutta and the migrants are to be transported to camps in hired rowboats, ten to twelve at a time. The women board Jodu’s boat and during the journey Munia and Jodu show mutual attraction and flirt openly inviting rebukes from Deeti. In the prison, Neel is tortured and faces humiliation. The tattorist tells Neel that he knows him as he is also from Rashkali , and whispers that the tattoo marks won’t last beyond a few months. On the right side of Neel’s forehead is inscribed: forgerer, Alipore 1838 Chapter 13 Zachary finds Nob outside his room mysteriously keeping a watch on him. Jodu takes Zachary Reid to his boat where Paulette is there clad in a sari. She reveals certain startling secrets about Benjamin Burnham and informs Reid and Jodu that she is not safe in Burnham’s mansion as he demands sexual favours in turn for the shelter he provides.Paulette expresses her desire to be a part of the crew on the Ibis. Zachary dismisses the idea, as he feels that the schooner is no place for a lady. This section presents Paulette as a strong and determined young woman. She feels drawn towards Zachary but does not want to compromise her self-respect. Chapter 14 In the Alipore jail, Bishu-ji, predicts about a “new brotherhood” developing on the ship. Neel is made to share the cell with someone whom Bishu-ji calls, “Aafat.” He finds the man mired not only in dirt and mud but also faces and vomit. The erstwhile ‘rajah’ is placed in the company of a “dribbling, leaking spewing cell-mate” who suffers due to long addiction to opium. But, Neel cares for the other convict as his own and in doing so shows how humane he is. On the Ibis, Subedar Bhyro Singh arrives with his silahdars. Chapter 15 Paulette decides to leave for Calcutta in order to realize her plan to join the crew on the ship. She decides to meet the gomusta, Nob Kissin and informs him that she has left Bethel forever and does not intend to return. In exchange of the locket and Burnham’s secrets , the gomusta reluctantly agrees to help Paulette in getting a safe passage to Ibis. Neel’s cell mate reveals his identity and tells him that his name is Lei Leong Fatt alias Ah Fatt. M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 45 Course-XIV

Sea This section deals with the journey of the Ibis in the ‘black waters’ of the Indian Ocean. The writer shows the development of a community on board the ship. The boundaries of caste, creed, race and class that are considered extremely important on the land hold no relevance in the sea. The Ibis itself emerges as a character in this section. Chapter 16 When the time for departure arrives, the migrants become fearful and apprehensive. Deeti leads the women to the boat carrying them to the ship. Deeti finds a stranger in their midst. The stranger is Paulette who has disguised herself as a coolie woman to make it to the ship. She tells the ladies that her name is Putleshwari alias Pugli and the gomusta, Nob Kissin is her uncle. There are eight saree clad women among hundreds of men. The convicts arrive first on board the Ibis, followed by the migrants. Jodu gets excited to see Munia clad in a pink saree. Mistaking Paulette to be an old coolie woman, Captain Chillingworth and Doughty pass racial and sexist comments. As Paulette and Munia are being guided to the women’s enclosure on the Ibis, Paulette sees the two convicts—Neel and Ah Fatt in the ‘choki.’ Zachary thinks of Paulette as the ship departs and feels her absence. Deeti is the last woman to come on board. But as she is climbing the side-ladder, a cat cuts her way; she falls to be saved by Kalua who is right behind her. Amidst fear and excitement, the Ibis sets on sail. Chapter 17 As Ibis is sailing downriver from Calcutta to Bay of Bengal, Neel gets emotional on knowing that the ship is passing past his estate, Rashkali. He asks Ah Fatt to tell about his place to make him escape the painful moment. Ah Fatt presents a vivid picture of his native place, Guanzhou called Canton by the British. He talks about the cosmopolitan culture of Canton. Ah Fatt was born to a Parsi father, Bahram ji Naurozji and a Chinese dan mother, Lei chi Mei. On the Ibis, the women busy themselves in performing menial duties for the officers, guards and overseers. Paulette remembers with fondness her childhood spent among the natural surroundings. The convicts are treated badly and not allowed to have meals on the deck. Neel makes Reid recall that he had dined at his place. Zachary’s friendly behavior with the convicts and coolies is not liked either by the subedar, Bhyro Singh or by the first mate, Mr. Crowle Baboo Nob Kissin watches the meeting between Reid and the convicts. He recognizes Neel, and feels a strange thrill that he has played a part in humbling the “proud and arrogant” aristocrat. But now he suddenly feels a surge of maternal piety for the convict. M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 46 Course-XIV

During the first night on board women feel terrorized by fearful stories about Mareech. Paulette soothes their nerves by asserting that this is all nonsense or “bakwas.” Neel listens to Paulette and notices that her language is Bengali rather than Bhojpuri making her different from the other migrants. As Ibis enters the black waters the migrants become apprehensive and fearful. Chapter 18 On the Ibis, Women pass their time in singing Bhojpuri songs. The captain addresses the crowd and creates fear. Three people lose their battle against the conditions on the boat. Their corpses are thrown to the sea. Many migrants show symptoms of sea sickness and try to battle the harsh conditions.

Chapter 19 Battling sea-sickness and discomfort the journey on the Ibis moves on the ‘black waters.’ Deeti’s pregnancy is first noticed by Sarju. Within a few days, majority of the migrants start recovering from sea-sickness. Mamoo Tindal tells Jodu to stay away from Muniya but he does not seem to care. Ah Fatt is very good with his hands and can catch flies flying in the air. He says that he has the ability because he learnt to listen from his father. Ah Fatt’s Parsi father was an anglophile and wanted to send him to West. Meanwhile, Nob Kissin feels the presence of Taramony urging him to enter the convicts’ quarters. The first mate, Crowle sends Jodu to the bow spirit but the task is extremely dangerous. Zachary runs to save Jodu as he fears the strong waves may not take him along. Paulette watches and prays for the two most important persons in her life. Paulette reveals her identity to Jodu and warns him to stay away from Munia. Chapter 20 Deeti gains a leadership position among the girmitiyas. More and more people start calling her bhauji and seek her advice. Kalua asks her that Ecka Nack, the leader of the hillmen who had joined the migrants, wants to seek the hand of Heeru for marriage. Zachary goes to have a private word with the captain. The captain thinks that Reid has come to complain about Crowle. As Zachary is about to sit he finds a pipe there and hands it over to the captain. The captain tells that smoking an opium filled pipes is quite common among seamen and asks Zachary if he wants to try.Zachary takes a few puffs and this becalms his muscles. He does not talk about Serang Ali as he had intended. He dreams of Paulette. Paulette comes to know of Zachary’s closely kept secret i.e. his having a black lineage. She decides to reveal her true identity to him but fears. When Deeti M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 47 Course-XIV discusses the marriage proposal with Heeru, she readily agrees. Zachary doubts about Serang Ali motives. Chapter 21 The marriage is being solemenized and there is an atmosphere of joy and festivity in the dabusa. Deeti takes Kalua’s hand and placing it on her belly makes him feel the movements of the unborn child. Baboo Nob Kissin feeling the presence of Ma Taramoni is overcome with maternal feelings for Neel, and on the pretext of checking goes to his cell to offer him food. Neel shares the food with Ah Fatt who expresses his desire of killing Mr.Crowle whom he perceives as a villain. The wedding party is going on when the migrants hear Munia screaming. Jodu is badly beaten by the silahdars and Munia is dragged away. He is put in the cell along with the convicts—Neel and Ah Fatt. Paulette tells Deeti that as their leader she has to do something. Paulette meets Jodu and he expresses his wish of quitting the ship. As there are loud protests from the migrants inside the dabusa, Deeti is called out. Deeti climbs out with Kalua closely behind. Bhyro Singh recognizes Deeti and wants to molest her when Kalua swings into action and kills Bhyro Singh. Chapter 22 The officers keep the frenzied Silahdars in check. Kalua is to be hanged for killing the subedar, Bhyro Singh. Deeti is worried about Kalua but Paulette who has some information of the mutiny on board consoles her. In the darkness, Paulette goes to meet Zachary and reveals her true identity to him. As Zachary and Paulette are sorting out their misunderstandings, and are about to express their love, Mr. Crowle comes knocking at the door. Arguments follow and Mr. Crowle attacks Reid with a knife. At that very moment, Ah Fatt, who is hiding, springs up to kill Mr. Crowle. The novel ends on a note of suspense as Jodu, Neel, Ah Fatt, Kalua and Serang Ali quit Ibis in a boat. Zachary, Paulette, Nob Kissin and Deeti watch them disappear, watching from the ship’s deck. The ending of the novel shows that there is more to follow. Sea of Poppies is the first part of the planned trilogy. The tale is carried forward, and narrated in the subsequent works –River of Smoke and Flood of Fire. M.A. (English) Part-II Course - XIV Semester-IV Indian Writing in English Lesson No. 4.3 Author : Dr. Vineet Mehta

Major Critical Aspects of the Novel A) Sea of Poppies Postcolonial Novel Colonialism refers to the historical phenomenon when a European nation or nations assumed control over Asian and African nations, people and their resources. A related term, imperialism is generally used to refer to the process of economic and political control. Postcolonial studies or postcolonialism discusses and tries to analyze the aftereffects of this external control of one nation by the other. This field theorizes, debates or narrates the consequences of the economic and political exploitation of native people and their resources. Postcolonial literature is the literature of countries that were colonized by (mainly) European countries. Amitav Ghosh, along with Chinua Achebe, Margaret Atwood, J. M.Coetzee and others, is considered one of the foremost prominent postcolonial writers. He is also a bitter critic of the colonial project. He tries to highlight tales of subjugation and exploitation that have either been silenced or not mentioned in the colonial history. His novels chart the damage done by the colonizers to the colonized people. Ghosh analyses this extensive damage and asserts that this damage is both physical and psychological. Sea of Poppies is an important illustration of postcolonial fiction where the writer has shown the inhumanity of British imperialism. Ghosh has exposed the dark underbelly of the colonial regime in this work. The British regime had capitalist motives and it focused on extracting maximum profits from the land and its resources. The writer blames the colonialists for the poverty and displacement of the rural masses. Sea of Poppies is a powerful portrayal of the devastating effects of the British commercial policies on the rural poor; a tale of the destruction of India‘s rural economy as a result of British intervention. The central character Deeti‘s destiny, her husband‘s addiction to opium, her impoverishment and her landing on Ibis, the slave ship as a coolie, are all events linked to the British agricultural policies. Sea of Poppies can be read as a tale of India’s economic slavery. Ghosh takes us to the past when the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains were turned into a sea of poppies. The colonizer’s lust for profit drove millions of peasants to poverty. Forced by poverty and hunger, these peasants agreed to work as indentured coolie labour for the British in their plantations in distant lands like Mauritius. M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 49 Course-XIV

As a postcolonial work, Sea of Poppies also narrates the tale of indentured labour in which millions of Indians were transported to the British plantations in far off countries like Mauritius to work as cheap farm labour. Thus, Ghosh tries to fill a void in colonial history in which there has been silence on the mass displacement and migration of Asiatic coolie labour. Instead of endorsing or celebrating displacement, Ghosh focusses on the coerced nature of migration, and on the ‘sense of deep loss’ that accompanies it. Through tales of Deeti, Kalua, Kabutri and others, the writer tries to recreate the lost personal accounts of first wave of coolie labour. Sea of Poppies is a powerful portrayal of the devastating effects of the British commercial policies on the rural poor; a tale of the destruction of India‘s rural economy as a result of British intervention. The ruthless policies of the British forced the rural peasants to be in perennial debt. Millions were forced to sign contracts, and peasantry was subjected to local despotism of duffadars and impoverished peasants were forced to sign agreements and become indentured labourers or grimitiyas. The capitalist, Benjamin Burnham, in Sea of Poppies justifies this coolie enslavement of the Asian peasantry to the greed of the British empire, “When the doors of freedom were closed to the African, the lord opened them to a tribe that was yet more needful of it—the Asiatick” (72). The central character Deeti‘s destiny, her husband‘s addiction to opium, her impoverishment and her landing on Ibis, the slave ship as a coolie, are all events linked to the British agricultural policies. Deeti reminisces about the good old days when the fields “would be heavy with wheat in the winter… now, with the sahibs forcing everyone to grow poppy, no one had thatch to spare… poppy had been luxury then, grown in small clusters between the fields that bore the main winter crop”(42). The novel narrates the devastating effects of the replacement of the sustainable agricultural practices with forced plantation crops cultivation. Sea of Poppies narrates a counter history how opium trade financed the expansion of British Empire. Here, it is the poppy trade: “In the good old days people used to say there were only two things to be exported from Calcutta: thugs and drugs - or opium and coolies as some would have it” (76). Sea of Poppies extensively narrates the exploitation of the colonized people by the British colonizers. He shows through a number of instances that the relationship between the ruled and the rulers was problematic and an uneasy one. Merchants like Benjamin Burnham, owner of the slave ship, Ibis, are driven by capitalist motives. Burnham justifies the exploitation of the Indians on religious grounds. He states that “One of [his] countrymen has put the matter very simply: ‘Jesus Christ is free trade and free trade is Jesus Christ’ ” (106). The duplicity of the colonial project is M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 50 Course-XIV highlighted as the English gentlemen justify the opium war against China as “. . . just and necessary, but also humane” (260). Sea of Poppies also narrates how the estates of the landed aristocracy were usurped by the British capitalists like Burnham. The real motive for entrapping Neel Haldar is the number of commercial opportunities provided to British merchants like Benjamin Burnham by the lucrative Rashkali estate owned by Neel. Thus, ‘wars for freedom’, according to Ghosh, invariably have an ulterior commercial, capitalist agenda the suave, romantic Raja Neel Ratan Haldar, the zamindar of Raskhali, who is falsely charged of forgery and transported as a convict to Mauritius. Besides migration and displacement, postcolonial novels are concerned with identity. Ghosh in Sea of Poppies explains that identities are fluid and transient and not permanent. He also engages with issues of caste and race in the novel. The British believed in the superiority of the white race and believed that they were born to rule over the black and brown races. In the novel, Zachary Reid has to hide his mixed racial origins and lineage in order to rise to the position of second mate on the Ibis. The novel points out how the English officialdom believing in its superiority often hurled racial slurs and abuses at the Indians and Chinese. The novel explores the possibility of the development of a community beyond the divisions of race, class, caste or creed as a new community develops on the Ibis. Sea of Poppies is a powerful but highly moving tale of oppression and exploitation of the native Indian populace but it also is a tale of the struggle and resilience of the masses. B) Character Sketch of Deeti Deeti is the central character in Sea of Poppies. She represents the ordinary village peasant women of the nineteenth century India. She faces discrimination due to her gender right from her childhood days. In the first chapter of the novel it is told that due to colour of her eyes, she is called as “chudaliya, dainiya as if she were a witch . . .” (5) She is married off to an old, crippled Hukum Singh who works in an opium factory near Ghazipur. Her husband turns out to be a crippled, ‘afeemkhor’- a drug addict. Deeti cannot figure out who is the father of her daughter, Kabutri as her drug addict husband is infertile. She later figures out that she was drugged on her wedding night and the Kabutri was fathered by her brother-in-law who raped her in her intoxicated condition. After the death of her husband, Deeti is caught between the devil and the deep sea. Her devilish brother-in-law wants to take advantage of her condition, and he wants to further exploit her physically. Being a Rajput widow in those times, Deeti is doomed to die as a sati by being made to sit on her husband’s funeral pyre. She is saved just in the nick of time by the lower caste village ox-cart man, Kalua. M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 51 Course-XIV

The couple flees and unites to chart a new destiny. Deeti acquires a new name, Aditi, after migrating from her village where she was popular as ‘Kabutri ki- ma.’ After being saved from the burning pyre, she feels that she has undergone a sort of renaissance or rebirth. She discovers love and fulfillment in her relationship with Kalua. She emerges as a strong and powerful woman during her relationship with Kalua. She rediscovers herself in her relationship with Kalua and embraces a new identity. Once, she finds her ideal match and mate; she gains immense confidence and decides to take the reins of destiny in her hand. Deeti feels exasperated and shocked when she notices the conspicuous absence of greenery in the village where she spent her childhood. Her shock shows the grave ‘sense of loss’ experienced by rural India where the arrival of plantation, cash crop culture led to the destruction of a pre-colonial ‘pastoral Eden.’ Deeti‘s religious-mythical interpretation of the ecological damage is typical of a countryside peasant woman for whom the folklores, beliefs and myths form a pivotal part of her world and imagination. At the beginning of the novel, Deeti also has visions of the schooner, Ibis, which would change her destiny. She envisions the ship “like a great bird, with sails like wings and a long beak.” Though she has never before laid eyes on a schooner like the Ibis, she somehow knows that it is coming for her. Sea of Poppies can be interpreted as a tale of indentured labourers like Deeti from the plains of Indo- Gangetic plains through the ‘black waters’ of Indian Ocean to work as girmityas in the plantations in distant Mauritius. It is also a tale, or rather multiple stories of Deeti’s metamorphosis, from a ‘victim’ of rape, and caste politics, to a strong leader of the community of bonded coolies and convicts on the ship, Ibis. It is Deeti’s idea of a new community that makes everyone think beyond the boundaries of caste, race, creed, language or religion. As she declares, “From now on, and forever afterwards, we will all be ship-siblings—jahaz-bhais and jahaz-bahens—to each other. There’ll be no differences between us” (356). As a leader of the inmates on the ship, she is called ‘bhauji’ by all and is responsible for the bonhomie and closeness among all on board the Ibis. She is called bhauji by men and women on the ship because she possesses the solution of their problems. She is confident and ready to fight for anyone in trouble. Deeti is shown to represent both the struggle and resilience of the poor, Indian peasantry of the times. She is embodiment of the ‘never say die’ spirit of the Indian women. By discovering her innate feminine strength and power, Deeti challenges in many ways the stereotypical roles and expectations of Indian women. Suggested short- answer Questions 1. Comment on the title of the novel. 2. How does the schooner, Ibis emerge as a character in the novel? M.A. (English) Part-II (Semester-IV) 52 Course-XIV

3. Write a note on the concerns about nature and environment in the novel. 4. Based on your reading of Sea of Poppies, explain the catastrophic effects of forced opium cultivation on the lives of the peasants. 5. Comment on the way the novel ends. 6. Write a short note on the relationship between Paulette alias Putli and Azad Naskar alias Jodu. 7. Write a note on the life Paulette led with her father, Pierre Lambert. 8. Rewrite briefly, the story of the fall of Raja Neel Ratan Halder. 9. Write a note on the community that develops on board the Ibis. 10. What is the significance of the River section of the novel? Suggested long (Essay-Type) Questions 1. Discuss in detail Sea of Poppies as a postcolonial novel. 2. Discuss in detail the thematic concerns in Sea of Poppies. 3. Draw a detailed character sketch of Deeti based on your reading of the novel. 4. Write an essay on the story of Neel Ratan Halder. Why is he convicted and deported to Mauritius? 5. Is Sea of Poppies a historical novel narrating the tale of India’s ‘economic slavery’ to the British imperialists? Analyze and Comment.