Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed

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CHAPTER 2: ONEIDA LAKE AND ITS WATERSHED

Madison County Farm (Photo: Saltman)

Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed page 11 Environmental Setting

The information in this chapter was taken from the 2003 document titled, The Oneida Lake State of the Lake and Watershed Report (SOLWR). For additional information about these topics please refer to the SOLWR, which is available at municipal offices, public libraries, and agencies throughout the watershed. It can also be found on the Internet at www.cnyrpdb.org/oneidalake. Limnology and Ecology together. Water flows from upland streams down to Oneida Lake and the Finger Lakes, Oneida Lake has undergone significant then to low-gradient rivers and the New York ecological changes over the last four decades. State Canal System, and eventually to Lake The most notable changes have been associ- Ontario. ated with the collapse of the mayfly Hexa- genia limbata, reductions in phosphorus The Oswego River Basin drains an area of concentrations, invasion by zebra mussels, approximately 5,100 square miles and encom- declines in the walleye (Stizostedion vitreum passes three physiographic regions: the vitreum) and yellow perch (Perca flavescens) Appalachian Uplands, the Tug Hill Uplands, sport fisheries, expansion of a population of and the Lake Ontario Plain. The Clyde/Seneca double-crested cormorants, and the recent River-Oneida Lake trough is an “unofficial” establishment of the water chestnut. The geographic designation for the belt of low- response to these ecological events has been lands that runs through the basin from west to the following: improved water quality condi- east. The trough is key to understanding the tions, increased water clarity, increased Oswego River Basin flow system in its natural aquatic macrophytes at greater depths, in- and human altered state. The New York State creases in bottom dwelling macroinverte- Barge Canal was constructed in this area due brates, the extinction of three species of to its exceptionally low gradient. As it is very unionid bivalve clams, high mortality of difficult to move large volumes of water walleye and yellow perch in their mid-life through this low gradient, the area posses a stages, and significant predation impacts by challenge to water resources management. double-crested cormorants on the Oneida Lake The additive contribution of each stream and fishery. As we move into the future, much of lake to the Canal results in a bottleneck at the the uncertainty of the state of Oneida Lake Three Rivers Junction -- the confluence of the rests in unwanted “pest organisms,” and their Seneca, Oneida, and Oswego Rivers. At this impact on the food chain. Proper management junction, 96 percent of the land area in the practices in Oneida Lake and its watershed Oswego River Basin is represented. This is must remain a high priority to maintain a also the flattest, slowest moving stretch within healthy ecosystem and high water quality. the Oswego Basin. At times, the water Ecological surprises in Oneida Lake's future discharged to the trough exceeds the channel are expected as climate warming and the capacity, resulting in flooding within Seneca, introduction of new exotic species create Cayuga, and Oneida Lakes, and along the increasing demands on water resources. Seneca and Oneida Rivers. Once the water reaches the Oswego River, downstream of The Oswego River Basin Fulton, the gradient increases and the water has the potential to move more readily toward The Oneida Lake watershed is part of the Lake Ontario. Oswego River Basin, a diverse system made up of many hydrologic components that flow

page 12 Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed via the Oneida River where it eventually makes its way to Lake Ontario. Bedrock Geology

The Oneida Lake watershed is underlain by bedrock with significant variation in its resistance to erosion. It ranges in age from Middle Ordovician (beginning approximately 460 million years ago) to Upper Devonian (beginning approximately 365 million years ago) geologic periods. The bedrock is young- Oneida Lake (Photo: Saltman) est in the southern part of the watershed and grows older with distance northward. The bedrock pattern is very important because it The Oneida Lake Watershed affects the nature of landforms, groundwater, soils, and land use. The watershed contains Oneida Lake, the largest waterbody entirely several geologically significant landforms, within New York State, is located approxi- including beach ridges, alluvial plains, gorges, mately 11 miles northeast of Syracuse. It is waterfalls, and unique mineral deposits. 20.9 miles long and 5.5 miles at its widest point. The average depth is 22.3 feet. Many Areas in the southern portion of the Oneida seasonal and permanent homes are located Lake watershed, including a large portion of along the 54.7 miles of shoreline. The Oneida the Cowaselon Creek subwatershed and along Lake watershed (all of the land that drains to the deep valleys of the Appalachian Uplands, the lake) comprises the eastern most part of are composed of geologic units that have a the Oswego River Basin and contains 872,722 significant impact on water chemistry. These acres (approximately 1,364 square miles) of highly erodible units (Vernon Shale, Syracuse land draining parts of Lewis, Madison, Salt, Camillus Shale, and Bertie Limestone) Oneida, Onondaga, Oswego, and Cortland contribute large amounts of dissolved minerals Counties. The watershed contains portions of to surface waters draining the southern 69 municipalities and has a population of watershed region. In contrast, the northern 262,164 based on the 2000 U.S. Census. half of the watershed largely contains erosion resistant bedrock that generally does not The Oneida Lake watershed encompasses influence water quality. parts of the Appalachian Uplands, Tug Hill Uplands, and Lake Ontario Plain regions. The Soils New York State Canal System traverses the Lake Plain Region as it flows east to west The Appalachian Uplands are characterized by through the Oneida Lake watershed. The highly productive limestone soils formed in watershed has seven primary subwatersheds: glacial till. Soil management efforts in the Chittenango Creek subwatershed, Cowaselon southern portion of the watershed are mainly Creek subwatershed, Fish Creek subwater- restricted to improving natural drainage and shed, Limestone/Butternut Creek subwater- controlling farmland erosion. Streams that shed, Oneida Creek subwatershed, Oneida flow into Oneida Lake from the south flow Lake North Shore subwatershed, and Wood over Onondaga limestone through productive Creek subwatershed. Water exits the water- agricultural lands and concentrated population shed through the western end of Oneida Lake centers, and therefore tend to be nutrient-rich.

Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed page 13 Soils in the Lake Plain region are typically The area of heaviest tree cover is located in flat, deep, have high lime content, and were the northern half of the watershed where formed in glacial till. Organic soils formed in nearly two-thirds of the land is forested. Tug glacial outwash, commonly referred to as Hill’s forests are an important resource of the “muck” soils, are found in this region, espe- timber industry and are a valuable component cially near the Village of Canastota. Soil of the New York State economy. Approxi- management in the lowlands of the Lake Plain mately 88 percent of the Tug Hill region is generally restricted to improving natural forests are privately owned. As more parcels drainage. of forestland are being managed privately, the ability to monitor the land becomes more Soils in the Tug Hill region tend to be wet, difficult and thus increases the potential of stony, shallow, sandy or steeply sloping. The impacting water quality. However, an agree- soils in the region are poorly drained and the ment for the sale of 45,000 acres of property soil fertility decreases in the upland areas. in the East Branch of Fish Creek subwatershed These soils are generally unfit for agriculture was negotiated in 2002 between Hancock and are dominated by forests. Streams that Timber Resource Group and The Nature flow into Oneida Lake from the northern Conservancy. Some of the land will be under uplands flow over erosion resistant sandstone a conservation easement, part will be managed and are characteristically nutrient poor. as state forestland, and the remainder will be kept in timber management and will be Forests available for a mix of private leased hunting and public access. The forest community in the Oneida Lake watershed reflects human activity as well as Climate natural history. Land management practices, the introduction of non-native species, disease, The Oneida Lake watershed has a continental and insect infestations have defined the climate characterized by warm, dry summers current forest community that exists as private and cold, snowy winters. Major climatic and public holdings. Regardless of owner- influences include topography, prevailing ship, forested lands improve the quality of life westerly wind direction, and proximity to in the watershed by generating valuable Lake Ontario. In most years, the rate and renewable resources, improving water quality, distribution of precipitation in the watershed providing opportunities for outdoor recreation, are sufficient for agriculture and domestic and providing a variety of wildlife habitats. water supplies. Because the watershed is located in the Eastern Lake Ontario snowbelt, The once heavily forested southern areas of it is subject to significant lake effect snow the watershed previously served as a source of events. Historical climatic records of precipi- fuel and construction materials for early tation and air temperatures for the northeast- settlers. Large tracks of forested land were ern United States show a generally calm and eventually cleared for agricultural use in cyclic seasonal weather pattern. Between Onondaga and Madison counties but were 1890 and 1960, relatively few extreme depar- later abandoned due to marginal productivity. tures from the norm were recorded. More These areas have naturally reverted back to recently, however, regional weather patterns forest land. In 1929, New York State initiated have displayed frequent extremes, including soil conservation and reforestation efforts on droughts, floods, and periods of very cold or abandoned farmland and much of the land was very warm temperatures. Such extreme replanted with coniferous species. conditions add to the difficulty of maintaining ideal hydrologic conditions in the watershed. page 14 Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed helps to dilute nutrient levels in the lake. Water flows out of Oneida Lake into the Oneida River, which is located at the western edge of the lake. Annual discharge to Lake Ontario from the Oneida River is estimated at 2.13 billion cubic meters per year.

In addition to the streams, there are also numerous small lakes and ponds scattered throughout the Oneida Lake watershed. Many are concentrated in the northern watershed, especially the Tug Hill Uplands. Some of the watershed’s larger lakes (Cazenovia, DeRuyter, and Tuscarora) are located in the southern half of the watershed in the Appala- chian Upland region. Groundwater

Appropriate geologic settings combined with a Water from Cazenovia Lake flows into Oneida Lake suitable climate result in the Oneida Lake (Photo: Saltman) watershed having a wealth of groundwater resources throughout much of its watershed. An extensive system of aquifers was created Surface Water when thick layers of unconsolidated deposits were laid down by glaciers during their The Oneida Lake watershed has an extensive retreat, approximately 10,000 years ago. surface water network. Approximately 56 These deposits overtop underlying bedrock percent of the precipitation that falls in the aquifers of sedimentary rock formed millions watershed reaches the lake through surface of years earlier. Precipitation is the ultimate inflow. The rest is lost through evaporation, source of the groundwater recharging these absorption by trees and plants, and groundwa- aquifers. The Oneida Lake watershed receives ter recharge. The Tug Hill region in the an average of 35 inches of precipitation each northern portion of the watershed contributes year, with considerably higher amounts approximately 67 percent of total surface originating in the northern watershed and Tug inflows, in part, as a result of the large volume Hill Uplands as lake-effect snowfall. These of snowfall. Water that is stored in the snow- groundwaters are not static reservoirs. Rather, pack slowly recharges wetlands and streams a growing body of evidence indicates that throughout the winter months. significant quantities of groundwater flow centrally from the northern and southern Although surface inflow from the northern watersheds and discharge along the shallow watershed region represents most of the total shorelines of Oneida Lake. Despite the water volume entering the lake, the majority overall abundance of groundwater, dry wells of the nutrients entering the lake are intro- and limitations on groundwater availability are duced from tributaries that flow through the arising more frequently. This is due to spatial nutrient rich farmlands and wetlands of the variability in aquifer yield, seasonal and southern watershed. The significant volume interannual fluctuations in precipitation of surface inflow from the northern watershed recharge, and complications associated with

Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed page 15 trated in the Lake Plain region, an area characterized by a high water table and flooding. Wetland types found in the Oneida Lake watershed vary from forested, seasonally flooded swamps to open marshes of grasses, sedges, and other low growing species. Wetlands provide excellent habitat for migra- tory waterfowl and serve as wintering yards for many animal species that utilize the low growing vegetation for cover and a year-round food source. Wetlands also act as sedimenta- tion areas and filtering basins to remove impurities, thereby enhancing water quality. Catching crayfish in Chittenango Creek (Photo: Saltman) By slowing runoff and temporarily storing excess surface water, wetlands protect down- land use, overwithdrawal, and groundwater stream areas from flooding. Under certain contamination as development pressures hydrological conditions, wetlands can re- increase, particularly in the southern portion charge groundwater and augment surface of the watershed. water flow. Wetlands adjacent to waterbodies also provide spawning and nursery grounds, Flora and Fauna supply food, and lend protection to fish and other aquatic species. As an added benefit, Geology, topography, soil, climate, and land wetlands provide excellent recreational, use patterns influence the distribution of flora aesthetic, and educational opportunities. and fauna. From uplands to lowlands, the Oneida Lake watershed provides diverse A significant threat to the wetlands of the habitats that sustain a healthy and productive Oneida Lake watershed is commercial and assemblage of plant and animal species. residential development. The impacts from Changes in land use patterns have the poten- urbanization have degraded wetlands near the tial to threaten the health, well being, and in lake as well as in upland areas. Reduced some cases, the survival of several plant and wetland acreage has decreased the potential animal wildlife species. Despite these for runoff retention of urban and agricultural changes, the Oneida Lake watershed is home pollutants, and has reduced water storage to a number of rare, threatened, and endan- capacity during periods of excessive precipita- gered plants and animals of state, national, and tion. Stormwater problems in the watershed global significance. For example, the Chitte- are also more prevalent due to the conversion nango ovate amber snail, Bog Turtle, and of wetlands to urban and agricultural land. Hart’s-Tongue fern, all species on the United Wetland losses reduce the ability of the States Threatened Species List, are found in watershed to store water and consequently the Oneida Lake watershed. The Indiana bat, increase the region’s susceptibility to high also found in the watershed, is a federally water damage. Another threat to wetlands in listed endangered species. the Oneida Lake watershed is a non-native plant called purple loosestrife. This plant thrives in marshes and ditches, out-competes Wetlands indigenous flora, and makes wetlands less suitable for wildlife habitat. Wetlands are found throughout the Oneida Lake watershed but are especially concen- page 16 Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed Fisheries of the Oneida Lake streams, ranking 66th and 80th of all waters in New York in terms of angler use. New York Tributary System State has acquired extensive Public Fishing Rights (permanent easements for access for Streams, lakes, and ponds throughout the fishing) along the larger trout streams in the Oneida Lake watershed provide habitat for watershed. A total of 70.5 miles of easements warmwater and coldwater fish species. have been acquired in the watershed, primarily Several warmwater stream segments found in in the Fish Creek and Chittenango Creek the lower sections of Oneida, Fish, Chitte- subwatersheds. nango, Limestone, Butternut, Cowaselon, and Canaseraga Creeks provide seasonal walleye, perch, and bass fisheries. Warmwater fish Monitoring Programs species inhabit the Barge Canal at Sylvan Several water quality monitoring programs Beach year-round. Numerous ponds and have been implemented in Oneida Lake and medium sized lakes (up to 1,280 acres) in the its tributaries over the past decade. Extensive Oneida Lake watershed also support warmwa- research on the water quality and biological ter fisheries. Thirty-one ponds and lakes over characteristics in the Lake basin continues to ten acres in size, totaling 4,848 acres, provide be spearheaded by the staff at the Cornell fishing for warmwater species, primarily Biological Field Station. Regional tributary largemouth bass, chain pickerel, yellow perch, water quality monitoring and biological and panfish. Although warmwater species are monitoring programs throughout the water- stocked in the Oneida Lake watershed, the shed have been implemented by groups such majority of these waterbodies are supported as the NYS DEC (the Rotating Intensive Basin by natural reproduction. Studies), Project Watershed CNY, and the Coldwater fisheries are also present through- CNY RPDB. out the Oneida Lake watershed. Trout require Counties throughout the Oneida Lake water- cool, clean water to survive and are often the shed have conducted additional tributary water first species to disappear from polluted waters; quality monitoring and stream erosion survey- therefore the presence of trout in the water- ing programs. The United States Geological shed is highly regarded. Brown trout streams Survey (USGS) collects hydrologic measure- dominate Oneida Lake tributaries. The ments within the Oneida Lake watershed and headwaters of the tributaries generally contain at the Oneida River to measure outflow from brook trout, especially in the Fish Creek the lake. section of the Tug Hill region in Lewis and Oneida Counties. There are 850 miles of trout streams in the Oneida Lake watershed, includ- Priority Waterbodies List ing 141 miles of stocked streams. Water quality is generally high and virtually all trout The Priority Waterbodies List (PWL), last streams support natural reproduction. Many updated in 1996 for the Oswego-Seneca- streams provide high quality fishing for brown Oneida Rivers Drainage Basin, includes trout. surface waters that cannot be fully used as a resource and/or have problems that can According to the 1996 Statewide Angler damage their environmental integrity. There Survey, Fish Creek and Chittenango Creek, are 23 segments with known or suspected two of the larger tributaries in the Oneida problems listed on the PWL for the Oneida Lake watershed, are very popular trout Lake watershed.

Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed page 17 Economic Profile

Spanning portions of six counties, the square mile of land area). A significant con- Oneida Lake watershed is a demographi- tributor to Onondaga County’s population cally diverse ecosystem that offers a variety density is the City of Syracuse. At 5,834 of recreational and economic opportunities. persons per square mile, Syracuse is the single Extending from the Tug Hill region in the most densely populated municipality in the north to the DeRuyter Reservoir in the watershed. In direct contrast, Lewis County, south, and from the City of Syracuse in the located in the northern portion of the watershed, west to the City of Rome in the east, the is the least densely populated county (11.7 geographic diversity of the watershed is persons per square mile). The Lewis County reflected in everything from population Town of Montague, with a population density of trends to local economic influences. The less than 2 persons per square mile, is the least region boasts of a well-developed and densely populated municipality in the water- extensive infrastructure, abundant wildlife, shed. strong aesthetic appeal, and a wide range of tourism and recreational opportunities. Watershed Infrastructure Collectively, these features form the basis of a healthy, regional economy. The Oneida Lake watershed infrastructure supports economic growth and development Population throughout the area. Affordable and abundant housing and an advanced transportation network Portions of six counties and 69 municipali- of highways, railways, air transportation facilities are located within the Oneida Lake ties, and the New York State Canal System watershed. According to the U.S. Census make this region easily accessible and economi- Bureau’s 2000 statistics approximately cally attractive. According to the 2000 U.S. 262,164 people live in the watershed (Table Census of Population and Housing, there are 1). The City of Rome in Oneida County and 189,662 housing units located in the municipali- the City of Syracuse in ties of the Oneida Lake watershed. In 1990, the last year for which this type of Census data is Onondaga County are significant population available, 81.2 percent of the housing units in centers. Onondaga County, located in the watershed municipalities obtained their water southwestern portion of the watershed, is the from a public system or private company, the most densely populated (698.2 persons per remaining relied on individual wells or other water source. For wastewater disposal, the vast Table 1: Estimated Oneida Lake majority of housing units (72.2 percent) in the Watershed Population municipalities that comprise the Oneida Lake watershed use public sewers. All of the remain- County Population ing housing units rely on septic tanks or other Cortland 74 on-site wastewater disposal systems. Lewis 996 Madison 50,607 Oneida 59,557 Tourism, Recreational Onondaga 110,078 Opportunities and Oswego 40,852 Economic Impacts Watershed Total 262,164 Population was computed by HOCCPP from 2000 A variety of tourism and recreational opportuni- block-level Census data. ties are available in the Oneida Lake watershed. page 18 Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed Throughout history, fishing and boating has played a major role in the social and economic development of the region, and today, is one of the main recreational uses of Oneida Lake. Over 75 fish species were identified in the lake in the 20th century. The lake’s fishery is a major contributor to the region’s tourism industry. Oneida Lake has been identified as the most important inland fishery and the fourth most important sport fishery in New York State. According to the NY Statewide Angler Survey, the 1996 net economic value of Oneida Lake’s freshwater fishery was estimated to be over $9.4 million, ranking it first among New York State’s inland waters. Millions of people from all over New York State and beyond annually spend millions of dollars throughout the watershed as they recreate on Oneida Lake, its tributaries, and other smaller lakes in the watershed. For this Bridge over Chittenango Creek (Photo: Saltman) reason, the integrity of the lake and watershed has a direct impact on the economic livelihood Regional attractions, annual events, exten- of local municipalities. sive park and recreational facilities, excellent boating and fishing access, and other In the Tug Hill region, fishing and hunting are tourism opportunities greatly enhance the enjoyed by many local homeowners and out of watershed’s value. The numerous munici- town visitors, and many industrial landowners pal, county, and state parks and other sell fishing and hunting leases to clubs to recreational facilities located throughout the provide sportsmen access to forestland. The watershed offer a wide range of activities money raised by these leases helps offset tax such as swimming, hiking, bird watching, assessments against the property, making it fall foliage viewing, golfing, cross-country easier for businesses to maintain ownership of skiing, snowshoeing, snowmobiling, hunt- large tracts in the northern part of the watershed. ing, fishing, trapping, and camping. The During the winter, approximately 10-15 thou- NYS DEC operates the Oneida Lake Fish sand snowmobiles each weekend use the trails Cultural Station in Constantia. The station on Tug Hill according to the Lewis County is the largest state-of-the-art walleye hatch- Chamber of Commerce. A 1990 study found ery in the country. There are also two public that snowmobiling generates $8 million each piers on the lake, located in Sylvan Beach season in the Tug Hill region. Throughout the and Brewerton, and 12 state-run public watershed, tourism benefits extend to surround- fishing access sites throughout the water- ing businesses as visitors take advantage of the shed. region’s lodging, restaurants, shops, and other facilities.

Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed page 19 Human Influences Land Use Agricultural Land Use

The Oneida Lake watershed covers 872,722 Much of the Oneida Lake watershed is charac- acres (about 1,363 square miles) of land area terized by productive soils, favorable climate, in Lewis, Madison, Oneida, Onondaga, and good market outlets for agricultural prod- Oswego, and Cortland counties (Figure 3). ucts. Over 300 commercial, full-time farms Approximately 15,000 acres (23 square currently operate almost one-third of the land miles) of land in the watershed within within the watershed (Table 2). No operating Madison and Oneida counties is owned by farms are currently known to exist in the water- the Oneida Indian Nation and is primarily shed portion of Cortland and Lewis counties. used for commercial and residential pur- The majority of the farms are dairies located poses as well as open space. within Madison, Oneida, and Onondaga counties. These dairies have an average herd size of According to 2002 data from the NYS 159 cows and grow a crop rotation of corn and Office of Real Property Services, there are hay used for livestock feed. Non-dairy opera- approximately 120,225 parcels (a plot or tions within the watershed include a thriving tract of land) in the watershed that vary vegetable trade as well as burgeoning sheep, greatly in size. The more populated cities beef, and equine industries. and villages typically have a greater number of parcels that are smaller in size, while According to data from the NYS Office of Real parcels in the more rural areas of the water- Property Services, approximately 29 percent of shed tend to be much larger in size and the total land area in the Oneida Lake watershed consequently fewer in number. is classified as agricultural and is primarily located in Madison, Oneida, and Onondaga Agricultural activity is concentrated in the counties (Table 3). Agriculture’s economic southern portion of the watershed, especially impact in the Oneida Lake watershed is at least Madison County and the southern portions $126 million (data is not yet available for all of Oneida and Onondaga counties. Com- mercial and industrial activities and residen- Land Area tial land uses are primarily centered in and around the cities and villages. There is a Cortland Lewis Oswego <1% 10% predominance of wild, forested, conserva- 17% tion lands, public parks, public and community service, and recreation and entertain- Madison 24% ment property in the Tug Hill Upland region Onondaga (Lewis County and northern Oneida and 15% Oswego counties), though isolated occur- rences of this property can also be found throughout the watershed. Figure 4 shows the breakdown of land use for the watershed. Oneida 34%

Figure 3: Oneida Lake Watershed Land Area by County page 20 Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed Watershed farmers voluntarily participate in a variety of available programs to alleviate Unknown 3% Agriculture agricultural non-point source pollution. Many 29% Wild/Forested/ farmers are participating in the Oneida Lake Parks/Etc. 17% Watershed Agricultural Program where the

Commercial/ NYS Agricultural Environmental Management Industrial (AEM) Program is being utilized. AEM is New 2% Residential 27% York State’s official tool to address agricultural non-point source pollution and is a key compo- Vacant 22% nent of whole farm planning. Participants in the Source: NYS ORPS, 2002 Oneida Lake Watershed Agricultural Program have improved their opportunities to receive Figure 4: Oneida Lake state, regional and national funding to imple- Watershed Land Use ment conservation management practices on their farms. This is due to the regional coopera- farms in the watershed). According to tion within the Agricultural Program and the county-level statistics in Madison, Oneida, statewide success of AEM. and Onondaga, where the watershed’s farms are concentrated, agriculture has a combined Table 2: Farms in the economic impact of over $500 million Oneida Lake Watershed annually and employs a workforce of over 5,000 people. County Farms (#) Agriculture’s diversity and prosperity within Cortland 0 the southern portion of the Oneida Lake Lewis 0 watershed is due in large part to a favorable Madison 169 mix of physiographic and climatic condi- Oneida 93 tions. While these conditions can be assets Onondaga 43 to a farm, they can also present farm man- Oswego 11 agement challenges. Soils on steep slopes Total 316 on the Appalachian Uplands are subject to erosion. Heavy rainfall and snowmelt contribute to runoff from barnyards and Table 3: Percent Agricultural Land Use in cropland where manure is spread. High the Oneida Lake Watershed precipitation in the watershed coincides with a high rate of nutrient leaching, whereby County Agriculture they can be washed downward through the Lewis 4% soil profile, below the roots of plants. Madison 44% Erosion, runoff, and leaching from farms are Oneida 26% collectively known as agricultural non-point Onondaga 23% sources of pollution. Natural resource Oswego 5% management challenges are one of many Source: Prepared by Herkimer - Oneida Counties issues faced by the modern farmer. Nation- Comprehensive Planning Program with data from the ally and locally within the Oneida Lake NYS Office of Real Property Services. Note: Percent- watershed, farmers are plagued by low ages are based on the number of acres classified as agricultural. profitability, high taxes, high costs of land and machinery, biosecurity, unstable prices, and suburban sprawl.

Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed page 21 Water Supply Systems human health at certain levels, and water containing them is considered unsuitable for Residents of the Oneida Lake watershed human consumption if the pollutants exceed receive drinking water from either municipal established limits. or private surface water or groundwater supplies from within as well as outside of Wastewater Treatment the watershed. In addition to providing water to communities within the watershed, The collection and treatment of wastewater is Oneida Lake tributaries are also used to important to safeguard public health, protect provide water for communities beyond the water quality, and ensure the overall survival of watershed boundary. Under ordinary a region. In the Oneida Lake watershed, sewage conditions, these supplies are ample for and septic systems have increased in number agriculture, industrial, and domestic use. and capacity due to urbanization, development, However on occasion, such as the summer and increased population. There are 17 munici- of 1999, drought conditions reduce surface pal wastewater treatment plants serving com- water and groundwater supplies to the munities in the watershed. Two treatment plants region. discharge directly into Oneida Lake, and 12 discharge to tributaries of the lake. The remain- The availability of a clean and dependable ing three serve municipalities within the water- water supply is essential for human health shed, but discharge their treated wastewater to and the economic survival of the Oneida waterbodies outside the watershed. The treat- Lake region. As water travels over the ment of municipal wastewater is highly regu- surface of the land or through the ground, it lated by the state and federal governments dissolves naturally occurring minerals and through wastewater discharge permits. can pick up pollutants resulting from the presence of animals or from human activity. In rural and sparsely populated suburban areas it These contaminants can result in waterborne may not be economically feasible to construct diseases that afflict humans as well as the community wastewater treatment facilities. In ecosystem. Fortunately, water hardness and these areas, on-site septic systems are tradition- the presence of salt in the deeper bedrock ally used to dispose of wastewater. Overall, wells are the primary naturally occurring properly sited and maintained individual on-site water quality nuisances facing users in the wastewater treatment systems can treat waste- watershed. Naturally occurring sulfur is water effectively and not threaten water quality. also a common nuisance found in wells However, poor site conditions, improper system throughout the Oneida Lake watershed. installation and maintenance, as well as over- loading can drastically decrease the life of the Contaminants such as E. coli and nitrates, system and pose a significant threat to water and disease-causing organisms such as resources. Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia, come from human and animal Flooding wastes. In the Oneida Lake watershed, failing septic systems and agricultural runoff Flooding occurs in the region surrounding are two potential sources of these contami- Oneida Lake, often after major storm events or nants. In addition to microbial contami- rapid winter thaws. No organization has the nants, fertilizers, pesticides, and other authority or responsibility for controlling chemicals applied to the land may enter Oneida Lake water levels to prevent flooding or groundwater or runoff into surface water. to reduce the frequency and duration of flood- All of these contaminants are harmful to ing. The New York State Canal Corporation page 22 Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed Federal Emergency Management Agency, and the United States Army Corps of Engineers as well as individual local communities. No organization is capable of preventing flooding on Oneida Lake; however, there are a variety of regulatory programs and strategies that attempt to reduce the impacts associated with flooding. The current floodplain management strategy that utilizes federal, state and local groups attempts, through various regulatory programs, to reduce the disruption and damage caused by floods while protecting the natural resources and functions of the floodplains. This approach is Oneida Lake Task Force Conference achieved through efforts to avoid the risks that (Photo: Westervelt) exist within the floodplain; minimize the impacts of unavoidable risks; and mitigate the assumes a limited role by monitoring the impacts of damages as they occur, all in a canal system throughout the year and manner that protects and enhances the natural making adjustments to the Caughdenoy environment. Dam during the navigation season to meet their primary responsibility of navigation. Water Level Management Flooding is not unique to Oneida Lake. The Federal Emergency Management Agency Oneida Lake is a multi-use waterbody that (FEMA) reports that floods have caused a serves as the primary navigation link in the heart greater loss of life and property, and have of the New York State Canal System. The disrupted more people in the United States lake's shore also has numerous residential than the impact of all other natural hazards properties; marinas and fishing charters; and a combined. Flooding on Oneida Lake and complex ecosystem that contains an exceptional within its watershed is a naturally occurring fishery, extensive wetlands, and waterfowl. and routine phenomenon. The majority of Proper water level management for Oneida Lake the high water levels occur during the spring is crucial to the lakes multiple uses. A balanced runoff period when rain and melting snow approach is used to maintain the primary result in runoff rates that exceed the com- navigation function along with the other secon- bined storage and outlet discharge capacity, dary uses. resulting in rising water levels. It is very This discharge is regulated at the Caughdenoy rare to observe high water levels outside of Dam, located five miles downstream from the the spring runoff period. Consequently, the lake along the Oneida River. The Caughdenoy impact associated with annual snowmelt Dam is a movable dam that spans the Oneida runoff phenomenon is a driving force on River that includes seven 52-ft wide by 12-ft high water levels observed on Oneida Lake. high water control gates. The New York State Management of Oneida Lake for flood Canal Corporation is responsible for operating control either directly or indirectly involves these gates to achieve desired levels during the several state and federal agencies, including navigation season. Oneida Lake level regula- the New York State Canal Corporation, the tion efforts are aimed at providing sufficient New York State Department of Environ- water for navigation throughout the navigation mental Conservation, the United States season while minimizing flood damage.

Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed page 23 Oneida Lake water levels are lowered after NYS DEC Regulated the navigation season to provide storage for spring snowmelt and storm runoff. This is Environmental Activities accomplished by fully opening each of the Under the Federal Clean Water Act a permit is seven water control gates that create the required to discharge point-source pollutants Caughdenoy Dam near the beginning of into waters of the United States. In New York December each year. These gates remain State, the NYS DEC is the permitting authority open throughout of the winter and the of the State Pollutant Discharge Elimination observed lake levels are a function of System (SPDES) program. The program precipitation and runoff. Given the uncer- requires a permit for point-source discharges of tainty of the timing of spring rain and wastewater into surface or ground waters of snowmelt, lake levels at times can rise above New York State; construction or operation of a flood levels even with the Caughdenoy dam disposal system, such as a sewage treatment fully open. In the summer, levels are plant; discharge of stormwater associated with regulated to provide reserve capacity industrial activity, including construction sufficient to contain moderate runoff. activities disturbing one or more acres; and discharge of ballast from ships. Under the SPDES program, 157 facilities are permitted to discharge to the Oneida Lake watershed. This list includes solid waste facilities, inactive hazardous waste sites, underground and above- ground storage tanks, hazardous spills, mines, and oil and gas wells.

Institutional and Regulatory Influences Federal from urban areas and construction sites. Section 404 of the Clean Water Act establishes a The United States Environmental Protection program to regulate the discharge of dredged Agency (US EPA) was created in 1970 in and fill material into waters of the U.S., includ- response to the growing public demand for ing wetlands. Other important federal programs cleaner water, air and land. More than a include the National Flood Insurance Program, dozen major statutes or laws form the legal the Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Farm Bill. basis for the programs of the US EPA. In 1972, the Clean Water Act (CWA) was State passed and signaled the creation of a central- ized federal legislation to protect and restore There are numerous other regulations and the biological, chemical, and physical programs that also influence land use activities properties of the nation’s water. The act in the Oneida Lake watershed. Some of these was amended in 1977 and again in 1987, are adopted and applied on a statewide basis. shifting focus to non-point sources of Regulations and programs administered by the pollution, as well as point sources. Under NYS Department of Environmental Conserva- the CWA, the stormwater program requires tion, NYS Department of Agriculture and the implementation of programs and prac- Markets, and the NYS Department of Health tices to control polluted stormwater runoff uniformly apply to all municipalities within the page 24 Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed watershed and are not subject to local Local modification. In New York State and the Oneida Lake watershed, the majority of land use control is accom- County plished at the local level of government. In most instances, the broad authority to adopt Each county in the watershed has a planning regulations to control the use of land is given by department that oversees the development of the State Legislature to the individual local unit planning activities, planning boards, and of government – the towns, villages and cities. supports municipal local land use regulation Through laws established by New York State, and control efforts. Every county in the local governments have been authorized to watershed also has a soil and water conser- establish planning boards and zoning boards of vation district (SWCD). SWCDs protect appeal. These municipalities also have the soil, water and other natural resources by authority to prepare and adopt comprehensive reducing agricultural and non-agricultural plans, site plan review, zoning, subdivision, and non-point sources of pollution through the other regulations such as those governing open use of best management practices. Madison, space, erosion and sediment control, flood Oneida, Onondaga, and Oswego counties prevention, and wellhead or water supply each have a county health department that protection. In the process of passing and oversees drinking water supplies, implemen- enforcing these laws, it is necessary for local tation of the Source Water Assessment governments to work cooperatively with both Program, inspection of on-site wastewater the federal and state levels of government, systems, and enactment of watershed rules which share in the responsibility for the plan- and regulations. In Lewis County, the NYS ning and management of land and water re- Department of Health’s District Office in sources. Watertown oversees these activities. Advi- sory agencies at the county level include Since specific land use controls are developed, water quality coordinating committees and adopted, and implemented at the local govern- environmental management councils. ment level they can vary dramatically from one municipality to the next. Enforcement of these existing local regulations may also be inconsis- tent from one municipality to the next. Munici- palities within the watershed have differing expertise, personnel, and financial resources. It may not be possible for municipalities to adequately review plans or enforce standards within existing manpower and budgetary constraints. It is important to note that possess- ing a solid regulation is no guarantee that the regulation will be applied. Therefore, it is necessary that all watershed communities have a commitment to applying these regulations in order for the standards to achieve the desired, uniform effect. The regulations must include methods to ensure that adequate review of development occurs and that development plans Oneida Lake Task Force Conference (Photo: Westervelt) are implemented as proposed.

Chapter 2: Oneida Lake and Its Watershed page 25 through an annual appropriation by the New York State Legislature through the Environ- mental Protection Fund. Funding from the FL- LOWPA program has been used to undertake a variety of projects in the Oneida Lake watershed including barnyard, streambank stabilization, pasture management, aquatic weed harvesting, and tributary monitoring projects.

The Tug Hill region is represented by a number of agencies and organizations. The primary organization in the region is the Tug Hill Commission – a non-regulatory state agency Oneida Lake Task Force Conference charged with helping local governments, (Photo: Westervelt) organizations, and citizens to shape the future of the region, especially its environment and economy. The Tug Hill region is also repre- Other sented by five councils of government that help foster communication between communities and The NYS Association of Regional Councils help individual towns and villages achieve a is composed of ten locally created Regional more regional perspective to enhance their Councils throughout New York State. New communities. Another significant group in the York’s Regional Councils provide compre- region is the Tug Hill Tomorrow Land Trust, a hensive planning for the coordinated growth regional, non-profit land trust and education and development of their regions. Two organization helping to retain Tug Hill’s farm, Regional Councils serve the Oneida Lake forest, recreation, and wild lands through watershed -- the Central New York Regional education, research, and voluntary land protec- Planning and Development Board (CNY tion. The East Branch of Fish Creek Working RPDB) and the Herkimer-Oneida Counties Group is composed of a variety of groups and Comprehensive Planning Program individuals that have an interest in protecting (HOCCPP). The CNY RPDB and HOCCPP the East Branch of Fish Creek. have been fundamentally involved with the Oneida Lake and Watershed Management The Oneida Lake Association (OLA) was Planning and Implementation Project. founded in 1945 to protect, restore and preserve the natural resources of Oneida Lake and its The Finger Lakes – Lake Ontario Watershed surrounding ecosystem. The Association has a Protection Alliance (FL-LOWPA) is a history of environmental activism and its efforts coalition of all 25 counties in New York have promoted water quality, a renewable State’s Lake Ontario drainage basin, which supply of game fish, and increased access to the includes all counties within the Oneida Lake lake. Other lakes located within the Oneida watershed. FL-LOWPA fosters coordinated Lake watershed (Cazenovia, Tioughnioga, watershed management programs across the Tuscarora, Panther, and Kasoag Lakes) also Lake Ontario Basin based on local needs. have very active lake associations. Funding for FL-LOWPA is provided

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