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Gender, Nature and Dominance: an Analysis of Interconnections Between Patriarchy and Anthroparchy, Using Examples of Meat and Pornography

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Gender, Nature and Dominance: an Analysis of Interconnections Between Patriarchy and Anthroparchy, Using Examples of Meat and Pornography GENDER, NATURE AND DOMINANCE: AN ANALYSIS OF INTERCONNECTIONS BETWEEN PATRIARCHY AND ANTHROPARCHY, USING EXAMPLES OF MEAT AND PORNOGRAPHY ERIKA CUDWORTH Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of Sociology and Social Policy March 1998 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE: ANTHROPARCHY AND HUMAN-ANIMAL RELATIONS IN GREEN THEORY Introduction........................................................................................................................13 Sociology and the Environment......................................................................................... 15 Social ecology...................................................................................................................... 25 Deep ecology.......................................................................................................................30 From anthropocentrism to anthroparchy............................................................................ 35 Eco-feminism.....................................................................................................................36 Anthroparchy and the control of non-human animals......................................................... 40 Conclusion................ ..........................................................................................................44 CHAPTER TWO: PATRIARCHY, SEXUALITY AND PORNOGRAPHY IN FEMINIST THEORY Introduction......................................................................................................................... 47 Liberal feminism.......................................................................................... .....................52 Marxist and socialist feminism.......................................................................................... 54 Theorizing Patriarchy: Radical feminism.......................................................................... 58 Postmodernism and gender relations................................................................................. 62 Structural and poststructural approaches to gender relations.............................................67 Structures of patriarchy...................................................................................................... 76 Pornography and patriarchal sexuality............................................................................... 81 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................... 91 CHAPTER THREE: MAKING THE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN GENDER AND ECOLOGY Introduction.........................................................................................................................93 Gender and nature in patriarchal discourse .........................................................................94 Gender and nature in the discourses of modernity............................................................100 Patriarchy, anthroparchy and mythology..........................................................................106 Discourse analysis and relations between patriarchy and anthroparchy...........................110 Gender, nature and the sociology of food and eating....................................................... 128 Gender, nature and reproductive technology.....................................................................135 Conclusion..................................... ...................................................................................139 CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY Introduction..................................................... I.................................................................142 The framework for research..............................................................................................145 Carrying out the research...................................................................................................154 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................164 CHAPTER FIVE: THE SYMBOLIZATION OF MEAT IN POPULAR CULTURE Introduction............................... .,...... .......................................... .................................165 The significance of meat as a cultural symbol................................................................... 167 The gendering of food................................................................................................. ..... 168 Food preparation and the gendered division of labour..................................................... 172 Meat, gender and sexuality.............................................................................................. 176 Meat, gender and domesticity.......................................................................................... 183 Gender, nature and the cooking of meat........................................................................... 186 Contemporary developments in the symbolization of meat..............................................194 Conclusion.................................... ....................................................................................199 CHAPTER SIX: THE SYMBOLIZATION OF BODIES AND SEXUALITY IN PORNOGRAPHY Introduction........................................................................................................................202 Soft-core pornographies.....................................................................................................205 Hard-core pornography......................................................................................................219 Lesbian S/M pornography: Califia’s Sadeian womun........................................................224 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................233 CHAPTER SEVEN: THE MEAT INDUSTRY Introduction....................... ................................................................................................236 Slaughter...........................................................................................................................240 Butchering..........................................................................................................................253 Farming............................................................................................................................. 260 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................272 CHAPTER EIGHT: THE PORNOGRAPHY INDUSTRY Introduction.................................................... ................................................................... 275 Publishing, distribution, and sale of pornography.............................................................279 Modeling............................................................................................................................287 Photography.......................................................................................................................295 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................299 CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSION - RELATIONS BETWEEN PATRIARCHY AND ANTHROPARCHY.....................................................................................................................302 Theoretical frameworks.....................................................................................................303 Systems of oppression: patriarchy and anthroparchy.........................................................310 Structural comparison of patriarchy and anthroparchy......................................................313 Structural divergence of patriarchy and anthroparchy.......................................................323 The contribution to debate.................................................................................................325 Appendix I Sources for research on the meat industry................................................................. 328 Appendix II Sources for research on the pornography industry................................................... 333 Appendix III Sources for research on meat culture...................................................................... 334 Appendix IV Sources for research on pornographic culture..........................................................336 Bibliography................................................................................................................................337 Abstract This thesis investigates the relationship between gender and ecology. It conceptualizes relations of difference and inequality socially constructed upon gender and nature as part of specific systems of oppression: patriarchy (male domination) and anthroparchy (human domination of the environment). It does not see these oppressions as isolated, but as relatively autonomous and interconnected. It critiques green theory as gender-blind, and feminist theory, with the exception of eco-feminism, as nature-blind. Drawing upon analyses within eco-feminism, radical feminism and other literature
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