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A Large Fraction of Hydrogen-Rich Supernova Progenitors Experience Elevated Mass Loss Shortly Prior to Explosion

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A Large Fraction of Hydrogen-Rich Supernova Progenitors Experience Elevated Mass Loss Shortly Prior to Explosion The Astrophysical Journal, 912:46 (20pp), 2021 May 1 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/abef05 © 2021. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved. A Large Fraction of Hydrogen-rich Supernova Progenitors Experience Elevated Mass Loss Shortly Prior to Explosion Rachel J. Bruch1 , Avishay Gal-Yam1 , Steve Schulze1,2 , Ofer Yaron1, Yi Yang1, Maayane Soumagnac1 , Mickael Rigault3 , Nora L. Strotjohann1 , Eran Ofek1 , Jesper Sollerman2 , Frank J. Masci4 , Cristina Barbarino5 , Anna Y. Q. Ho6,7, Christoffer Fremling8 , Daniel Perley9 , Jakob Nordin10, S. Bradley Cenko11,12 , S. Adams8, Igor Adreoni8 , Eric C. Bellm13 , Nadia Blagorodnova14, Mattia Bulla2 , Kevin Burdge8 , Kishalay De8, Suhail Dhawan2 , Andrew J. Drake15, Dmitry A. Duev15 , Alison Dugas16, Matthew Graham8 , Melissa L. Graham17 , Ido Irani1 , Jacob Jencson8 , Emir Karamehmetoglu2,18, Mansi Kasliwal8 , Young-Lo Kim3, Shrinivas Kulkarni8 , Thomas Kupfer19 , Jingyi Liang1, Ashish Mahabal20 , A. A. Miller21,22 , Thomas A. Prince15 , Reed Riddle23 , Y. Sharma8, Roger Smith23, Francesco Taddia2,18, Kirsty Taggart9, Richard Walters23, and Lin Yan8 1 Department of Particle Physics and Astrophysics Weizmann Institute of Science 234 Herzl St. 76100 Rehovot, Israel; [email protected] 2 The Oskar Klein Centre, Department of Astronomy, Stockholm University, AlbaNova, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden 3 Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, F-69622, Villeurbanne, France 4 IPAC, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Blvd, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA 5 The School of Physics and Astronomy, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel 6 Department of Astronomy, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA 7 Miller Institute for Basic Research in Science, 468 Donner Lab, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA 8 Cahill Center for Astrophysics, California Institute of Technology, MC 249-17, 1200 E California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA 9 Astrophysics Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool Science Park, 146 Brownlow Hill, Liverpool L3 5RF, UK 10 Institute of Physics, Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin, Newtonstr. 15, D-12489 Berlin, Germany 11 Astrophysics Science Division, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, MC 661, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA 12 Joint Space-Science Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA 13 DIRAC Institute, Department of Astronomy, University of Washington, 3910 15th Avenue NE, Seattle, WA 98195, USA 14 Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands 15 Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA 16 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Watanabe 416, 2505 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA 17 University of Washington, Department of Astronomy Box 351580 Seattle WA 98195-1580, USA 18 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade 120, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark 19 Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA 20 Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA 21 Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics and Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, 1800 Sherman Ave, Evanston, IL 60201, USA 22 The Adler Planetarium, Chicago, IL 60605, USA 23 Caltech Optical Observatories, California Institute of Technology, MC 249-17, 1200 E California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA Received 2020 October 8; revised 2021 March 7; accepted 2021 March 14; published 2021 May 4 Abstract Spectroscopic detection of narrow emission lines traces the presence of circumstellar mass distributions around massive stars exploding as core-collapse supernovae. Transient emission lines disappearing shortly after the supernova explosion suggest that the material spatial extent is compact and implies an increased mass loss shortly prior to explosion. Here, we present a systematic survey for such transient emission lines (Flash Spectroscopy) among Type II supernovae detected in the first year of the Zwicky Transient Facility survey. We find that at least six out of ten events for which a spectrum was obtained within two days of the estimated explosion time show evidence for such transient flash lines. Our measured flash event fraction (>30% at 95% confidence level) indicates that elevated mass loss is a common process occurring in massive stars that are about to explode as supernovae. Unified Astronomy Thesaurus concepts: Type II supernovae (1731); Massive stars (732); Flash spectra (541); Transient sources (1851); Stellar mass loss (1613); Observational astronomy (1145) Supporting material: machine-readable tables 1. Introduction with a narrow width reflecting the mass-loss velocity, which is Massive stars (M > 8 Me) explode as core-collapse super- typically low compared to the expansion velocity of the supernova − − novae (CC SNe; Smartt 2015; Gal-Yam 2017), and often ejecta (a few hundreds of km s 1 versus ≈ 10,000 km s 1).Such experience mass loss from their outer layers due to stellar features often persist for more than two days from the explosion, winds, binary interaction, or eruptive mass-loss events (see, which sets the extent of the material to >1014 cm, a scale far e.g., Smith 2014 and references within). The mass lost by these above that of the atmospheres of the largest supergiants. In Type stars forms distributions of circumstellar medium (CSM). The IIn SNe (e.g., Schlegel 1990; Filippenko 1997; Kiewe et al. 2012; CSM properties depend on the mass-loss rate, the velocity of Taddia et al. 2013; Gal-Yam 2017;Nyholmetal.2020), narrow the flow, and the duration of the process. hydrogen lines persist for weeks to years after explosion, When a massive star surrounded by CSM explodes as a CC indicating an extensive CSM distribution. Type Ibn events (e.g., SN, signatures of the CSM may manifest as spectroscopic features Hosseinzadeh et al. 2015; Pastorello et al. 2016;Gal-Yam2017; 1 The Astrophysical Journal, 912:46 (20pp), 2021 May 1 Bruch et al. Karamehmetoglu et al. 2019) show strong emission lines of Table 1 helium, suggesting recent mass loss from stripped progenitors. In Filter Criteria Selecting Infant SN Candidates both Types IIn and Ibn, there is evidence that in at least some Stationary Reject solar system objects using apparent motion cases, the mass-loss is generated by precursor events, prior to the < fi SN explosion (e.g., Foley et al. 2007; Pastorello et al. 2007;Ofek Recent limit Require a non-detection limit within 2.5 days from the rst detection et al. 2013, 2014; Strotjohann et al. 2021). fi Extragalactic Reject alerts within 14 degrees from the Galactic plane If the CSM extension is con ned to a relatively compact Significant Require a ZOGY score of >5 location around an exploding star, the explosion shock- Stellar Require a SG (star-galaxy) scorea of <0.49 breakout flash may ionize the CSM. The resulting recombina- tion emission lines will be transient, persisting only until the Note. SN ejecta overtakes and engulfs the denser parts of the CSM a This parameter indicates whether the closest source in the PS1 catalog is stellar. (supernovae with “flash-ionized” emission lines; Gal-Yam See https://zwickytransientfacility.github.io/ztf-avro-alert/schema.html. et al. 2014). Such events later evolve spectroscopically in a regular manner, e.g., presenting photospheric spectra with fi broad P-Cygni line pro les. embedded in CSM. Ten of these objects were spectroscopically Several serendipitous observation of such “flash features” in ( observed within two days of the estimated explosion. early supernova spectra were made over the years e.g., In Section 2, we describe the properties of our infant SN Niemela et al. 1985; Garnavich & Ann 1994; Quimby et al. survey and the construction of our sample of SNe II. In ) fi fl 2007 .Wedene ash features here as transient narrow Section 3 we present our analysis, in Section 4 we discuss our ( ≈ 2 −1) emission lines of the order of 10 km s of highly ionized findings, and we conclude in Section 5. species (e.g.,: He II,CIII,NIII,NIV) in the early phases of the supernova event (in general, less than a week from the estimated explosion). Gal-Yam et al. (2014) presented very 2. Observations and Sample construction early observations of the Type IIb SN 2013cu, and noted that 2.1. Selecting Infant SNe from the ZTF Partnership Stream fl such ash features could be routinely observed by modern ( ) fi high-cadence SN surveys. These features reveal the composi- The Zwicky Transient Facility ZTF is a wide- eld, high cadence, multiband survey that started operating in 2018 March tion of the pre-explosion mass loss, and hence probe the surface ( ) composition of the progenitor star, which is hard to measure by Bellm et al. 2019;Grahametal.2019 . ZTF imaging is obtained using the Samuel Oschin 48” Schmidt telescope at Palomar other means. This work motivated additional studies on such observatory (P48). ZTF observing time is divided into three flash objects. For example, Yaron et al. (2017) presented a programs: the public (MSIP) 3 day all-sky survey, partnership time-series of early spectra which they used to constrain the surveys, and Caltech programs. This paper is based on data CSM distribution around the spectroscopically normal SN obtained by the high-cadence partnership survey. As part of this 2013fs. They show that the CSM was lost from the progenitor program, during 2018, extragalactic survey fields were observed during the year prior to its explosion. Hosseinzadeh et al. in both the ZTF g-andr-bands 2–3 times per night, per band. (2018) studied the low-luminosity Type II event, SN 2016bkv, ( fl New images were processed through the ZTF pipeline Masci which showed early ash ionization features. They suggest that et al. 2019), and reference images, built by combining stacks of its early light-curve bump implies a contribution from CSM previous ZTF imaging in each band, were then subtracted using interaction to the early light curve.
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